14 Then one of the Twelve--the one called Judas Iscariot--went to the chief priests 15 and asked, "What are you willing to give me if I hand him over to you?" So they counted out for him thirty silver coins. 16 From then on Judas watched for an opportunity to hand him over.
by April Yamasaki
![Loading...](/img/ajax-loader.gif)
In the gospel of Matthew, the sweep of events from Judas’ decision to betray Jesus, through his arrest, trial, crucifixion, and burial takes less than fifteen minutes to read aloud. Yet the emotional intensity of these events makes for an exhausting read. Alone in my room, I could hardly make it through. If I were to read this as part of worship in my church, I’d want to skip the regular sermon and plan some silence to reflect and recover before we’d sing a song of response.
Just imagine living and dying through it all. Imagine the agony of Jesus praying alone in the garden, betrayed by one of his closest friends and followers and deserted by the rest. Imagine being arrested and interrogated, spat upon and slapped, then questioned again and again. Imagine being mocked, beaten, and stripped. Each blow and insult was an indignity and a foretaste of death until Jesus’ final suffering on the cross and his last breath.
Jesus knew all of that was coming. Well before his arrest, he told his disciples of the suffering and death that awaited him: after Peter’s declaration of Jesus as the Messiah (16:13-23), as they gathered in Galilee (17:22- 23), and on their way to Jerusalem (20:17-19). Each time Jesus predicted his death — and each time he also told his disciples that he would be raised on the third day. None of that seemed to register with the disciples, not the prediction of his death, nor the resurrection that would follow. But clearly for Jesus, his death and his resurrection were two parts of the same whole, for he spoke of them together, almost in the same breath.
In our text for today, as Matthew retells Jesus’ suffering and death, the gospel also includes a number of references to Jesus’ coming resurrection. As I read this, I found myself holding on to these points of reassurance and relief in the midst of the horror. For much as Jesus spoke of his death and resurrection together, so the gospel writer describes Jesus’ suffering and death with glimpses of resurrection along the way.
Our text begins with Judas agreeing to betray Jesus. Then sandwiched between these opening verses and Jesus’ prediction of Peter’s denial, Jesus shared one last meal with his disciples. The meal itself was filled with foreboding as Jesus predicted that one of the disciples would betray him, and the bread and cup foreshadowed his broken body and his life poured out in death. But there was also a hint of something more as Jesus said to them, “I tell you, I will never again drink of this fruit of the vine until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom” (verse 29). The day would come for them to share another meal together in the Father’s kingdom. In the midst of betrayal, denial, and the threat of death, there is this glimpse of resurrection.
In the next few verses, Jesus predicted that all of the disciples would fall away. When Peter protested and insisted that he would remain faithful, Jesus said that before the night was over, Peter would deny him three times. Again Peter protested and the others joined in so vigorously that they missed what Jesus said next: “after I am raised up, I will go ahead of you to Galilee” (verse 32).
Denial, desertion, and death will not have the last word, for Jesus will rise again! Another glimpse of resurrection. Once Jesus was arrested, he was taken before the religious authorities. When he was questioned by the high priest, Jesus said, “From now on you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of power and coming on the clouds of heaven” (verse 64). With these words, Jesus clearly testified that his arrest would not be the end. No earthly authority could match his own authority at the right hand of the all-powerful. One day he would rise from death and ascend into heaven. Another glimpse of resurrection.
The only witnesses that could be found to testify against Jesus merely repeated his earlier claim, “I am able to destroy the temple of God and to build it in three days” (verse 61). This was no blasphemy against the temple, for Jesus had been speaking of his body as the temple of God that would be destroyed by his death, and then rebuilt—resurrected—in three days (John 2:18-22). Those who passed by as Jesus hung on the cross clearly understood that he had been referring to his own body, for they taunted him, “You who would destroy the temple and build it in three days, save yourself!” (verse 40). The religious leaders referred to this saying again when they insisted on posting a guard at Jesus’ tomb (verses 62-66). As part of the gospel narrative, these references remind us that resurrection is indeed coming. More glimpses of resurrection.
The most explicit reference comes immediately after Jesus’ death. The curtain of the temple is torn, and many graves are re-opened as the result of a violent earthquake. Some of the dead are raised just as Jesus had raised Lazarus, and the gospel says that those who were raised would later go into the city “after his resurrection” (verse 53). It seems more fantasy and science fiction than anything else, but whatever we are to make of this part of the story, it too gives another glimpse of resurrection.
Throughout our text, Jesus’ innocence is clear. No witnesses gave testimony sufficient to condemn Jesus to death. Pilate found no reason to sentence Jesus to be crucified, and when he asked the crowd, “[W]hat evil has he done?” (verse 23), the crowd only continued to shout for Jesus’ death. Pilate washed his hands to demonstrate his innocence of any wrongdoing, at the same time he condemned the innocent Jesus to death. Even Pilate’s wife called Jesus “that innocent man” (verse 19). Crucifixion was a cruel death, and the crucifixion of an innocent man even more inhumane and unjust.
Yet in the face of such cruelty and pain, God’s good news could not be contained: Jesus who suffered and died arose from the dead! Glimpses of resurrection continually broke through the narrative of denial, betrayal, suffering, and death. Vindicated by God, Jesus was finally raised three days later. Life conquered death. Joy overtook sorrow. Love covered the multitude of our sins. God’s power was and is all in all.
The death and resurrection of Jesus is good news for all of us. By the grace of God, we have forgiveness from sin. By the power of his Spirit, we can live a new life. The risen Christ reigns at the right hand of power. Our God is the God of resurrection, and resurrection will break out even at the darkest and most unexpected times.
If you’re facing down injustice, if you’ve been betrayed by someone close to you, if you feel deserted by your friends, know that Jesus has been there too, and is with you now. Hang on to hope. Be steadfast in your testimony. Even when the way is hard - especially when the way is hard - look for signs of resurrection to break out around you.
If you’re suffering from physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual pain, if you’re facing death as we all must one day, if the humiliation and dread of the coming end looms over you, know that Jesus has been there too, and is with you now. God holds you in the palm of his hand. Good triumphs over evil. Life has conquered death. Resurrection is coming.
We give thanks to you, God almighty, for the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus. So much of this story remains a mystery to us—how you could become human in Jesus Christ, who lived, suffered, and died such a cruel death, and then rose again with new life. The earth shook in response, yet the death and resurrection of Jesus form the sure foundation of our faith. We believe. Help our unbelief. We wait for resurrection. Amen.
Judas makes a deal with the Jewish leaders to “hand over” or betray Jesus for “thi…
14 Then one of the Twelve--the one called Judas Iscariot--went to the chief priests 15 and asked, "What are you willing to give me if I hand him over to you?" So they counted out for him thirty silver coins. 16 From then on Judas watched for an opportunity to hand him over.
26:1–28:20 Review · Jesus’s execution by Rome and resurrection/vindication by God: In 26:1–28:20, Matthew narrates Jesus’s final days and hours as he willingly suffers and goes to his execution to restore his people and usher in God’s reign. Though the disciples desert him and Rome and the Jerusalem leaders crucify him as a criminal, God vindicates Jesus as Messiah and Lord at his resurrection.
26:1–16 · Matthew signals the conclusion of the fifth discourse with the familiar formula, “When Jesus had finished [saying these things],” this time referencing “all these things” to signal the final of the five blocks of Jesus’s teaching (26:1; see “Structure” in the introduction). Immediately afterward, Matthew narrates another passion prediction by Jesus (cf. 16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19) and the intensifying plot by the Jewish leadership against Jesus (26:3–5; cf. 21:46). Jesus’s prediction connects his crucifixion—a Roman form of execution—to the Passover feast, which is two days away (26:2; cf. 26:17–29). Passover, one of three central Jewish festivals, celebrated Israelite freedom from bondage to Egypt. As such—and given the great numbers of Jewish pilgrims attending—Passover could become the locus of political foment, as the chief priests and elders fear (26:5; cf. 27:24 for Pilate’s similar concern). No one in power—the Jerusalem leaders or Rome—wanted a messiah to arise during Passover! (For a historical example, see Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 17.9.3).
In 26:6–13 (set in Bethany, just east of Jerusalem), Matthew narrates how an unnamed woman anoints Jesus with expensive perfume—an act Jesus commends and the disciples decry. Jesus interprets her act as preparation for burial (with perfumes often used in embalming) and praises her deed as one that will be recounted along with the spread of the gospel itself (26:13). Her action contrasts Judas’s act of betrayal in 26:14–16. As one of Jesus’s inner circle (“one of the Twelve”), Judas will have opportunity to lead the chief priests to Jesus when he is away from the people, who might rise to Jesus’s defense (cf. 26:5).
Big Idea: Matthew contrasts the Jewish leaders and Judas, who conspire against Jesus, and even the disciples, who continue to lack understanding about Jesus’ impending death, with an unnamed woman who anoints Jesus for his burial, pointing toward his missional death to bring covenant renewal through the forgiveness of sins.
Understanding the Text
Chapters 26–28 narrate the passion and resurrection of Jesus. After Jesus predicts his coming death again (26:2; also 16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19), Matthew narrates the plot against Jesus by the Jewish leaders (26:3–5; also 12:14; 21:45–46). The woman who anoints Jesus (26:6–13) is the first of a number of women highlighted in the Passion Narrative who display discipleship qualities or remain with Jesus when the Twelve desert him (27:19, 55–56, 61; 28:1–10). The scene in which Jesus shares the Passover with his disciples (26:17–30) highlights Judas’s betrayal (26:23–25; see 26:14–16, 47–50) and Jesus’ sacrifice and death “for the forgiveness of sins” (see 1:21).
Interpretive Insights
26:1 When Jesus had finished saying all these things. This formula has concluded each of the major Matthean discourses containing Jesus’ teaching (7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1). In this final repetition of the formula Matthew includes “all” to provide a summative reference to the teachings of Jesus. At this point in the story Jesus has concluded his teachings as he turns to his final days in Jerusalem.
26:2 the Passover is two days away. Matthew sets the context for Jesus’ coming death during the Passover festival (as do all the Gospels) and will portray Jesus making specific connections between the Passover meal and his death (26:20–29).
the Son of Man will be handed over to be crucified. Jesus has predicted his crucifixion during his travels to Jerusalem (16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19). Here he reaffirms that his journey will end on a cross.
26:3 Caiaphas. Caiaphas was high priest in the years AD 18–36, a religious and political role. According to Josephus, (Joseph) Caiaphas was appointed by Pilate’s predecessor, Valerius Gratus (Ant. 18.35).
26:5 there may be a riot among the people. During Passover, one of the three major Jewish festivals, Jerusalem and its environs swelled with pilgrims coming to celebrate. Given its ties to Israel’s deliverance from Egypt (Exod. 12–14), Passover held the potential for revolutionary activity. Josephus, for instance, speaks of the Roman procurator Cumanus (mid-first century), who feared that the large number of people attending the Passover “might afford occasion for an uprising [and] ordered one company of soldiers to take up arms and stand guard on the porticoes of the temple so as to quell any uprising that might occur” (Ant. 20.106 [see also Matt. 27:24]).
26:6 alabaster jar of very expensive perfume. Perfumes were used in preparing a body for burial. If the woman intended her actions to prepare for Jesus’ burial (26:12), then it is ironic that she, although not privy to Jesus’ passion predictions, understands his mission, while his disciples, who have heard of his coming death four times now, do not (16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19; 26:1–2).
26:11 The poor you will always have with you. Jesus justifies the unnamed woman’s act of anointing him for burial by alluding to Deuteronomy 15:11. In Deuteronomy the context focuses on care for the poor, with its refrain about being “openhanded toward your fellow Israelites who are poor and needy” (15:11 [cf. 15:8, 10]). And this context is certainly something that Jesus and Matthew would have been aware of. So it is inappropriate to take this statement from Matthew (or Deuteronomy) and universalize what was quite specific to the unique event of Jesus’ coming death; that is, this statement should not be interpreted proverbially as an excuse to avoid merciful care for the poor. In fact, by allusion to Deuteronomy, the context of care for the poor is likely relevant to the Matthean context. In other words, care for the poor should be a Christian duty because ongoing poverty will require such action (cf. 25:31–46).
26:13 what she has done will also be told, in memory of her. The woman who has anointed Jesus as preparation for his burial, although unnamed, is promised that her action will be recounted wherever the gospel itself is proclaimed. This statement highlights the centrality of Jesus’ death within the good news.
26:14 Judas Iscariot. Matthew has referred to Jesus’ disciple Judas Iscariot previously with the descriptor “who betrayed him [Jesus]” (10:4). So the reader is prepared for the act of betrayal here, although there is no specific reason provided for his betrayal other than his request for payment.
26:16 Judas watched for an opportunity to hand him over. Matthew has already indicated that the Jewish leaders desire to arrest Jesus in secret and, if at all possible, not during the Passover festival, so as to avoid rioting (26:3–5). This sets the context for Judas watching for an opportune time to betray Jesus to the authorities, presumably at night and outside the city in order to avoid a public arrest in front of a sympathetic crowd (see 26:47). In fact, hints of secrecy occur across the rest of this chapter (e.g., 26:18, 20 [see commentary], 48; and in Jesus’ rather cryptic responses at 26:25 and 64).
26:17 On the first day of the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Although the Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread originally seem to have been two distinct feasts (Exod. 12:1–30), at some point they began to be celebrated as a single festival (Deut. 16:1–8; Philo, Spec. Laws2.150). The combined festival lasted from Nisan (the Jewish month corresponding to March/April) 14 to 21, with the first day (Nisan 14) being the day on which the lambs were sacrificed; presumably this is the day Matthew refers to here.1
26:18 Go into the city to a certain man. The Greek word for “a certain man” (deina) occurs only here in the New Testament and is used when a speaker wants the person’s identity to remain unknown (or simply does not know it [BDAG 215]). With deina, Matthew indicates that Jesus has prearranged a location for the Passover meal that he will share with his disciples. The reference may also indicate the secretive nature of their plans, especially if Jesus is planning to celebrate the meal on Nisan 14 rather than Nisan 15 (see comments on 26:20).
26:20 When evening came. This clause (opsias genomenes) is usually taken to indicate that Jesus and his disciples celebrate the Passover meal on Nisan 15 (as all Jews would), since in Jewish reckoning each new day begins at nightfall. In this scenario, the disciples have prepared for the Passover meal sometime during the daytime hours on Nisan 14 and eat the meal with Jesus after sundown (per Jewish custom) on Nisan 15.
R. T. France persuasively suggests that this temporal clause refers to later the same evening (“later on”), as in 14:23 (opsias genomenes), where it does not make sense to have an inauguration of evening when evening has already arrived at 14:15 (opsias genomenes). If this is correct, then Jesus has prearranged a clandestine Passover meal with his disciples (see 26:18). He then has his disciples prepare the meal at the beginning of Nisan 14 just after sundown, when they would attract less attention than in daylight. Even later into the evening (Nisan 14), they celebrate the Passover in secrecy, the day before the large crowds in Jerusalem would be celebrating it. By that time, Jesus will already be dead. This scenario fits the hints of secrecy that run through chapter 26 (see 26:16), explains the omission of a lamb at the meal, and coheres with John’s chronology of Jesus’ death.2
26:24 just as it is written about him. Throughout Matthew’s Gospel the theme of Scripture’s fulfillment in Jesus has been emphasized. Jesus’ passion is also deliberately set in the context of Scripture’s fulfillment. Here and at 26:54 and 26:56 Scripture and the prophets provide the context and reason for Jesus’ arrest and missional death.
26:26 Take and eat; this is my body. Jesus draws on the Passover meal to infuse meaning into his coming death. Matthew has already highlighted the theme of Jesus as enacting return from exile and new exodus (as these themes converge in Isaiah [e.g., Matt. 1–4; 14:19]). The same connection is made here by identifying Jesus with the Passover sacrifice that brings forgiveness and freedom.
26:28 This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. The phrase “blood of the covenant” is an allusion to Exodus 24:8, where Moses sprinkles sacrificial blood on the people to ratify Yahweh’s covenant with them (with identical wording in the Septuagint). This allusion points to Jesus as the climax of the covenant. Some commentators also see an allusion to Isaiah 53:11–12 in the language of “poured out for many,” a text already evoked at 20:28 (“a ransom for many”).[3] Finally, this climactic narrative moment brings full circle the promise of the angel that Jesus will “save his people from their sins” (1:21).
Some manuscripts include the adjective “new” before “covenant,” but it is more likely that copyists added the word to conform to Luke 22:20 than that scribes omitted it. Also, Matthew seems to be cautious in using this adjective (see the sidebar “What’s ‘New’ in Matthew?” in the unit on 9:9–34).
Teaching the Text
Jesus as the Messiah will bring covenant renewal and forgiveness of sins by his missional death. By connecting Jesus’ coming death with the Passover celebration in very specific ways, Matthew indicates that Jesus ushers in a new exodus or deliverance. The hope for such a new exodus comes from Isaiah’s vision of God returning to Israel in restoration; this Isaianic vision is drawn with allusions to the exodus from Egypt, with its parting of the waters and God’s victory over Pharaoh (e.g., Isa. 43:16–19; 48:20–21; 51:9–11). Isaiah’s message is implicit but clear: just as God redeemed Israel from their Egyptian oppressors, so God would bring restoration from Babylon. Matthew picks up this theme as fitting to the redemption God brings through Jesus at the fullness of time. With his statement that the Passover bread is his body (26:26),
Jesus was drawing into one event a millennium and more of Jewish celebrations. The Jews had believed for some while that the original Exodus pointed on to a new one, in which God would do at last what...
he had long promised: he would forgive the sins of Israel and the world, once and for all. Sin, a far greater slave-master than Egypt had ever been, would be defeated in the way God defeated not only Egypt but also the Red Sea. And now Jesus, sitting there at a secret meal in Jerusalem, was saying, by what he was doing as much as by the words he was speaking: this is the moment. This is the time. And it’s all because of what’s going to happen to me.4
So how can this theme of Jesus inaugurating the new exodus impact our preaching? This theme seems particularly fruitful as we prepare people to celebrate the Lord’s Supper or Eucharist. As we commemorate Jesus’ death in the Lord’s Supper, we can provide rich resources to people by highlighting the connections between Jesus’ offering of himself for our salvation and the Jewish celebration of and hope for God’s continued saving work. We can preach with confidence that it is God’s pattern to save and redeem; salvation does not begin with Jesus, though it most certainly culminates in him. And by emphasizing the connection between the Lord’s Supper and the Jewish hopes for God’s new exodus, we tap a deep vein within the Scriptures about God’s commitment to restoration and the newness of salvation available then and now for God’s people; as we read in Isaiah 43:16–19,
This is what the Lord says—
he who made a way through the sea,
a path through the mighty waters,
who drew out the chariots and horses,
the army and reinforcements together,
and they lay there, never to rise again,
extinguished, snuffed out like a wick:
“Forget the former things;
do not dwell on the past.
See, I am doing a new thing!
Now it springs up; do you not perceive it?
I am making a way in the wilderness
and streams in the wasteland.”
Illustrating the Text
Jesus as the Messiah will bring covenant renewal and forgiveness of sins by his missional death.
Christian Liturgy: Alexander Schmemann describes the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist) as a kind of entry into a fourth dimension. By doing so, he intimates the way this celebration of the church points ahead to the newness of salvation and the final consummation of the kingdom.
The liturgy of the Eucharist is best understood as a journey or procession. It is the journey of the Church into the dimension of the Kingdom. . . . Our entrance into the presence of Christ is an entrance into a fourth dimension which allows us to see the ultimate reality of life. It is not an escape from the world, rather it is the arrival at a vantage point from which we can see more deeply into the reality of the world.5
Quote: N. T. Wright explores the connection between sin and death, helping us to understand more deeply Jesus’ reflection on his coming death “for the forgiveness of sins” (26:28).
To be released from sin is to be released from death, and since Jesus died in a representative capacity for Israel, and hence for the whole human race, and hence for the whole cosmos (that is how the chain of representation works), his death under the weight of sin results immediately in release for all those held captive by its guilt and power. . . . Forgiveness of sins in turn (just as in Isaiah 54–55) means new creation, since the anti-creation force of sin has been dealt with. And new creation begins with the word of forgiveness heard by the individual sinner.6
Christian Music: African American spirituals often draw on exodus imagery, with its vision of God’s action to free Israel from Egyptian slavery. Because African Americans experienced brutal slavery themselves, many songs of the slave community spoke to their longing for freedom from slavery and for freedom in Christ. One such song, “Oh, Mary,” celebrates God’s victory in the exodus as an expression of the singer’s hopes for freedom.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep, don’t you mourn.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep, don’t you mourn.
Pharaoh’s army got drowned.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep.
Some of these mornings bright and fair,
Take my wings and cleave the air.
Pharaoh’s army got drowned.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep.
Direct Matches
An epithet or appellation for the disciple named “Judas” who betrayed Jesus (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:19; Luke 6:16). A word of uncertain derivation, it may signify “man of Kerioth,” a city in southern Judea (so the alternate textual readings at John 6:71; 12:4; 13:2, 26; 14:22: “from Kerioth”), the plural of “city,” or an Aramaic adaptation of the Latin sicarius, “assassin” or “terrorist.” The latter would place him with the Sicarii, a group of terrorists who murdered Roman sympathizers with curved swords (Acts 21:37 38; Josephus, J.W. 2.254; Ant. 20.186).
(1) One of the apostles identified as “Judas son of James” (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) and “Judas (not Judas Iscariot)” (John 14:22), probably the same person as Thaddaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18). (2) A leading Jerusalem believer and prophet, “Judas called Barsabbas” (i.e., “son of the Sabbath” or “son of Sabbas”; possibly a relative of “Joseph called Barsabbas” in Acts 1:23). Along with Silas, he was sent with Paul and Bar-nabas to add verbal testimony to the letter to the Gentile Christians from the apostles and elders after the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). (3) One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus, he betrayed Jesus. See Judas Iscariot.
One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus (Matt. 10:4). He is identified beforehand as the one who would betray Jesus (Mark 3:19) and is noted as having a devil (John 6:66 71). John further attributes his betrayal of Jesus to Satan (John 13:2, 27), and Luke asserts that before the betrayal Satan entered into Judas (Luke 22:3).
Peter notes that Judas’s punishment, death, and abandonment of office were predicted by David in the psalms (Acts 1:15–20). Speaking euphemistically, Peter remarks that Judas went to his own place, no doubt a reference to hell (1:25).
A priest is a minister of sacred things who represents God to the people and the people to God. The OT identifies priests of Yahweh and priests of other gods and idols. The only pagan priest that the NT mentions is the priest of Zeus from Lystra who wanted to offer sacrifices to Paul and Barnabas, whom the crowd mistook for deities (Acts 14:13). All other NT references build upon OT teaching about priests of Yahweh.
Early biblical history records clan heads offering sacrifices for their families (Gen. 12:7 8; 13:18; 22; 31:54; 46:1). Although the patriarchs performed these duties, they are never called “priests”; the only priests mentioned from this time are foreigners such as Melchizedek, the Egyptian priest of On, and Moses’ father-in-law Jethro (Gen. 14:18; 41:45, 50; 46:20; Exod. 3:1; 18:1). Whereas all Israelites could be called “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6), a distinctive priesthood came to light when God instructed Moses to prepare special priestly clothes for Aaron and his sons (Exod. 28). The high priest was distinguished from the others by more magnificent clothes. By failing to wear their special clothes while serving at the tabernacle, the priests would incur guilt and die (Exod. 28:43).
In NT times many priests exerted religious and civil power as leaders of the Sadducees and the Essenes. Some priests, such as Zechariah, were portrayed as righteous men (Luke 1:5–6). Others were said to have come to faith in Jesus (Acts 6:7). Supporting the role assigned by Moses, Jesus regularly required those whom he healed to show themselves to the priest. Even so, most Gospel references to priests underscore their opposition to Jesus’ ministry and the role they played in his trial and crucifixion. This opposition continued after the resurrection, as priests challenged the witness of the apostles. When Peter and John proclaimed that a crippled beggar had been healed by Jesus’ power, the priests and others jailed, interrogated, and forbade them from speaking in Jesus’ name (Acts 4:1–20). The Sanhedrin questioned Stephen about charges of blasphemy and speaking against the temple and the Mosaic law (6:11–7:1). Saul (Paul) received a letter of authority from the high priest to arrest Christians (9:1–2). Later, as a follower of Jesus, he stood trial before Ananias, who charged him before Felix (24:1), and a wider group of chief priests who charged him before Festus (25:1–3).
Hebrews uniquely highlights how the priesthood of Jesus surpassed the OT priesthood. The OT priests presented sin offerings, but their sacrifices needed to be repeated regularly, whereas Jesus, the faithful and merciful high priest, offered a sacrifice that never needed repeating and was available to everyone at all times. Jesus also surpassed the Aaronic priests because they first needed to offer sacrifices for their own sins, but he never sinned. Furthermore, since he offered the perfect sacrifice of himself, all people, not just priests, could draw near to God.
The NT develops the idea of a priesthood of all believers by taking the concept that Israel would be a kingdom of priests and transferring it to the church (1 Pet. 2:4–9; cf. Exod. 19:6). Reflecting the general biblical view of priesthood, believers offer spiritual sacrifices to God, represent God to the world by revealing his works of salvation, and represent the world to God through prayer. In the NT, the priesthood of believers is corporate; a priestly office in the church is never expressly mentioned.
Direct Matches
Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.
Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.
When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.
New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.
For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.
After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.
It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.
Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).
Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).
One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus (Matt. 10:4). He is identified beforehand as the one who would betray Jesus (Mark 3:19) and is noted as having a devil (John 6:66–71). John further attributes his betrayal of Jesus to Satan (John 13:2, 27), and Luke asserts that before the betrayal Satan entered into Judas (Luke 22:3).
Much has been written about his motive for betraying Jesus, but a simple look at the biblical text reveals Judas’s interest in gain. John notes that as the group’s treasurer, Judas regularly stole from the money box. His apparent concern for the poor at the anointing of Jesus was in fact self-serving (John 12:1–8). It was for gain that Judas betrayed Jesus to the chief priests. After agreeing to thirty pieces of silver, Judas sought an occasion to betray Jesus, especially when there was no crowd (Matt. 26:14–16; Luke 22:3–5).
At the table on the night before the crucifixion, Jesus predicted his betrayal. After the disciples questioned who the betrayer might be, Jesus pronounced a woe on the betrayer and noted it would have been better if that one had not been born. Jesus identified Judas as the betrayer, though only Judas understood (Matt. 26:21–25; Mark 14:17–21). John makes it clear that none of the other disciples understood the real reason why Judas was leaving the upper room (John 13:28–30).
Since Judas knew that Jesus would later be in the garden of Gethsemane, he led the soldiers and religious leaders there (Luke 22:48). Jesus noted the irony of Judas using a kiss, a sign of friendship, to betray him (Mark 14:43–52).
Subsequently, Judas regretted the betrayal and proclaimed Jesus’ innocence to the chief priests. The religious leaders had no concern for his regrets. After casting the money to the floor, Judas left. The leaders thought it unlawful to keep the money, so they bought a field for the burial of strangers. Because the people knew that blood money bought the “potter’s field,” that field was thereafter called the “Field of Blood.” Matthew notes this as fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 27:9–10). As for Judas, he hanged himself; falling headlong, his body burst open and his intestines gushed out (Matt. 27:3–10; Acts 1:18).
Peter notes that Judas’s punishment, death, and abandonment of office were predicted by David in the psalms (Acts 1:15–20). Speaking euphemistically, Peter remarks that Judas went to his own place, no doubt a reference to hell (1:25).
Secondary Matches
The tenth and longest book of the twelve Minor Prophets. Zechariah’s prophecy is one of the most intriguing in the OT, beginning with eight chapters of night visions and ending with six additional chapters of oracles. The second part of the book is quite obscure and apparently more randomly presented than the first part.
Zechariah’s importance to a Christian audience is highlighted by two facts: first, no other OT book is quoted more often in the Gospel passion narratives; second, it influenced the book of Revelation.
Historical Background
The superscription (1:1) names Zechariah son of Berekiah, the son of Iddo, as the source of the oracles that follow. Little is known about who Zechariah was, though some speculate that he came from a priestly family, on the assumption that his ancestor Iddo is to be identified with the priest of the same name who came back to Judah with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:4).
On the other hand, the text is unambiguous about the date of Zechariah’s prophecies, at least those in the first eight chapters. Table 13 lists and analyzes the dated oracles by Zechariah and by his contemporary Haggai. Haggai and Zechariah are unusually precise in the dates that they give the oracles in their books. They are dated to a fairly brief period during the reign of the Persian king Darius.
Table 13. The Dated Oracles of Zechariah and Haggai
Hag. 1:1 – Year 2, Month 6, Day 1 of Darius (Aug. 29, 520 BC) – Temple to be built
Hat. 1:5 – Year 2, Month 6, Day 24 of Darius (Sept. 21, 520 BC) – Work on temple resumed
Hag. 2:1 – Year 2, Month 7, Day 21 of Darius (Oct. 17, 520 BC) –Glory of the temple
Zech. 1:1 – Year 2, Month 8 of Darius (Oct./Nov. 520 BC) – Zechariah’s authority
Hag. 2:10, 20 – Year 2, Month 9, Day 24 of Darius (Dec. 18, 520 BC) – Zerubbabel as God’s signet
Zech. 1:7 – Year 2, Month 11, Day 24 of Darius (Feb. 15, 519 BC) – First night vision
Zech. 7:1 – Year 4, Month 9, Day 4 of Darius (Dec. 7, 518 BC) – An issue about fasting
(Ezra 6:15) – Year 6, Month 12, Day 3 of Darius (Mar. 12, 515 BC) – Temple completed
The opening verse of Zechariah refers to the second year of King Darius of Persia, which points to 520 BC. This date fits well with the purpose of the prophecies of the first eight chapters, which serve to encourage the returnees to resume rebuilding the temple.
This historical background to the book begins in 539 BC with the Persian defeat of the Babylonians, who had exiled the Judeans. Cyrus then issued a decree (2 Chron. 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–4) that allowed Judeans to return and rebuild Jerusalem. The first waves of Judeans to return came under the leadership of Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel, both of whom are in turn credited with rebuilding the foundation to the temple in the 530s BC. However, due to external pressure as well as economic hardship, the people stopped their reconstruction of the holy site. The ministry of Zechariah (and Haggai, his contemporary) had as its purpose in large part to inspire the people to resume rebuilding the temple (see Ezra 5:1–2), which was begun in 520 BC and finished in 515 BC.
Although the date of Zech. 1–8 is uncontroversial, there is considerable disagreement about the date of the oracles in Zech. 9–14. These chapters are less concerned with immediate issues of the postexilic community and more interested in the far-distant future.
Literary Considerations and Outline
Zechariah begins by situating his words in the tradition of the “earlier prophets” (see 1:2–6). The book is a fascinating collection of prophetic visions that take place at night as well as other types of judgment and salvation oracles. Zechariah, especially chapters 9–14, has often been compared to apocalyptic books like Daniel, which use bizarre imagery to describe the end of history.
I. Superscription (1:1)
II. The Prophet Calls on God’s People to Repent (1:2–6)
III. Eight Night Visions (1:7–6:8)
IV. A Crown for Joshua, the High Priest (6:9–15)
V. The Prophet Answers a Question about Fasting (7:1–8:23)
VI. Oracle: The Coming of the King (9:1–11:17)
VII. Oracle: The Future of the People of God (12:1–14:21)
Theological Message
The night visions of chapters 1–8 fit in with their historical setting. The people and their leaders had been discouraged by internal economic concerns and pressures from external forces that did not want them to flourish. Zechariah spoke of divine visions that expressed God’s intention to protect the people and to lead them to a new level of prosperity. Accordingly, the people should complete the construction of the temple, whose foundation had been laid (4:1–14). The visions also address the need for continual purification from the type of sin that led to the exile in the first place (3:1–10; 5:1–11).
Chapters 9–14 culminate in a vision of God’s ultimate victory over those who continue to resist his will. This section includes oracles against foreign nations (9:1–8) as well as a vision of a new king in Zion (9:9–13). Chapter 14, the final chapter, describes a final battle in which God will come as a warrior to save his people and judge their enemies.
New Testament Connections
The book of Zechariah, with its night visions, has an atmosphere different from that of many of the other prophets. Even so, most of its core concerns are similar. Zechariah speaks to his audience, both ancient and modern, with a warning about the dangers and consequences of sin, as well as with encouragement about God’s ultimate triumph over evil. Zechariah urgently appeals to his contemporaries to rebuild the temple, showing the importance of institutional worship, but he also clearly states that compassion and mercy toward the vulnerable must undergird religious devotion (7:1–14).
For the Christian, Zechariah’s vision of a coming king and an ultimate divine victory over evil points not only to Christ’s earthly ministry but also to his ultimate return as described in the book of Revelation. This association was not lost on the NT authors. They saw Christ as fulfilling the expectation of a messianic king who makes a humble appearance, bringing righteousness and salvation to Jerusalem while riding on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Matt. 21:5; John 12:15), betrayed and pierced (Zech. 11:12–13; 12:10; cf. Matt. 26:15 pars.; 27:9–10; John 19:34, 37). But it is this king who will subdue the nations (Zech. 12:8–9) and establish his kingdom on earth (14:3–9).
The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals. Gold is mentioned in the Bible as early as the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:11) and at the end is pictured as making up the streets of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:21). Among the metals mentioned in Scripture are gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, lead, and iron. Precious stones and minerals also appear in Scripture, often used to adorn items, such as the high priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:15–21). Here these materials will be discussed in chronological order of appearance.
Copper
Copper was the first metal to be used for simple farm tools and weapons. It was used as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC but was not in widespread use until approximately 3300 BC. Copper mines have been found on the Sinai Peninsula at places such as the Timna Valley and Faynan and also extensively on the island of Cyprus, which supplied copper to the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman empires.
References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.
Bronze
The use of bronze, an alloy made of copper and tin, in biblical lands dates to about 2300 BC. Bronze, compared to pure copper, is easier to work with and has a longer life. It can be worked with hammer and anvil or poured into a mold. It has the same available applications as copper; thus it was used to make all the tools and weapons that were made of copper. Bronze was widely used during the second millennium BC, encompassing the biblical time period from Abraham to the judges, and its use continued as the raw materials were available. It was the metal of choice until the advanced technology of ironworking.
The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:10–11, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1 Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2 Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).
Iron and Steel
Iron originally was found in meteorites and thus was scarce and worked as a precious metal. After a permanent source of iron ore was found, iron began to be worked in a few areas around 1200 BC. It increased in popularity over time, and around 1000 BC, or roughly the time of the united monarchy, it was being extensively used. Phoenician traders were very active during this time, and they would have brought much iron from the mines of southern Spain. Around the tenth century BC the technology to work iron into steel through the quenching and carbonization of the metal became commonplace. A large number of iron-producing sites have not been found in Palestine, and no deposits of the raw material have been located. Iron deposits have been found between the Jordan and the Euphrates rivers, but whether the ancients were aware of these deposits is unknown.
Once the technology to turn iron into steel became known, both became highly valued. At the same time, it is possible that copper had become more difficult to obtain due to a change in international trading routes. The first steel implement to be unearthed in Palestine was a pick found in Upper Galilee dating to the eleventh century BC.
One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron Age I period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1 Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2 Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1 Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2 Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).
Tin
Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).
Lead
Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).
Gold and Silver
Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1 Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.
Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.
Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1 Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).
Precious Stones
Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.
Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).
The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1 Kings 10:10).
Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.
Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.
When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.
New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.
For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.
After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.
It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.
Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).
Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).
“Piece of money” translates the Hebrew word qesitah in the NRSV of Gen. 33:19; Josh. 24:32; Job 42:11 (NIV: “piece of silver”), a currency of unknown value, as well as the Greek word statēr in the KJV of Matt. 17:27 (NIV: “four-drachma coin”). Although gold is rarely mentioned as currency (2 Kings 5:5; Ps. 119:72), silver is common (e.g., Gen. 20:16; Zech. 11:13), continuing into the NT period (Matt. 26:15). See also Coins.
Jesus’ personal return to earth at the end of history. Three main Greek terms are used in the NT to describe this event: parousia, apokalypsis, and epiphaneia. The word parousia means “presence” or “arrival” and was used in ancient times to describe the arrival of a ruler or king (e.g., Matt. 24:3, 27, 37, 39; 1 Cor. 15:23; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thess. 2:1, 8; James 5:7–8; 2 Pet. 3:4, 12; 1 John 2:28). The term apokalypsis refers to an “unveiling” or “revealing” of Jesus Christ at the end of the age (Rom. 2:5; 1 Cor. 1:7; 2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7, 13; 4:13; cf. Rev. 1:1). The word epiphaneia speaks of an “appearing” or “manifestation” and refers to the visible, earthly appearance of Jesus (2 Thess. 2:8; 1 Tim. 6:14; 2 Tim. 4:1, 8; Titus 2:13).
Jesus clearly predicted his second coming in his Olivet Discourse: “Then will appear the sign of the Son of Man in heaven. And then all the peoples of the earth will mourn when they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven, with power and great glory” (Matt. 24:30). Jesus uses the word “come” in this discourse to speak about his return (Matt. 24:39, 42–44, 46; 25:19, 27, 31). Jesus’ return is also predicted by angels (e.g., Acts 1:11) and apostles (Phil. 3:20; Acts 3:20–21; 1 Cor. 11:26; Heb. 9:28).
The NT describes certain events that will precede Jesus’ coming. There will be wars, famines, earthquakes, and other cosmic disturbances (Matt. 24:6–8, 29). Believers will be persecuted and hated (Matt. 24:9–13, 21–22). Many erstwhile believers will turn away from the faith (Matt. 24:10–13; 1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 3:1–5; 2 Pet. 3:3–4). There will be false messiahs and false prophets who will deceive many through signs and wonders (Matt. 24:11, 23–26). The “man of lawlessness” (sometimes referred to as the antichrist) will be revealed (2 Thess. 2:1–12). In addition, the gospel will be preached to all nations (Matt. 24:14).
Although Jesus’ coming is certain, its exact time is uncertain in the sense that it cannot be predicted. Jesus himself said, “But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36 [cf. Acts 1:7; 3:21; 2 Pet. 3:4, 8–9]).
When Jesus comes again, his return will be visible to all, like “lightning that comes from the east is visible even in the west” (Matt. 24:27). The last trumpet will announce his coming in awesome power and great glory with his holy angels (Matt. 16:27; 24:30–31; 25:31; 1 Cor. 15:52; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:16; 2 Thess. 1:7; 2:8; Jude 14). His coming will also be sudden and unexpected, “like a thief in the night” (1 Thess. 5:1–2; see also Matt. 24:37–39, 43–44; 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 16:15).
Jesus will come again for several reasons. He will raise the dead (John 5:28–29; 1 Cor. 15:22–23, 52; 1 Thess. 4:16) and separate the wicked from the righteous (Matt. 24:40–41; 25:31–32). He will transform the bodies of believers into glorious resurrection bodies (1 Cor. 15:51–53; Phil. 3:20–21), gather his followers to himself (1 Thess. 4:17; 2 Thess. 2:1), and reward them for their faithfulness (Matt. 16:27; 24:46–47; 1 Thess. 2:19; 2 Tim. 4:8; 1 Pet. 5:4; Rev. 22:12). The believer’s suffering will be replaced with the Lord’s praise (2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7; 4:13) and the full experience of salvation (Heb. 9:28). By contrast, Jesus’ second advent means wrath for the wicked (Matt. 24:51; Rom. 2:5; 2 Thess. 1:8–9; Jude 15; Rev. 20:11–15) and destruction for God’s enemies (1 Cor. 15:25–26; 2 Thess. 2:8; Rev. 19:11–21; 20:7–10).
Since his coming is imminent but its timing uncertain, believers should eagerly expect his return (1 Cor. 1:7; 11:26; 16:22; Phil. 3:20; James 5:7–8; Rev. 22:20). Remaining watchful and ready consists of being faithfully engaged in doing what Jesus instructed (Matt. 24:46; 25:14–30; 1 John 2:28), even if this means suffering (Matt. 24:13; 1 Pet. 1:6–7). Believers are called to live holy and blameless lives in anticipation of meeting Jesus face-to-face (1 Thess. 3:13; 5:23; 1 Tim. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13; 2 Pet. 3:11–14; 1 John 2:28–29; 3:2–3). The promise of Jesus’ return is a motivation for mission (2 Tim. 4:1–2; 2 Pet. 3:12) and obedience (Rev. 22:7, 12, 17). It is, in short, the “blessed hope” of the believer (Titus 2:13).
Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.
Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.
When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.
New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.
For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.
After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.
It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.
Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).
Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).
- 'Tabloid trash': NC GOP candidate Mark Robinson denies report he made lewd posts on porn site
- Christian mom sentenced to death for blasphemy in Pakistan
- Pastor Mark Driscoll refuses city order to take down 'Jesus Christ 24' sign: 'We will not comply'
- Lake Country Church pastor wrongfully fired for looking at inappropriate images, attorney says
- Georgia abortion law not responsible for deaths of Amber Thurman and Candi Miller, pro-life doctors say
- Trump says he's thinking more about God after recent assassination attempts
- 'Our eyes are on God': 16.2M Christians forced from their homes in sub-Saharan Africa
- Alaska man arrested for threatening to kill 6 Supreme Court justices
- SBC Executive Committee creates department dedicated to fighting sexual abuse in churches
- UN demands Israel withdraw to pre-1967 borders within a year, limiting Israel’s ability to fight terrorism
- SBC to Sell Nashville Headquarters to Cover Cost of Abuse Cases
- Seminary Professor Accused of Secret Second Marriage
- These Christians Have Not Given Up on North Korea
- Mobilizers See Millions of Future Missionaries in Overseas Filipino Workers
- Sports Betting Has Become Too Prevalent for Christians to Ignore
- You Can Turn Off the News and Still Be a Good Citizen
- God at the Bottom of the Glass
- Shielded from Truth at Our Own Expense
- School Screens Are Worst for the Least of These
- Parents Today Are Kinder and Gentler. They Can Still Take Sin Seriously.
- From Marxist upbringing to ‘soft Hindutva’: The rise of new Delhi CM Atishi
- Evangelicals boldly endorse Kamala Harris
- Aaron Hernandez wrote message on forehead before death with 'blood drawn on cell walls'
- Corinth: The Sex Capital of Ancient Greece
- Megachurch leader weeps after worship pastor caught recording inside gender-neutral bathroom
- The only rabbi in Springfield, Ohio, says local Haitian migrants lack ‘Western civilized values’
- Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi to appear at Nassau Coliseum Sunday, with protest planned outside
- Beyond Brilliance: 8 Lessons From Israel’s Remarkable Operation
- 'No Kaitlan, you're not going to stop me there!: Irate Republican spars with CNN anchor
- Long Island Hindu temple vandalized ahead of Indian prime minister's visit
- "Evangelicals for Harris" Mocks People of Faith to Shave Crucial Votes
- The 'Evangelicals for Harris' Hoping to Sway the Election
- Vatican Offers Cautious Green Light to Medjugorje Devotion
- Donald Trump and Polish President to Visit Shrine in Pennsylvania
- Evangelical Sociology and Clericalism
- The Workers and the Church
- 16.2M Christians Forced From Homes in Sub-Saharan Africa
- To See the Light
- SBC Will Sell its Nashville HQ to Defray Abuse-Related Legal Costs
- 80% of Indian Muslims Say They Suffer Discrimination From Hindus