In the Bible, gestures are made with either parts of the body
or items, such as clothing and rings, directly connected to the body.
For this reason, it makes sense to classify biblical gestures in
relation to the different body parts that are identified with the
gestures. It is, however, challenging to know where to draw a line on
classifying a gesture. For example, a devious person is described in
Prov. 6:13 as one “who winks maliciously with his eye, signals
with his feet and motions with his fingers.” It is unclear
whether this is a single gesture or multiple ones, and whether all
signify different things or the same thing.
Head
Gestures
that relate to the head range from simple head motions to semiviolent
acts such as hair pulling. Simple head motions include lifting of
one’s head in honor (Gen. 40:13), bowing one’s head in
mourning (Ps. 35:14), tossing one’s head in mockery and
derision (2 Kings 19:21), and shaking one’s head as insult
(Ps. 22:7; Mark 15:29).
A
common action is the shaving of the head, which can be for
purification (Lev. 14:8–9; Num. 6:9; 8:7 [includes all body
hair]), mourning (Deut. 21:11–13; Job 1:20; Isa. 15:2; Jer.
16:6; 47:5; 48:37; Ezek. 27:31; Amos 8:10; Mic. 1:16), remorse (Jer.
41:5), or shaming (Jer. 2:16). However, priests are forbidden from
shaving their heads even in mourning (Lev. 21:5; Ezek. 44:20), while
the high priest is to wear a turban on his head during sacrificial
duties (Exod. 29:6).
Anointing
of the head is done when a priest or king is installed (Exod. 29:7;
Ps. 23:5) or simply as a sign of God’s goodness and blessing on
a person (Eccles. 9:8). Blessing may also involve placing a hand on
the head of the person being blessed (Gen. 48:14–18; Exod.
29:19), while the same gesture on the head of sacrificial animals is
a symbolic means of transferring sin (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13; 4:4, 15, 24,
29, 33; 8:18, 22).
In
the OT, a woman’s head can be shaved in mourning (Deut.
21:12–13; cf. Jer. 47:5), but in the NT, a shaved head can be a
cause for disgrace (1 Cor. 11:5–6).
Face.
Facial gestures range from expressions to actions such as touching or
covering the face. A face can be downcast in anger (Gen. 4:5–6)
or bowed to the ground in honor (Gen. 48:12), in dejection (Josh.
7:6), in humility (Ruth 2:10), in worship (2 Chron. 20:18; Ps.
138:2), in subjection, supplication, reverence (1 Sam. 20:41;
25:41; 28:14; 2 Sam. 14:4, 22; 18:28; 24:20; 1 Kings 1:23;
1 Chron. 21:20), or in dread (e.g., Moses before Yahweh [Exod.
3:6]).
The
face can be covered or veiled as an indication of uncleanness (Lev.
13:45), in grief/mourning (2 Sam. 19:4; Ezek. 24:17), in
resignation (1 Kings 19:13), with intent to deceive in adultery
(Job 24:15), or in horror of judgment (Esther 7:8; Ezek. 12:6, 12).
It can also be buried in the dust in remorse (Lam. 3:29).
God
can be described as hiding or turning away his face against
wickedness and evil (Deut. 31:18; 32:20; Ps. 34:16; Isa. 8:17; Jer.
33:5; Ezek. 7:22; 15:7; 20:46; 21:2) or in an act of withholding
blessings (Job 13:15; Pss. 10:1; 13:1; 27:9; 30:7; 34:16; Isa. 54:8;
59:2; 64:7). God can also turn his face toward a place in judgment
(Ezek. 4:3, 7; 6:2). In 1 Sam. 5:3–4 the idol of the
Philistine god Dagon falls facedown before the ark of the covenant,
apparently overpowered by Yahweh.
Acts
of humiliation or dishonor can involve spitting in the face (Num.
12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10; Isa. 50:6), slapping the face
(1 Kings 22:24; 2 Chron. 18:23; Job 16:10; Lam. 3:30; Mic.
5:1), pulling a skirt up over someone’s face in shaming
judgment (Jer. 13:26; Nah. 3:5), and hooking and dragging someone by
the nose (2 Kings 19:28). Although being struck on the cheek is
humiliating, Jesus instructs his disciples to “turn the other
cheek” as a sign of resistance to violence (Matt. 5:39; Luke
6:29).
One
can lift one’s face in worship (2 Kings 20:2; Job 22:26;
Isa. 38:2) or in confidence (Job 11:15) and can fail to lift it in
shame and disgrace (Ezra 9:6). Although the shaving of beards in
mourning is common practice (Ezra 9:3; Isa. 15:2; Jer. 41:5; 48:37),
the forced shaving of beards is an act of shaming and insulting
(2 Sam. 10:4; 1 Chron. 19:4–5; Isa. 7:20; 50:6).
Eyes.
Winking the eye is perceived as an evil, deceptive, or malicious act
(Ps. 35:19; Prov. 6:13; 16:30). Eyes can be lifted up in worship and
expectation (Pss. 121:1; 123:1).
Mouth.
Pursed lips can characterize an evil person (Prov. 16:30), while a
hand can be clapped over the mouth in awe and submission (Job 21:5;
40:4). Psalm 72:9 looks to the righteous king before whom the desert
tribes will bow and whose “enemies lick the dust” in
defeat.
Ears.
An Israelite slave for life is to have a hole punched through his or
her earlobe, held against a doorpost, with an awl (Exod. 21:6; Deut.
15:17). Blood is sprinkled on the lobe of the right ear for
purification (Exod. 29:20; Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17), while
supplication can be described as asking for the turning of an ear
(2 Kings 19:16; Ps. 31:2). Turning one’s ear signifies
paying attention or taking something to heart (Ps. 49:4; Prov. 4:20;
5:13).
Neck.
The neck can be adorned (Song 1:10) as a sign of pride and honor
(Gen. 41:42; Judg. 5:30; Prov. 1:9; Ezek. 16:11) or outstretched in
arrogance (Ps. 75:5 TNIV: “Do not lift your horns against
heaven; do not speak with outstretched neck”). Jeremiah put a
yoke on his neck as a prophetic sign of the approaching Babylonian
conquest (Jer. 27–28). While putting someone’s neck in a
yoke is an act of triumphal conquest (Ps. 105:18), stepping on the
neck of a subdued enemy is an act of subjugation and humiliation
(Josh. 10:24).
Body
Nakedness
in public is considered shameful (Gen. 9:22–23; Nah. 3:5; Rev.
3:18), so that it is sometimes pictured as part of divine judgment
(Deut. 28:48; Isa. 47:2–3; Lam. 1:8; Mic. 1:11) or as a sign of
promiscuity (Isa. 57:8; Ezek. 16:36). An unkempt body can be a sign
of mourning, as it is for Mephibosheth (2 Sam. 19:24). A certain
kind of body covering is a sign of marriage proposal or protection
(Ezek. 16:8; 23:18; Hos. 2:9). Body dismembering, even in war, is an
act of humiliation (2 Sam. 4:12).
Chest.
In self-mortification, one can pound one’s chest in mourning
(Ezek. 21:12) or in remorse (Jer. 31:19; Luke 18:13). The breasts of
sacrificial animals are waved before God as a “wave offering”
before being eaten (Exod. 29:26; Lev. 7:30; Num. 6:20).
Hand,
arm.
Hand gestures include motions such as lifting hands in worship,
clapping hands in joy, and clapping a hand over one’s mouth in
awe. The expression “outstretched arm” (Exod. 6:6; Deut.
4:34; 5:15; 7:19; 9:29; 11:2; 26:8; 1 Kings 8:42; 2 Kings
17:36; 2 Chron. 6:32; Ps. 136:12; Jer. 21:5; 27:5; 32:17, 21;
Ezek. 20:33–34) indicates power, might, strength. It is often
used of God to indicate his ability to defeat powerful armies and
enemies. God is implored by the psalmist to lift his hand and act for
the sake of the righteous (Ps. 10:12).
Since
the right hand is the hand of power, the act of sitting at the right
hand indicates being favored (1 Kings 2:19; Ps. 110:1; Matt.
22:44; Mark 12:36; Luke 20:43; Acts 2:35; Heb. 1:3; 8:1; 10:12; 12:2;
1 Pet. 3:22). When taking an oath, one places a hand under the
thigh/crotch (Gen. 24:2; 47:29), most likely the right hand (see Gen.
48:14, 17–18; Lev. 8:23; 14:14).
Clapping
the hands can be a sign of awe (Ezek. 6:11), malice, or remorse
(25:6), while a bared arm can be a sign of judgment (4:7). Job claps
his hand over his mouth in awe of God and in submission and
repentance (Job 40:4–5).
Hands
can be lifted in worship (1 Kings 8:22; 1 Tim. 2:8), to
beseech (Ps. 28:2), to protect and bless (Ps. 10:12), in an oath
(Deut. 32:40), or to harm (Exod. 24:11; 1 Sam. 24:6, 10;
2 Sam.1:14; 18:12).
Pilate
washes his hands to proclaim his innocence over the death of Jesus
(Matt. 27:24), while 1 Pet. 5:6 urges believers to humble
themselves “under God’s mighty hand,” so that in
due time they will be lifted up.
Buttocks.
Exposure of the buttocks can serve as a humiliating insult and
provocation, as happens to David’s men (2 Sam. 10:4;
1 Chron. 19:4) and Egyptian and Cushite captives (Isa. 20:4).
Leg.
The leg or thigh is often a euphemism for the male reproductive
organs, so that putting one’s hand under a thigh in oath (Gen.
24:2; 47:29) may involve actually grabbing the genitalia. Animal
thighs are waved to God in offering before being consumed (Lev. 9:21;
10:14; Num. 6:20), while oaths administered to uncover adultery cause
a guilty woman’s thighs to waste (Num. 5:2–27).
The
most common gesture involving the knee is bowing, in worship or
reverence (Deut. 33:3; Isa. 45:23; Rom. 11:4; 14:11; Phil. 2:10), in
defeat (2 Sam. 22:40; Ps. 18:38; Isa. 60:14), in distress (Ps.
57:6), or in respect (1 Kings 1:31). In what seems to be a
somewhat awkward position, Elijah puts his face between his knees in
prayer (1 Kings 18:42).
Feet.
Gestures involving the feet are probably the most common gestures in
the Bible. Feet can be washed in hospitality (Gen. 18:4; 19:2; 24:32;
43:24; 1 Sam. 25:41), in ablution (Exod. 30:19, 21; 40:31), or
in supplication (1 Sam. 25:41). Feet can be bathed in oil as a
blessing (Deut. 33:24), uncovered in marriage proposals (Ezek. 16:8;
cf. Ruth 3:4, 7), and stamped in remorse (Ezek. 25:6), and sandals
can be removed from them in honor (Exod. 3:1–10) or disgrace
(Deut. 25:9). The heavenly seraphs cover their feet in supplication
before the throne of God (Isa. 6:2), while the feet of humans can
signal deception (Prov. 6:13).
Enemies
can be placed under one’s feet in subjugation (1 Kings
5:3; Pss. 8:6; 18:39; 45:5; 47:3; 110:1; Mal. 4:3; Rom. 16:20), have
their feet shackled or ensnared (Job 13:27; 33:11; Pss. 25:15;
105:18), and be forced to lick the feet of victors in humiliation and
defeat (Isa. 49:23). The righteous will bathe their feet in the blood
of their enemies in revenge (Pss. 58:10; 68:23).
Those
overwhelmed can grovel at the feet of the powerful (2 Kings
4:27, 37; Esther 8:3; Matt. 28:9; Mark 5:33; 7:25; Acts 10:25), while
those emboldened can rise to their feet in confidence (Ezek. 2:1–2;
3:24; Dan. 8:18).
In
the NT, dust can be shaken off one’s feet as an indication of
divine judgment (Matt. 10:14; Mark 6:11; Luke 9:5), even as lying at
a person’s feet is a recognition of authority/submission (Matt.
15:30; Mark 5:33; Luke 8:28, 35, 41, 47; 10:39; 17:16; Acts 4:37;
5:2). A woman publicly washes Jesus’ feet with her tears, wipes
them with her hair, and kisses and perfumes them in what seems an act
of love and repentance; but Jesus indicates that she has prepared his
body for burial (Luke 7:38–46; John 11:2; 12:3). Jesus washes
his disciples’ feet as instruction on servanthood and
discipleship (John 13:5–14).
Fingers,
Toes.
Different fingers seem to have different roles assigned them. A
finger sprinkles blood in cleansing (Lev. 4:6, 17, 25, 30, 34; 8:15;
9:9; 14:16; 16:14, 19; Num. 19:4), while blood on the tip of the
right thumb and on the right big toe is for cleansing (Exod. 29:20;
Lev. 8:23–24; 14:17, 25, 28).
One
wears a signet ring as a sign of power (Esther 3:10) or a gesture of
restoration and forgiveness (Luke 15:22). But fingers can also motion
in deception (Prov. 6:13) or point in blame (Isa. 58:9). Jesus writes
with his finger on the ground, apparently as a gesture of
indifference to those pointing accusing fingers (John 8:6).
Clothes
and Shoes
Garments.
Garments attain significance as they are related to specific
emotions. Wearing sackcloth and ashes in mourning is common (Gen.
37:34; Ezek. 7:18; 2 Sam. 3:31), while ripping garments in
mourning is also frequently attested (Gen. 37:34; 44:13; Lev. 10:6;
21:10; Josh. 7:6; 2 Sam. 1:11; 3:31; 13:31; 1 Kings 21:27;
2 Kings 2:12; 19:1; Esther 4:1; Isa. 32:11; 37:1; Jer. 41:5).
Ripping
someone’s clothing to expose nakedness (Ezek. 16:39; 2 Sam.
10:4) or pulling a person’s skirts up over the face (Jer.
13:26) is an act of shaming or insulting. But tearing one’s
clothes off can be a sign of fury (Matt. 26:65). Persons with
defiling diseases are expected to warn off others by wearing torn
clothes and shouting, “Unclean! Unclean!” (Lev. 13:45).
By
laying their clothes at Saul’s feet, the crowd may be
acknowledging his authority in the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7:58).
Sandals.
A woman can remove a man’s sandal in contempt (Deut. 25:5–10),
while a sandal can be removed by a kinsman-redeemer to indicate
giving up a right or as a transfer of property (Ruth 4:7–8). A
sandal can also be removed in mourning (Ezek. 24:17) or be cast over
a piece of land to claim ownership (Pss. 60:8; 108:9).
Prophetic
Gestures
Prophetic
gestures in the OT are mostly concerned with the call to repentance
and approaching judgments upon failure to heed the warning. Jeremiah
puts a yoke on his neck (Jer. 27–28; cf. Deut. 28:48), Ezekiel
cooks with dung (Ezek. 4:12) and sleeps on his left side for 390 days
and then on his right side for 40 days (4:5–6), Isaiah strips
off his clothing (Isa. 20:2–3; 32:11), and Hosea marries an
unfaithful wife (Hos. 1:1–3).
In
the NT, Jesus cleanses the temple as an act of symbolic judgment
(Matt. 21:12; Mark 11:15; John 2:15). He also breaks bread and drinks
wine (Matt. 26:26; Mark 14:22; Luke 22:19; 24:30, 35; Acts 2:46;
20:11; 27:35; 1 Cor. 11:24–25) and washes his disciples’
feet (John 13:1–13), thereby establishing symbolic Christian
practices.