Death is commonly defined as the end of physical life,
wherein the normal biological processes associated with life (such as
respiration) cease. This definition, however, does not adequately
encompass the varied nuances associated with death in the Bible.
The
Beginning of Death
Death
is introduced in the Bible as the penalty for transgressing the
prohibition against eating the fruit of the tree of knowledge of good
and evil—a contrast to Mesopotamia, where death was part of the
divine design of human beings. In Gen. 2:16–17 God tells the
first man, “When you eat from [the fruit of the tree] you will
certainly die.” The consequences of eating provide a useful
basis for discussing the nature of death from a biblical perspective.
First,
as is apparent from the subsequent narrative, neither the man nor the
woman experiences physical, biological death immediately after eating
the fruit. In this way, Gen. 2–3 reflects the common biblical
notion that death refers to more than just biological death, pointing
to the more significant aspect of death that embodies alienation and
separation from the source of life, God. The point is presupposed by
Jesus when he offers life to those who are dead (John 5:24), and by
Paul when he proclaims that before Christ all were dead in their sins
and transgressions (Eph. 2:1, 5). It is also reflected in the common
punishment prescribed in the Pentateuch whereby offenders were cut
off from the people (Gen. 17:14; Exod. 12:15, 19; 30:38; cf. Gen.
9:11; Exod. 9:15). Within Gen. 2–3, death arrives with loss of
access to the tree of life in the garden. Biologically, the first man
and woman may continue to live for a while outside the garden, but
their fate is sealed when they are cut off from the garden and the
intimate fellowship with the Creator that had been enjoyed therein.
Second,
the strong implication of Gen. 2:16–17 is that human beings, as
originally created, were not subject to death (see also Rom. 5:12;
6:23; 1 Cor. 15:21). This does not mean that they were immortal
in the same manner as God (cf. 1 Tim. 6:16), but rather that
they were contingently immortal: they were not subject to death but
sustained by their relationship to the life-giving God through the
provision of the tree of life (cf. Rev. 2:7; 22:2, 14). Once they
were cut off from the source of life, death ensued.
The
account of the arrival of death in Gen. 3, however, tells us little
about how death affected animals, since the Bible consistently
presents a predominantly human focus. While Eccles. 3:21 affirms
human ignorance over the relative postmortem fate of humans and
animals, little else is said on the matter. Similarly, it is not
entirely clear whether death is introduced as a punishment for sin
for humans only (and so whether animals could have died prior to the
fall) or whether animals were perceived as sharing in immortality
prior to the fall.
Death
in the Old Testament
Death
is frequently depicted negatively throughout the OT. Aside from its
initial presentation as a divine punishment for sin, it is presented
as that which seeks out and devours life and is terrifying (Pss.
18:4–5; 55:4; Prov. 30:15–16; Hab. 2:5). For the author
of Ecclesiastes, death is that which ultimately undermines any
possible value that life may otherwise have (e.g., Eccles. 9:3). The
tragedy of death, in the OT, is that it results in separation, from
God (as noted above in the context of Gen. 2–3) and from
people. The psalms, for example, frequently cite the finality and
profundity of death’s effects (e.g., Pss. 6:5; 88:5; 115:17;
cf. Isa. 38:18). Even those few passages that appear to present death
more positively (e.g., Job 3:13, 17) ultimately serve to highlight
the appalling circumstances of the speaker’s life rather than
any blessed state of the dead (for a similar idea in the NT, see
Rev. 9:6).
The
OT does, however, depict death as the natural end of life, and a good
death as one that arrives only after a long and prosperous life. So
Abraham (Gen. 25:8), Isaac (Gen. 35:29), and Job (Job 42:16–17)
are said to live long lives before they die. Furthermore, some
passages refer to the person being “gathered to his people,”
suggesting some form of reunion with previous generations in death,
presumably in Sheol, although the location and state of the dead are
never explicated. Isaiah can even include the idea of death within
language used to describe the ideal future world (Isa. 65:20).
Although
there are no laws relating to the manner in which the bodies of the
dead were to be handled, all the descriptive indicators show that
burial was normative, often in a family tomb or plot (e.g., Gen. 23;
cf. 1 Kings 13:22). Indeed, the importance of an appropriate
burial is apparent in Ecclesiastes’ comment that a stillborn
child is better off than someone who lives a long life but receives
no burial (Eccles. 6:3) and in the prophets’ presentation of
those not buried as being accursed (Jer. 8:2; 14:16; 16:4).
Life
after Death in the Old Testament
Belief
in some form of postmortem existence was common in many parts of the
ancient world. In Egypt, an elaborate set of beliefs relating to the
state of those who had died included the possibility of an ongoing
existence that could even surpass what one may have experienced
before death (although such an opportunity was a reasonable
expectation only for the upper classes, while the general population
probably had more modest expectations of the nature of their
existence in the afterlife). By way of contrast, Mesopotamian beliefs
depicted a far darker and more troubling afterlife for all but the
very few whose lives and deaths were sufficiently blessed to ensure
them some degree of postmortem comfort. For the remainder, there was
little hope for any positive experience following death.
The
OT, however, has little to say about the state of those who have
died. The widespread belief in some form of continued existence
beyond biological death in the ancient world suggests that, in the
absence of contrary data in the Bible, the people of Israel probably
assumed that some aspect of a person persisted beyond death.
Furthermore, there are hints that this may have been the case, such
as the raising of Samuel’s shade by the medium at Endor (1 Sam.
28), the escape from death of Enoch (Gen. 5:24) and Elijah (2 Kings
2:11), the revivification of the body dropped on Elisha’s bones
(2 Kings 13:21), and expressions used to refer to death such as
“gathered to his people” (Gen. 25:8, 17; 35:29; 49:29;
Num. 27:13; Deut. 32:50; cf. Gen. 47:30; Deut. 31:16). The dead
(sometimes referred to by the term repa’im, “shades/spirits
of the dead”) were thought to dwell in Sheol, generally
described as under the earth (e.g., Ezek. 31:14). Beyond this, there
are prophetic expectations that God will ultimately destroy death
(e.g., Isa. 25:8), and that God does not take pleasure in anyone’s
death (Ezek. 18:23, 32).
Death
in the New Testament
The
NT continues, and in some places expands upon, the negative view of
death presented in the OT. The notion that death is a consequence of
and punishment for the sinful state that imprisons all humanity is
stated emphatically (e.g., Rom. 3:23; 6:23) and reinforced by the
notion that, although biologically alive, sinful humans are dead in
their sin and so incapable of reviving themselves (Eph. 2:1). Death,
according to Paul, is the last enemy (1 Cor. 15:26), and yet to
die is gain (Phil. 1:21–24) because it heralds being with
Christ, which, explains Paul, “is better by far” than
being alive in this body in this world.
Central
to both the message of the Bible and to the significance of death in
the Bible is the death of the Messiah, God’s Son. Jesus’
death provides the basis for countering the consequences of the
original rebellion against God by the first couple (2 Cor.
5:21). Consequently, Paul could write that Jesus’ death itself
destroyed death (2 Tim. 1:10). Furthermore, the life that Jesus
offers—eternal life—is available to the believer in the
present (John 3:36; 5:24), prior to the time when death is ultimately
abolished, such that Jesus could assert that all those who believe in
him will live even though they die (John 11:25–26).
The
NT expands somewhat on the details relating to the state of the dead
from the OT. For one thing, the existence of an afterlife is clearly
presented. Furthermore, the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke
16:19–31) reflects a more comprehensive understanding of the
existence of distinctions among those who have died, such that the
rich man is said to be suffering in Hades (Gk. hadēs, used in
the LXX to translate Heb. she’ol in the OT), while Lazarus is
far off with Abraham and being comforted. Although there is a danger
in reading too much into a parable, the detail appears to reflect
something of the expanded understanding of the afterlife among some
in Jesus’ day.
The
NT makes several references to a “second death” (Rev.
2:11; 20:6, 14; 21:8; cf. Jude 12). The expression refers to the
state of eternal judgment under God’s wrath, a death from which
there will be no escape. But those who remain faithful to Christ will
not experience this second death (Rev. 20:6), and in their dwelling
place with God, the new Jerusalem, death will be no more (21:4).
