38 "Teacher," said John, "we saw a man driving out demons in your name and we told him to stop, because he was not one of us."
39 "Do not stop him," Jesus said. "No one who does a miracle in my name can in the next moment say anything bad about me, 40 for whoever is not against us is for us. 41 I tell you the truth, anyone who gives you a cup of water in my name because you belong to Christ will certainly not lose his reward.
There’s a scrap of papyrus (a form of paper made from reeds that grew in the Nile) that has survived the centuries until it was found in the Egyptian desert over a century ago. Although there are gaps in the piece, enough has survived to make it clear what it is.
It’s a list of Olympic champions.
The Greek Olympic games were held every four years for a thousand years. The list includes champions for all the events including the 200 yard dash which was the oldest event in the games. This list included champions for boxing, wrestling, a no-holds-barred event called the Pankraton, chariot races, the long jump, the discus, the javelin, and the Pentathlon. Some names appear more than once, champions who reigned over decades. Some appear once.
Each victor received plenty of prizes: land, slaves, gold, and in some cases a lifetime pension from the city from which he hailed. They also received a victor’s crown and lasting glory. Poets wrote poems in their honor. Artists and sculptors immortalized their accomplishments.
There’s only one thing missing on this piece of papyrus — there are no awards for second or third place. There’s no honorable mention. You are either the champion, or you’re nothing.
To the ancient Greeks athletic competitions had one winner. Everyone else was a loser. But in our day we honor more than just the first place finisher. We also admire those who try, who compete, who push themselves farther than they thought they could go.
The Christian rewards are for everyone. There’s a bumper sticker that reads: “Second Place is First Loser.” That is not the Christian attitude. — not 2,000 years ago — not now.
The apostle Paul referred to that victor’s crown handed out in the Olympics when he talked about having fought the good fight, ran the good race, and added: “From now on there is reserved for me the crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, will give me on that day, and not only to me but also to all who have longed for his appearing (Philippians 4:8).” That sounds like a lot of winners. And when John the Revelator looks into the heavens from the prison island of Patmos he saw “… a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, from all tribes and peoples and languages, standing before the throne and before the Lamb, robed in white, with palm branches in their hands (Revelation 7:9).” Oddly enough, sometimes the faithful in both the Old Testament and the New Testament don’t share this attitude.
In Numbers 11:26-29, Moses gathered seventy elders around the tabernacle and the Lord’s Spirit filled the elders with a spirit of prophecy. There were two men who remained behind, Eldad and Medad, who were also filled with the Spirit and who also displayed the spirit of prophecy. A young man who witnessed this ran to where Moses stood and told him all about it, and Joshua, normally a level headed person, said, “My lord Moses, stop them (Numbers 11:28)!” And Moses responded: “Are you jealous for my sake? Would that all the Lord’s people were prophets, and that the LORD would put his Spirit on them (Numbers 11:29)! ”
John, who was one of the three apostles that was with Jesus when he was transfigured, (and perhaps he thought he was special because he’d been up on the mountaintop) reported, like Joshua: “Teacher, we saw someone casting out demons in your name, and we tried to stop him, because he was not following us (John 9:38).” Jesus, like Moses, was not interested in stopping those outside his inner circle from doing great works. “Do not stop him; for no one who does a deed of power in my name will be able soon afterward to speak evil of me. Whoever is not against us is for us (Mark 9:39-40).” It is important to know that this passage follows a larger discussion about which disciple is the greatest (9:33-37). Jesus said that, “Whoever wants to be first must be last of all and servant of all (Mark 9:35).” He then took up a child in his arms. Children were not valued as they are today – they gained value as they grew able to work. Children did not have first access to resources. But Jesus took this marginalized member of society and said, “Whoever welcomes one such child in my name welcomes me, and whoever welcomes me welcomes not me but the one who sent me (9:37).”
Having described a situation in which servanthood and acceptance of the marginalized are the true hallmarks of a disciple, can there be any wonder that in the context of this story Jesus would expect his disciples to abandon jealousy and rivalry for inclusion and acceptance?
When the disciples told Jesus they had stopped an outsider from healing others in the name of Jesus, Jesus responded, “Whoever is not against us is for us. For truly I tell you, whoever gives you a cup of water to drink because you bear the name of Christ will by no means lose the reward (9:40-41).”
A cup of cold water in the name of Jesus? It sounds a lot like Matthew 25, where Jesus at the last judgment told those who fed, clothed, visited or gave a drink to the least of these did it for Jesus.
Now oddly enough, in that same gospel of Matthew, Jesus said just the opposite of what he said here. In Matthew’s gospel he was reported to have said that whoever is not for us is against us.
But the situation was totally different. Jesus had been challenged in several successive stories by religious authorities who accused him and his followers of acting against the faith, and they finally went so far as to claim that the work of Jesus was demonic.
Matthew described a situation where the criticism of Jesus had gone beyond the pale to the point where he was literally demonized. (This describes the situation we often encounter in modern political and religious debate, where opponents are not debated but demonized also.)
In this context Jesus said, “Whoever is not with me is against me, and whoever does not gather with me scatters. Therefore I tell you, people will be forgiven for every sin and blasphemy, but blasphemy against the Spirit will not be forgiven (Matthew 12:30-31).”
Context is key. Jesus probably said both things. That’s how wisdom sayings work — they have to be understood in the context in which they are spoken, and they are not one size fits all. What is wisdom in one circumstance is folly in another.
On the one hand as Christians it is important that we accept others who are doing the work of Jesus, and be prepared to accept a cup of cold water from them rather than rejecting them for not measuring up to our standards, especially when they threaten our own imagined place in the gospel kingdom.
On the other hand Matthew’s version warns us those who demonize their opponents, who demean and dismiss others, are in danger of blaspheming against that Spirit that is present in all of us.
The Bible, after all, is not a convenient tool to back up our own already established notions. It is the living word of God.
There was a time when everyone assumed their own denomination was the one true church and everyone else in every Christian denomination was going to hell. We’re not even talking, as Jesus suggested, about people who are not his followers. He had no other followers at that point.
Now during that same period a whole generation was inspired to take the gospel throughout the world. Young people became missionaries and preached about Jesus in different countries, far from home, far from the comforts of those homes, far from family and friends.
For the most part, the missionaries didn’t take their denominational bickering to the front lines of evangelism. They worked together because they recognized far from home that the things that separated them were not as important as they were led to believe! They realized they were one in Christ.
It’s the same when we’re engaged in ecumenical ministries like soup kitchens, domestic violence shelters, community programs for children, and the like. At a time like that, we have to say, as Jesus did, that whoever is not against us is for us. We don’t ask for a litmus test, and thank heavens, the needs are so great that no one asks us if we measure up either. We’re simply broken people helping other broken people, sharing a cup of cold water in the name of Jesus.
Pay attention. People outside our church, even outside our faith, may be doing God’s work, and we should not stop it. The front lines of ministry are no place for protecting what we imagine is our territory. We’ll leave it for God to decide who’s saved. After all, the harvest is plentiful but the workers are few.
But Jesus has more to say in this passage and it is stark.
“If any of you put a stumbling block before one of these little ones who believe in me, it would be better for you if a great millstone were hung around your neck and you were thrown into the sea. If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life maimed than to have two hands and to go to hell, to the unquenchable fire. And if your foot causes you to stumble, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life lame than to have two feet and to be thrown into hell. And if your eye causes you to stumble, tear it out; it is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than to have two eyes and to be thrown into hell, where their worm never dies, and the fire is never quenched (9:42-48).”
Part of the Jewish story-telling technique is hyperbole, or exaggeration. It would be a mistake to cut off a hand, a foot, or an eye without talking to your pastor first and consider the possibility of seeking forgiveness. Those who easily despair probably don’t need to hear these verses.
Nor is Jesus exactly talking about hell. He talks about Gehenna, a trash heap outside the city that is constantly smoldering. Gehenna was south of Jerusalem, a city dump, garbage was burned, maggots ate animal entrails, flames always smoldered (see Isaiah 66:24) not eternal damnation but utter annihilation. This is about obliteration — obliteration if one harms a “little one.”
Jesus is using this term not only for children, the most vulnerable members of society, but also the most vulnerable in our midst. That includes people with post-traumatic stress disorder, degenerative diseases, emotional handicaps, senior citizens, those unable to make reasoned choices, leaving them vulnerable to those who want to take advantage of them — you make your own list. People who prey upon others must heed that warning about a giant millstone. These are the people who need to hear that whoever is not for Jesus is against him, so they know when they harm the vulnerable, they show they are against Jesus.
These verses are not for those who are suffering, who can’t make sense of their lives, who need to know that despite their confusion, if they are not against Jesus, Jesus already takes their side.
Finally, Jesus talks about salt — salt is both a seasoning and a preservative. It was connected with rites of purification and ritual offerings in Leviticus. We are salted by the obstacles we have encountered and sometimes overcome. We are salted by our service in the name of Christ, and in our offerings.
“Have salt in yourselves, and be at peace with one another (Mark 9:50).” Jesus tells us. Know that we are all salted, all broken in different ways, and yet in our suffering and struggles we are on the side of Jesus, and we are fit for service in his name.
Don’t sweat the small stuff that separates us as believers from one another. We are on a great team! We are part of the Lord’s people. We are one in Christ.
Amen.
For the second time, Jesus predicts his upcoming suffering and death (9:30–31). Yet again, the disciples fail to understand but are too afraid to ask for clarification. They do, however, have a heated argument about which of them is the greatest (9:34). It must have been extremely painful for Jesus to watch his followers go the wrong direction spiritually at the exact …
38 "Teacher," said John, "we saw a man driving out demons in your name and we told him to stop, because he was not one of us."
39 "Do not stop him," Jesus said. "No one who does a miracle in my name can in the next moment say anything bad about me, 40 for whoever is not against us is for us. 41 I tell you the truth, anyone who gives you a cup of water in my name because you belong to Christ will certainly not lose his reward.
As Jesus and the disciples are “on the way” from Caesarea Philippi to Jerusalem—a distance of two hundred miles as the crow flies—Mark includes four brief narratives on humility and suffering, each of which illustrates and reinforces Jesus’s call to self-denial and cross bearing (8:31–38). Passing through Galilee for the final time, “Jesus did not want anyone to know where they were” (9:30). The anonymous journey may have been advised by the continued opposition of Antipas and the Jewish authorities, but above all because Jesus’s face was set toward Jerusalem. “On the way,” Jesus gives the second and shortest of three passion predictions (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). In the second prediction, Jesus does not attribute his death to the Jewish leaders, as in the first, but to all humanity. Moreover, the Greek word for “delivered” (9:31) is in the passive voice, which was a common way for Jews to avoid using the name of God (for fear of defiling it). This implies that Jesus’s impending suffering in Jerusalem is a fulfillment of the divine will. The disciples, however, “did not understand what [Jesus] meant and were afraid to ask” (9:32). Ironically, when the word of God is decisively spoken, the human response—and here from those with the greatest opportunity to understand—remains one of ignorance and fear.
The second of the four stories, in 9:33–37, takes place in Capernaum, Jesus’s base of operations in the first half of Mark. Alone with the disciples, Jesus asks what they talked about “on the way.” They meet his question with embarrassed silence, for they were arguing who was the greatest. The placement of this story after the second passion prediction accentuates the contrast between Jesus and the disciples: he embraces humility, they argue who is greatest; he surrenders his life in service, they desire recognition and distinction. The second passion prediction is thus followed by a second misunderstanding. “Sitting down, Jesus called the Twelve” (9:35). In sitting and summoning, Jesus assumes the role and authority of a rabbi. “Anyone who wants to be first must be the very last, and the servant of all” (9:35). At no point does the way of Jesus part more sharply from the world than in its understanding of greatness. Jesus redefines greatness in terms of giving rather than getting, and no vocation affords the opportunity of giving more than that of a servant. The most basic meaning of “servant” (Greek diakonos) is “waiting tables,” a posture Jesus himself assumes (Luke 22:27). Worldly greatness is reserved for the gifted few, but in the kingdom of God anyone can be great because anyone can serve. Service is the primary way for believers to imitate and fulfill the mission of Jesus (10:43–45). Jesus then embraces a child and commands the disciples, as he teaches in Matthew 25:40, to embrace “the least of these brothers and sisters of mine.”
The third narrative, in verses 38–41, reminds disciples not to judge others by their own standards but by Jesus’s generosity. As a member of Jesus’s inner circle, John, son of Zebedee, takes an elitist attitude toward an unnamed exorcist. Failing to learn the object lesson of the previous story, John regards his call as one of entitlement and exclusion; indeed, he speaks of following us rather than following Jesus (9:38). Ironically, John wants the exorcist to stop doing what he and the other disciples could not do (9:28). Jesus is more generous than the disciples. Faith no larger than a mustard seed is acceptable (Mark 4:30–32), as is a little child (9:36–37). Even a cup of cold water given in Christ’s name will not go unrewarded (9:41). Jesus receives what is done to a follower of Jesus as done to himself.
Big Idea: Discipleship demands becoming like Jesus in self-sacrificial service to others. His people must embrace diversity in the group and defeat sin and temptation in their lives.
Understanding the Text
The disciple-centered movement of Jesus from Caesarea Philippi to Jerusalem continues in this section. The series of interactions carry on the gradual uncovering of the disciples’ inability to understand and their self-seeking responses to the various stimuli that they receive.
Structure
This passage is organized via catchwords: “in my name” (vv. 37, 38, 39, 41), “stumble” (vv. 42, 43, 45, 47), “hell” (vv. 43, 45, 47), “fire”/“salt” (vv. 48–50). There are two primary units, each having three sections. First, there is the contrast between Jesus’s self-sacrificing second passion prediction (vv. 30–32) and the two self-serving failures of the disciples: their desire for greatness (vv. 33–37) and their desire to reject the exorcist who was not “one of us” (vv. 38–40). Second, there is a series of discipleship sayings on rewards and punishment (vv. 41–50), with the thesis on the two sides (vv. 41–42), then a warning against stumbling (vv. 43–47), followed by a concluding set of “salt” sayings giving the dynamics of discipleship (vv. 49–50).
Interpretive Insights
9:30–31 did not want anyone to know where they were.They are now headed south through Galilee toward Jesus’s destiny in Jerusalem. On the way to Capernaum, Jesus eschews public exposure (probably meaning that he stayed in the wilderness away from villages and towns) in order to spend his time privately with his disciples. On the “road to Jerusalem” Jesus trains his followers and prepares them for both the terrible events to come and their ministries afterward.
delivered into the hands of men.This is the shortest of the three passion predictions, with the primary addition “is going to be delivered,” both a futuristic present (emphasizing the certainty of it) and a divine passive. There might also be an echo of Daniel 7:25, which speaks of the delivery of “the holy people” into the hands of the “little horn.”
9:32 they did not understand . . . and were afraid to ask.Incomprehension (8:32) and fear (9:6) continue. Some call it a “holy fear,” a sense of wonder,1but that does not fit well. More likely, they are afraid to ask Jesus further and are unwilling to face the implications of what he is saying.2
9:34 argued about who was the greatest.It is astonishing that just after Jesus has taught about his coming suffering and death, the disciples are debating who is preeminent among them (on the “house” setting, see on 9:28; this may have been Peter’s home [1:29]). The argument probably came in light of Jesus’s teaching on his imminent death.
9:35 Anyone who wants to be first must be the very last.Jesus “sits down” like a rabbi giving instruction, providing one of the truly important injunctions on true leadership, what we would call “servanthood leadership.” The Jewish people (like all of us) were mesmerized by status, so Jesus spoke of this often (e.g., 2:17; 8:35–38; 10:35–45). Success in God’s eyes demands humility. Those who seek greatness will have nothing (8:35), and those who lord it over others will be least before God (here and 10:42–44).
9:37 welcomes one of these little children. This is not children as models of the true disciple (for this, see 10:15) but rather children as exemplars of those with little honor or status in society. Children were not prized but were tolerated, especially in Jewish society (see, e.g., Gen. 30:1; 1 Sam. 2:20; cf. Prov. 17:6). Jesus is saying that the true disciple will accept and minister especially to the weak and unimportant in society. To prove this, Jesus embraces a child (v. 36 [possibly one of Peter’s children]), indicating that he considers this child to be important and a member of his family.
9:38 we saw someone driving out demons in your name and we told him to stop, because he was not one of us. This is understandable. Jewish exorcists often invoked the names of archangels or Old Testament figures such as Solomon to drive out demons, so it would make sense that a great “prophet” like Jesus would also be named. Still, there is a question about whether this was a Jewish exorcist or an unknown follower of Jesus.3Mark does not make it clear, but the latter fits the tone better. William Lane notes the irony of the disciples’ rejecting someone for succeeding in exorcism when they had just failed (9:14–29) in that very thing.4
9:39 does a miracle in my name.To use Jesus’s name alongside the archangel Michael or King Solomon means that the person could hardly be opposed to Jesus. Such a ministry will honor Jesus and should not be negated. It will not slander Jesus’s name. The proverb of verse 40 (“whoever is not against us is for us”) seems excessive (there should be a middle ground) but is intended against the sectarian exclusivism of the disciples here (cf. Rom. 14:11–15:13).
9:41 gives you a cup of water in my name.Most place this with verses 38–40, but it repeats the idea of verse 37 (receiving a child) and fits well with verse 42 (reward and punishment). Still, there is contrast with verse 38: rather than rejecting such people, show them kindness. Romans 12:17–21 applies this specifically to persecutors. (On “reward,” see Matt. 10:41–42.)
9:42 a large millstone were hung around their neck.From the concept of reward Jesus turns to punishment. In verse 37 Jesus commanded that the “child” be welcomed (shown kindness in v. 41), but here we see that the opposite has happened: the “little ones” (the insignificant followers of Christ) have been caused to “stumble”—that is, fall into sin and fall away from Christ (see on 4:16–17). The penalty is horrific, suggesting eternal punishment in Gehenna (vv. 43, 45, 47). The millstone, turned by an ox or donkey, is huge; some were six feet or more in diameter.
9:43 If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off.In verse 42 the danger is external, as wicked leaders lead God’s people into sin. Here the danger is internal, as believers willingly give in to sin. The next three verses (vv. 43, 45, 47)5use critical parts of the body (hand, foot, eye) as metaphors for the danger of falling into sin (see Job 31:1–8; Prov. 6:16–18). The command to amputate these parts is an element of the imagery and not intended literally. Jesus uses hyperbole to emphasize the violent rejection of temptation that is necessary to be victorious over sin.
9:47–48 enter the kingdom of God.The “kingdom” in Mark thus far has referred to Jesus’s earthly ministry and the community that he is establishing on earth (1:15; 4:11, 26, 30), but now it parallels “life” in verses 43, 45 and refers to the eternal state.6
and be thrown into hell, where . . . “the fire is not quenched.”Here “hell” is Gehenna (Gk. geenna), which was the Valley of Hinnom, in ancient times the site of human sacrifice to the pagan god Molek (2 Kings 23:10; Jer. 19:5–6) and in Jesus’s day the place where the garbage of Jerusalem was burned day and night. It provided a powerful image of eternal punishment. This is a gruesome depiction of the horror of eternal hellfire and the strongest reason imaginable to gain control over sin and temptation.
9:49 salted with fire.This is the first of three “salt” sayings that bring to a close the discipleship sayings of chapter 9. Most likely the background is the use of salt as a purifying agent, especially its presence in the cereal (Lev. 2:13) and burnt offerings (Ezek. 43:24) to symbolize a pure sacrifice. This is probably not the image of eternal hellfire but rather considers the life of discipleship as a sacrifice to God and the process by which God purifies one’s life via testing and trials (the “refiner’s fire” in Mal. 3:2).
9:50 how can you make it salty again?Now we turn to salt as a preserving agent, often used to keep food fresh as well as to flavor it. Also, here it depicts the believer per se, as in the parallel Matthew 5:13: “You are the salt of the earth.” Strictly speaking, salt never loses its saltlike qualities, but this could refer to the salt from the marshes of the Dead Sea, which contained many impurities; moreover, if a farmer put too much salt on land, it became infertile. Jesus’s point was not scientific but ethical, warning that God has placed his people in the world to make a difference. An insipid Christian is a useless Christian.
Have salt among yourselves.This builds on the second use of salt (v. 50a) and means that the whole community should exercise the quality of “saltiness.” The second half interprets the first and states that when salt characterizes God’s people, they will remain “at peace,” unlike the disciples who were just debating the crowds (9:14) and especially in conflict with each other (9:33, 38).
Theological Insights
This complex passage contains several important insights. (1) Jesus as the Son of God (and as prophet) knows what is to transpire in the future and tries to prepare his followers by telling them of his passion and resurrection. (2) The disciples continue their obtuse failure to understand and are interested not in Jesus’s future suffering but only in their potential future greatness. They need to understand that the only path to greatness in the kingdom demands servanthood. (3) The prejudice of the disciples against outsiders will seriously hinder their future value to the kingdom community. They must be open to all who are called and used by God and not accept only those who are like themselves. (4) Sin (and those who bring sin into God’s people) must be eradicated from the community. God demands holiness. (5) Like salt, we must seek purity, make a difference in the world, and live in peace with one another.
Teaching the Text
1. Defining truth on the basis of our own traditions is harmful.Every tradition has its “delusions of grandeur,” that all truth begins and ends with its own particular set of beliefs. Within the larger evangelical traditions there are cardinal doctrines that are accepted (and demanded) by all: the Trinity, the deity of Christ, the Holy Spirit (but without agreement on the charismatic issue), substitutionary atonement, justification by faith (but without agreement on predestination or eternal security), the return of Christ (but without agreement on millennial issues). However, traditions and denominations err when they elevate their distinctives to absolute truth. We must learn to “agree to disagree” on these lesser areas and follow Paul’s advice from Romans 14:1–15:13: learn to respect and accept our differences and realize that God is using both sides of these debated areas. We will never agree on all issues, and we must find a deeper unity so that the church may be “one” (John 17:21–23) and work together to reach a lost world.
2. Get rid of sin and temptation.Jesus uses incredibly strong (and shocking) imagery to emphasize the violent rejection of sin that must characterize the believer. If we lead others (v. 42) or ourselves (vv. 43–47) into sin, we will heap judgment on ourselves from God. Rather, we must cast sin far away from ourselves. A related term is to “put off” or “throw away” such vices (Eph. 4:22; Col. 3:8; Heb. 12:1; James 1:21); they are old, useless clothes that must be completely discarded. The tendency of all too many of us to rationalize our cherished sins is a terrible, dangerous gambit that will backfire on us and bring present misery as well as future judgment.
3. Trials are essential to spiritual growth.Too many people believe that Christians are not supposed to have difficulties, that since we are “the king’s kids,” God is obligated to make everything go well in our lives. This could not be further from the truth. Trials and tribulations are not just important; they are the necessary path to spiritual growth. In James 1:2–4 trials are a “test of our faith,” intended to produce endurance and make us completely whole. In 1 Peter 1:6–7 our troubles are the crucible of life that boils off our sinful tendencies and makes us become “pure gold.” We are “the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13) and as such need the purifying fire of Christ (Mark 9:49) that “refines” the people of God (Mal. 3:20) so we can serve him.
Illustrating the Text
Casting off human impurities
Science: In places with long and snowy winters, roads are often salted to melt ice. One result is that cars have a tendency to rust from the salt. Some try to deal with this problem by painting over the rust. This is really not a solution, as it only delays the inevitable. The paint will temporarily cover the rust but fails to deal with the underlying problem. The rust has to be removed or the panel on the car replaced. Many people simply “cover up” their sin by ensuring that no one sees it. They often try to ignore it themselves. What we need to do is to acknowledge our sin and take steps to effectively deal with it through prayer, accountability, and changes in lifestyle.
Being the salt of the earth
Science: In the making of ice cream with a hand-cranked ice-cream maker, salt is used because of its ability to lower the freezing temperature of water. When salt is poured on ice, it creates a mix that has a temperature nearing zero degrees Fahrenheit. Although the mixture is not solid like ice, it is actually colder and can easily freeze the ice-cream mixture. The addition of salt to the process has a powerful effect on the outcome. In the same way, we are to be salt in the world, having a powerful effect and making a difference for God in the world.
Accepting other Christians who are different
Applying the Text: Christian unity goes beyond theological tradition and denominational affiliation. Consider highlighting the biblical truths that are not negotiable and that transcend particular denominations or groups. One effective way to both teach truth and demonstrate unity is to recite one of the ecumenical creeds.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:1 5). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All the Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (5:1–13), raised the dead (5:35–42), fed five thousand (6:30–44), and walked on water (6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
In the book of Psalms, “cup” signifies a person’s divinely appointed lot in life (16:5 6; 23:5). The “cup of salvation” (Ps. 116:13) alludes to the wine poured out as part of the thank offering (Num. 28:7–8).
The most important theological use is the mainly prophetic (but also psalmic [e.g., Ps. 75:8]) image of the cup of God’s wrath that wicked nations will drink (e.g., Isa. 51:17–23; Jer. 25:15–17, 28). The book of Revelation takes up this image (14:10; 16:19; 17:4; 18:6). This OT usage also stands behind the “cup” that Jesus must drink, to which he refers in the prediction of his death (Mark 10:38–39) and in his prayer in the garden of Gethsemane (Mark 14:36; cf. John 18:11: “Shall I not drink the cup the Father has given me?”). On the cross, Jesus as the substitute for sinners bore God’s wrath.
In Gen. 3 the serpent entices humankind to sin. Not until Rev. 12:9 are we told explicitly that the serpent is Satan.
In the OT, “evil spirit” may be a heavenly being sent by God (1 Sam. 16:14 23; 18:10; 19:9; cf. 1 Kings 22:22–23). The OT engages in extensive rebuke of the superstitions of the surrounding nations that included belief in demons (Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37; perhaps Isa. 13:21; cf. Rev. 18:2).
Jesus’ encounter with the devil in the wilderness recalls Adam and Eve’s encounter with the serpent in Eden. The setting, significantly, is now a wasteland. The second man to walk the earth with no sin claims the right to take back the dominion that Adam passed to the serpent. Jesus can have the whole world (without the cross) if only he will submit to the devil’s rule (Luke 4:5–7). Jesus rejects the offer. Later, he sees Satan’s fall from heaven to earth (Luke 10:18; cf. Rev. 12:5–12). Whereas once the devil had access to God’s courtroom, now his case is lost. His only recourse is murderous persecution. Between the ascension of the Son of Man (Acts 1:9) and the final judgment, this is understood to be the experience of Christ’s people (Dan. 7:25; Rev. 12:17; cf. 1 Pet. 5:8).
Whereas the OT provides sparse information about Satan and his angels/demons, the NT opens with an intensity of activity. Demons are also called “evil spirits,” and they are associated with physical illness, madness, and fortune-telling. In Acts 17:22 Paul describes his pagan Athenian listeners as “demon-fearers” (NIV: “religious”). Jesus’ miracles demonstrate his lordship over Satan’s regime as the demons flee in terror before him (Mark 1:23–26; 5:1–15). According to Paul, Christians are temples of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 6:19), and John urges believers to “test the spirits to see whether they are from God” (1 John 4:1), assuring them that they need not fear Satan or his forces, “because the one who is in you is greater than the one who is in the world.” (1 John 4:4). On judgment day Satan will be cast into the lake of fire (Rev. 20:14–15) along with all of God’s enemies.
A common name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēs comes from the Hebrew name “Yohanan.” (1) The Baptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah and Elizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (2) The son of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the inner circle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.) (3) John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts 12:12). (See Mark, John.) (4) The elder. Both 2 John and 3 John claim authorship by “the elder” (2 John 1; 3 John 1). Traditionally, all three Johannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelation of John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modern scholarship often attributes 2 John and 3 John, and sometimes 1 John, to “the elder”—John the elder. (5) The seer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Other scholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John the elder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author. However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is “John”—hence, John the seer.
Water is mentioned extensively in the Bible due to its prevalence in creation and its association with life and purity. The cosmic waters of Gen. 1 are held back by the sky (Gen. 1:6 7; cf. Pss. 104:6, 13; 148:4). God is enthroned on these waters in his cosmic temple (Pss. 29:10; 104:3, 13; cf. Gen. 1:2; Ps. 78:69; Isa. 66:1). These same waters were released in the time of Noah (Gen. 7:10–12; Ps. 104:7–9).
Water is also an agent of life and fertility and is therefore associated with the presence of God. Both God himself and his temple are described as the source of life-giving water (Jer. 2:13; 17:13; Joel 3:18; cf. Isa. 12:2–3). Ezekiel envisions this water flowing from beneath the temple and streaming down into the Dead Sea, where it brings life and fecundity (Ezek. 47:1–12; cf. Zech. 14:8). The book of Revelation, employing the same image, describes “the river of the water of life, as clear as crystal, flowing from the throne of God and of the Lamb” (22:1). This imagery is also illustrated in archaeological remains associated with temples. Cisterns are attested beneath the Dome of the Rock (presumably the location of the Jerusalem temple) and beneath the Judahite temple at Arad. Other temples, such as the Israelite high place at Tel Dan, are located close to freshwater springs. The Gihon spring in the City of David may also be associated with the Jerusalem temple (Ps. 46:4; cf. Gen. 2:13).
This OT imagery forms the background for Jesus’ teaching regarding eternal life in the writings of the apostle John. Jesus claims to be the source of living water, and he offers it freely to everyone who thirsts (John 4:10–15; 7:37; Rev. 21:6; 22:17; cf. Rev. 7:17). This water, which produces “a spring of water welling up to eternal life” (John 4:14), is the work of the Holy Spirit in the believer (John 7:38–39).
Water is also described in the Bible as an agent of cleansing. It is extensively employed in purification rituals in the OT. In the NT, the ritual of water baptism signifies the purity and new life of the believer (Matt. 3:11, 16; Mark 1:8–10; Luke 3:16; John 1:26, 31–33; 3:23; Acts 1:5; 8:36–39; 10:47; 11:16; 1 Pet. 3:20–21; cf. Eph. 5:26; Heb. 10:22).
Finally, the NT also reveals Jesus as the Lord of water. He walks on water (Matt. 14:28–29; John 6:19), turns water into wine (John 2:7–9; 4:46), and controls water creatures (Matt. 17:27; John 21:6). Most important, Jesus commands “the winds and the water, and they obey him” (Luke 8:25; cf. Ps. 29:3).
In the OT, wisdom is a characteristic of someone who attains a high degree of knowledge, technical skill, and experience in a particular domain. It refers to the ability that certain individuals have to use good judgment in running the affairs of state (Joseph in Gen. 41:33; David in 2 Sam. 14:20; Solomon in 1 Kings 3:9, 12, 28). It can also refer to the navigational skills that sailors use in maneuvering a ship through difficult waters (Ps. 107:27). Furthermore, wisdom includes the particular skills of an artisan (Exod. 31:6; 35:35; 1 Chron. 22:15 16). In all these cases, wisdom involves the expertise that a person acquires to accomplish a particular task. In these instances “wisdom” is an ethically neutral term, or at least that dimension is not emphasized. The wise are those who have mastered a certain skill set in their field of expertise.
The uniqueness of the OT wisdom literature (Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, etc.) is that it highlights the moral dimension of wisdom. Here “wisdom” refers to developing expertise in negotiating the complexities of life and managing those complexities in a morally responsible way that honors God and benefits both the community and the individual. Although it is difficult to pin down a concise definition, one can gain a better understanding of wisdom by investigating two important dimensions: wisdom as a worldview, and the traits of a person who is considered to be wise.
Who is wise? First, the wise are those involved in a lifelong process of character development. They manifest the virtues of righteousness, justice, and equity (Prov. 1:3; 2:9). The embodiment of these virtues culminates in the description of the woman of noble character at the conclusion of Proverbs (31:10–31). She exhibits self-control, patience, care, diligence, discipline, humility, generosity, honesty, and fear of the Lord (cf. James 3:13–18). She is the epitome of wisdom in its maturity and the model that all should emulate.
Second, the wise know the value of words and how to use them. They know when to speak, what to say, and how to say it (Job 29:21–22; Prov. 15:23; 25:11; Eccles. 3:7; 12:9–10). Wisdom and the wise place a premium on the power of words.
Third, the wise place great importance on relationships and on interaction with others. The wise person is the one who is open to the give-and-take of relationships (Prov. 27:5–6, 17, 19). Such a person develops the humility necessary to receive correction and criticism from others. Hearing criticism and changing wrong behavior are integral to wisdom (3:1–11). The wise appreciate insightful criticism because it helps them live life more productively (15:12). Wisdom is, ultimately, relational.
Fourth, the wise person develops the art of discernment (Prov. 1:2, 4–6). The sage is equipped with the ability to think critically. The very quality of wisdom itself invites the re-forming and rethinking of ideas. Sages are not interested in pat answers (26:4–5). Proverbs 16:1–9 throws a wrench in the conventional cogs of wisdom, claiming that although humans make their plans, God has the final say. Both Job and Ecclesiastes go head to head with conventional beliefs, probing more deeply into the complexities of life and the relationship between human and divine. No easy answers exist here. In contrast, fools do not use their mental faculties. They view wisdom as a commodity, a matter of learning some techniques, accepting certain beliefs, and memorizing a few proverbs (17:16). The wise, however, know that wisdom involves the art of critical thinking and interacting with others.
Fifth, and most fundamental, the wise person takes a God-centered focus toward life. Wisdom literature affirms, “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom” (Prov. 9:10; cf. Prov. 1:7; Job 28:28; Eccles. 12:13). That this is the beginning step in the process of gaining wisdom means that one who misses this step can proceed no further along the path to wisdom. The fear of the Lord is to wisdom as the letters of the alphabet are to forming words. The wise gain wisdom by being in relationship with the Lord (Prov. 3:5–8). The fear of the Lord is the beginning as well as the culmination of wisdom.
Wisdom is a highly prized quality, superior to might and power (Prov. 25:15; Eccles. 9:13–16), and one must diligently seek it (Prov. 2:1–5). Yet in the end, wisdom is a gift that only God can give (Prov. 2:6–8; 1 Kings 3:9).
The Greek term for “disciple,” mathētēs, means “student.” Like other rabbis and religious figures of the time, Jesus taught a group of such students (Matt. 9:14; 22:16; Mark 2:16; John 1:35; 4:1). The forms of address that Jesus’ disciples used for him reflect the nature of the relationship: “rabbi” (Mark 9:5), “teacher” (Mark 9:38), and “master” (Luke 5:5). In addition to receiving instruction from Jesus, his disciples took care of his physical needs (Matt. 21:1; John 4:8), ate with him (Matt. 9:10; 26:18), performed exorcisms and healings (Matt. 10:1; Luke 10:17), baptized (John 4:2), controlled access to Jesus (Matt. 19:13; John 12:21), and traveled with him (Luke 8:1; John 2:12). On one occasion Jesus visited the house of Peter and healed Peter’s mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14), which suggests that although the Gospels do not generally depict the private lives of Jesus or his disciples apart from their public ministry, the relationship among these men did not prevent the disciples from maintaining their own homes, families, and, probably, occupations.
In the Gospels Jesus is depicted with variously sized groups of disciples and followers. A prominent tradition in the Gospels indicates that there was an inner group of twelve (Matt. 10:1; 26:20; Mark 3:14; 4:10; 6:7; John 6:70), each of whom is known by name. This is the group most traditionally understood as “the disciples” of Jesus. As an authority, the group of twelve persisted beyond the ascension of Jesus (Acts 6:2). Following the death of Judas Iscariot, Matthias was chosen to take his place among the Twelve (Acts 1:26). Other passages specify a group of seventy or seventy-two (Luke 10:1, 16), and often the number of disciples is indeterminate. Several passages name disciples beyond the Twelve (Matt. 27:57; Luke 24:18; Acts 9:10; 9:36; 16:1; 21:16), and some later authors attempted to list the names of the seventy by drawing names from the book of Acts, the Epistles, and other early Christian traditions (e.g., the thirteenth-century Syriac compilation The Book of the Bee). The book of Acts often refers to any follower of Christ as “disciple,” including those in cities throughout the Roman Empire.
The Gospels tend to present Jesus as a charismatic teacher who could attract adherents with little overt persuasion. The calling of several disciples is narrated, including that of the brothers Simon Peter and Andrew, the brothers James and John the sons of Zebedee (Mark 1:16–20; John 1:40–41), Philip and Nathanael (John 1:44–45), and Matthew/Levi (Mark 2:13–17 pars.). The Gospel of John presents Andrew as a former disciple of John the Baptist.
The Twelve
Each of the Synoptic Gospels has a list of the Twelve (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16; cf. the list of eleven in Acts 1:13), and the Gospel of John mentions “the Twelve” several times without providing a list. With some slight harmonizations, it is possible to come up with a single list of twelve disciples based on the three Synoptic lists.
(1) All three Synoptic Gospels agree in placing Simon Peter first in the list. (2) His brother Andrew is second, though Mark has placed Andrew farther down the list and does not identify him as Peter’s brother. (3) James the son of Zebedee and (4) John the brother of James are next. Mark adds that the two were also named “Boanerges,” meaning “sons of thunder.” The placement of Peter, James, and John at the head of the list corresponds with the prominence of these three disciples in the story of Jesus’ arrest at Gethsemane, where these three were present (Matt. 26:37 // Mark 14:33). Perhaps the order of Mark’s list reflects the prestige of these three disciples, with Matthew and Luke bringing Andrew to the head of the list not because of any particular importance but so that he is listed with his brother Peter.
The lists continue with (5) Philip, (6) Bartholomew, and (7) Matthew, further identified in Matt. 10:3 as a “tax collector.” The calling of Matthew is narrated in Matt. 9:9–13 and also in Mark 2:13–17; Luke 5:27–32, where Matthew is called “Levi.” (8) Thomas is next (Matt. 10:3 lists Thomas before Matthew; in John 20:24 he is also called “Didymus”), followed by (9) James the son of Alphaeus (Mark 2:14 also calls Levi “son of Alphaeus”), so named to avoid confusion with James the son of Zebedee. (10) Simon the Cananaean (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:18 NRSV) or Zealot (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13) is so designated to avoid confusion with Simon Peter. The precise meaning of the term “Cananaean” is uncertain (see Cananaean). (11) Thaddaeus (who precedes Simon the Cananaean in Matthew and Mark) probably should be identified with the eleventh disciple in Luke’s list, Judas the son of James. The names of Thaddaeus and Judas son of James represent the greatest single discrepancy among the three lists, but it may be mitigated somewhat by the fact that some manuscripts identify “Thaddaeus” as a surname (though they give this disciple’s other name as “Lebbaeus,” not “Judas”). All three lists agree in listing (12) Judas Iscariot as the last disciple in the list, and all note that he betrayed Jesus or became a traitor. The fact that Judas Iscariot bears a second name (“Iscariot”) may suggest that there was another Judas among the Twelve from whom it was necessary to distinguish him, as in the case of the two Simons and the two Jameses. This observation lends some weight to the notion that Thaddaeus was also named “Judas.”
The Disciples as Apostles
At various points in his ministry Jesus sent out his disciples to preach and perform miracles, hence they are also referred to as “apostles” (i.e., emissaries). The connection between these two terms is made clear in Luke 6:13: “When morning came, he called his disciples to him and chose twelve of them, whom he also designated apostles.” In the NT Epistles the title “apostle” is applied to several individuals who were not among Jesus’ twelve disciples, most notably Paul. In sum, both “disciple” and “apostle” have narrow and broad meanings in the NT, though there is substantial continuity between “the Twelve” disciples or apostles of Jesus and the narrow definition of “apostle” in the early chapters of Acts.
The Later Careers of the Disciples
After his resurrection, Jesus told his disciples (“the apostles he had chosen” [Acts 1:2]) that they would be his witnesses “in Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8). Stories about the subsequent careers of the Twelve exist in both the NT and other early Christian sources. The first half of Acts largely focuses on the career of Simon Peter, before attention shifts to the career of Paul in the eastern Roman Empire. Extracanonical books and local legends trace the later careers of Jesus’ twelve disciples, placing them in Rome (Peter), Scythia (Andrew), Spain (James), Ephesus (John), Phrygia (Philip), Armenia (Bartholomew and Thaddaeus), India (Thomas), Ethiopia (Matthew), and North Africa (Simon the Cananaean). Pious local traditions attribute martyrdom to a number of the Twelve, though in the NT we know only of the deaths of Judas Iscariot (Matt. 27:3–10; Acts 1:16–20) and James the son of Zebedee (Acts 12:1–2).
While a modern understanding of the word “truth” suggests a direct correspondence to fact or reality, Scripture presents truth in broader terms.
Old Testament. The OT not only portrays truth as an honest factual account but also places it within a relationship characterized by faithfulness and reliability. The Hebrew word translated as “truth,” ’emet, also is translated as “faithfulness,” “security,” “reliability.” The word often appears juxtaposed to words that involve a relationship, including “love” (Ps. 26:3), “kindness” (Gen. 24:27), “mercy” (Ps. 40:11), “justice” (Isa. 59:14–15), and “righteousness” (Isa. 48:1). Truth is attributed primarily not to external facts, but rather to a person or community in faithfulness.
Often described as something that belongs to God (Ps. 25:5), truth is associated with his love (26:3). Yahweh is the God of truth (31:5) and is near to all who call on him in truth (145:18). God’s truth protects (140:11) and guides (43:3). Following God means walking in his truth (26:3). God speaks the truth (Isa. 45:19) and values truth (Prov. 12:22), and he expects his people to do the same (Prov. 23:23).
Often involving speech, truth is a crucial element for justice in a community, especially in a court setting. A truthful witness gives an honest testimony and brings healing, but a false witness tells lies and brings destruction (Prov. 12:17–18). Yet only the truth will endure (12:19). Truth is needed to make sound judgments (Zech. 8:16). The absence of truth in Israel’s society is denounced by the prophets, who declare truth to have stumbled (Isa. 59:14) and even to have perished (Jer. 7:28). In Jer. 5:1 it is said that God will forgive the entire city of Jerusalem if one person is found who deals honestly and seeks the truth (cf. Gen. 18:26–32). No such person is found. Nevertheless, it is God’s vision for Jerusalem to be called the “City of Truth” (Zech. 8:3 NASB, NKJV).
Several OT narratives display how truth may not be evident in every relationship. In 1 Kings 22:16 (// 2 Chron. 18:15) King Ahab makes the prophet Micaiah repeatedly swear to be telling God’s truth because he (rightly) suspects the prophet of lying. As an Egyptian ruler, Joseph requires his brothers to prove the truth of their words (Gen. 42:16), perhaps keeping in mind the history of his ancestor Abraham’s dealings with the Egyptian king (12:10–20). Sometimes the truth of one relationship holds priority over duties involved in another relationship. For example, in Exod. 1:15–21 the Hebrew midwives have a truthful relationship with (Hebrew) babies and with God even as they lie to the king of Egypt.
New Testament. In the NT, truth signifies the gospel (Eph. 1:13) as well as Jesus himself (John 14:6). Whereas Pilate asks, “What is truth?” (John 18:38), the NT answers, “Jesus!” The topic of truth is predominant in the Gospel of John. Jesus is full of grace and truth (John 1:14), tells the truth he heard from God (8:44), and in fact is the truth (5:33). Truth involves action. Whoever lives by the truth comes out of darkness into the light (3:21). Worship of God must be done in spirit and in truth (4:23–24). It is the truth that will set people free (8:32). Jesus calls the Holy Spirit the “Spirit of truth” (15:26), whose role is to guide the followers of Jesus in all truth, speaking what he hears from the Father (John 15–16).
Although the topic of truth is seldom mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels, the phrase “I tell you the truth” is attributed to Jesus seventy-eight times (e.g., Matt. 5:18; 6:2; Mark 8:12; 9:41; Luke 9:27; 23:43; John 1:51; 13:21 NCV), showing it to be a major theme. The apostle Paul reminds the church at Corinth that love rejoices with the truth (1 Cor. 13:6). Truth describes not only knowledge of reality (Acts 24:8) but also the knowledge of Christ (2 Cor. 11:10) as well as the type of life that a follower of Christ should exhibit (Gal. 2:14; Titus 1:1). Truth can be distorted (Acts 20:30), suppressed (Rom. 1:18), and rejected (Rom. 2:8). While truth can involve speech (Eph. 4:15), those who belong to the truth show it by their love (1 John 1:6; 3:18–20).
Mark 10:46–52 tells of this blind beggar who properly identifies Jesus as the “Son of David” (cf. Matt. 20:29–34; Luke 18:35–43). Because blindness can be a symbol of unbelief (Isa. 43:8), restoring sight was a sign of the coming Messiah (Isa. 29:18; Matt. 11:2–6). The Bartimaeus story is part of a larger unit (Mark 8:22–10:52), framed by Jesus’ healing of another blind person (8:22–26). Seeing and believing, Bartimaeus is cast as an ideal disciple, “following” Jesus (10:52). Mark’s use of the name implies a well-known disciple (cf. Jairus in 5:22).
A nickname, meaning “sons of thunder,” given by Jesus to the brothers James and John when he appointed them as apostles (Mark 3:17). Mark does not explain the significance of the name, but it may refer to their fiery temperament (cf. Mark 9:38; Luke 9:54). Alternatively, if meant in a positive way like Simon’s nickname, “Peter/Rock” (cf. Mark 3:16; Matt. 16:18), it could signify their future role as thunderous witnesses to the gospel.
The act of expelling demons from afflicted persons, places, and objects.
New Testament. There is no record of exorcism in the OT. In the NT, Jesus considered delivering people from demons to be central to his proclamation of the kingdom of God: “But if it is by the Spirit of God that I drive out demons, then the kingdom of God has come upon you” (Matt. 12:28). He used no formula or ritual; on his own authority he simply commanded the demons to leave, and he attributed his success to God. He also extended to his disciples the authority to expel demons in his name (Luke 10:17), dependent upon their faith (Matt. 17:17–20). Even a nondisciple was found performing exorcisms in Jesus’ name (Mark 9:38), and when Jesus was told about it, he refused to forbid it.
Jesus is not shown struggling against the demons; he simply spoke, and they obeyed, even at a distance (Mark 7:30). Often the demons recognized Jesus (e.g., Mark 5:7); sometimes they left the person with Jesus’ permission. Although Jesus’ exorcisms are listed along with healing miracles, the NT differentiates between exorcism and healing (e.g., Matt. 10:8); not every disease is considered to have been caused by demons, nor is every possessed person described in terms of illness.
Philip’s ministry in Samaria was enhanced by his casting out demons and healing the sick (Acts 8:6–7). In Acts 16:18 Paul performs an exorcism “in the name of Jesus Christ.” But while the ministry of Paul was so profound that articles associated with him were effective in exorcisms (Acts 19:11–12), the Jewish sons of Sceva were themselves overcome when they invoked the names of Jesus and Paul in an attempted deliverance (19:13–16). In the longer (and inauthentic) ending of Mark, the ability to cast out demons is promised to all believers (Mark 16:17).
Early church. Exorcism is attested in the writings of the early church fathers, such as Justin Martyr (2 Apol. 6 [early second century] and Tertullian (Apol. 23 [early third century]), as an ongoing ministry of the church. Both men emphasize the power of the name of Christ in commanding demons. Justin Martyr reports that the name of Jesus delivered people not cured by other exorcists, who used “incantations and drugs.” Tertullian explains that the name of Christ recalled to the demons their coming judgment at the hands of God, and that fear made them subject to the servants of God and Christ. Not only verbal commands were used; often there was laying on of hands, breathing, and making the sign of the cross.
As with much of the spiritual excesses of the Middle Ages, superstition about demons and witches led to widespread persecution of many people accused of being “possessed” or “in league with the devil.” The Protestant Reformation represented a rejection of this, with exorcisms being abolished by the Lutherans and Calvinists. The Roman Catholic Church restricted its practice in 1614 (see below for Catholic use today).
Modern practices. Modern liberal thought tends to dismiss demonic possession as a manifestation of psychological maladies not understood by the early church. Jesus’ dealing with these cases is explained as condescension to first-century limitations of medical knowledge. However, more-traditional theology continues to recognize demonic possession as an actual supernatural phenomenon.
The Roman Catholic Church’s Roman Ritual contains the rite of exorcism as approved in 1998. Catholics also perform a baptismal exorcism as a prophylactic measure and in demonstration of the fact that the baptized will be free from the power of the devil.
Pentecostal groups may distinguish between “demon possession” and “demon influence,” the latter being grounds for a “deliverance,” a term intentionally different from “exorcism,” which they perceive to be a Catholic ritual. Deliverances can be frequent in Pentecostal churches. Mainline Protestant denominations retain the idea of exorcism, but these are usually quite rare. The Episcopal Church sanctions exorcisms by permission of the bishop.
John, along with his brother James, was a son of Zebedee and a fisherman, and a disciple of Jesus. He was first called to be a disciple when Jesus passed along the shore of Galilee (Matt. 4:21; Mark 1:19–20; Luke 5:10). The fishing boat belonging to John’s family contained hired men, indicating that he left behind a profitable fishing trade (Mark 1:20). Jesus surnamed John and his brother James “Boanerges,” meaning “sons of thunder” (Mark 3:17), likely a reflection of their boisterous temperament.
John’s passionate temperament may be reflected in the Gospels in his attempt to confront potential opposition (Mark 9:38–41; Luke 9:49–50) and his desire to bring heavenly fire down upon those who rejected Jesus (Luke 9:54). James and John requested seats of honor in Jesus’ kingdom (Mark 10:37–40). Matthew clarified this event by naming James and John’s mother as the one voicing the request, something befitting the cultural setting (Matt. 20:20–22). As part of Jesus’ inner group of disciples, along with James and Peter, John was allowed to witness Jesus’ actions on certain critical occasions: raising a child from the dead (Mark 5:37–43), his transfiguration (Matt. 17:1–2; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28–30), and his agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–38; Mark 14:32–34; Luke 22:39–40).
In its account of Jesus’ passion, the Gospel of John highlights the actions of an unnamed disciple “whom Jesus loved.” John is the likeliest candidate. This disciple leaned on Jesus at the final supper (John 13:23), was given care of Jesus’ mother (19:26), arrived first at the empty tomb (20:2–4), first recognized the resurrected Jesus (21:7), was prophesied to live a long life (21:23), and was an eyewitness of events in the Gospel (21:24).
John was among the disciples who stayed in Jerusalem in the upper room prior to Pentecost (Acts 1:13–14). John next was seen after Pentecost with Peter in accounts of the healing of a crippled beggar (3:1–11) and the two of them being arrested for proclaiming the gospel (4:1–23).
John is said to have authored the Fourth Gospel (John 21:20–24). The Gospel of John was written with a purpose stated explicitly by its author: “That you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name” (20:31). This “believing” encapsulates several key convictions that the author sought to convey. First, Jesus is one with God as preexistent and operative in creation (1:1–4, 10, 18). Second, Jesus is the messianic Savior to God’s chosen people (1:41; 11:27) and all humankind (4:42). In the Johannine Gospel, salvation is conceived in God’s love (3:16), formalized by the sacrifice of his Son (1:29; 3:16), and received by those holding orthodox belief in Jesus’ divine identity (8:24) and origin (12:44; 17:21). Finally, believing includes the conviction that Jesus is one with God, expressed through sonship (1:19–2:11). In the Johannine Gospel, sonship is conveyed literarily and buttresses the certainty that Jesus is sufficient to provide eternal life. Messianic realities mingled with sonship distinguish Jesus as the ultimate revelation of God, thus complementing, while subordinating, previous Jewish religious convictions. In addition to the Gospel of John, tradition attributes the Johannine Letters and, in some cases, the Revelation of John to the apostle John.
John the apostle is understood in his older days to have been a member of a community with disciples of his own, commonly known as the Johannine Community. Within this community the teachings of John about Jesus were preserved and written down. In addition, his correspondence was preserved—1 John, 2 John, and 3 John.
