14 Then one of the Twelve--the one called Judas Iscariot--went to the chief priests 15 and asked, "What are you willing to give me if I hand him over to you?" So they counted out for him thirty silver coins. 16 From then on Judas watched for an opportunity to hand him over.
by Don Tuttle
The story is told of a preacher whose method for selecting his Sunday scripture was, shall we say, unusual. Some pastors use what’s called a lectionary--a three-year cycle of readings that retells the story of Jesus every year using either Matthew, Mark, or Luke. Other pastors select a topic—maybe “grace” or “sacrifice”--and then biblical texts that address it. Still others preach through entire books. One church I know will spend almost all of 2017 going through 1 Peter verse by verse.
But the preacher in this story didn’t use any of those methods. No, he would simply close his eyes, open his Bible, and put his finger on the open page. He figured the verse on which his finger landed was the one God had chosen for him to expound.
One day, as Sunday approached, it was time for him to select the reading, and so he closed his eyes, opened his Bible, and put his finger on the page, only to find that it had landed on Matthew 27:5: “And throwing down the pieces of silver, Judas departed, and he went and hanged himself.”
The preacher was perplexed. Why, he wondered, would God want him to preach on that verse? So he decided to ask God for a supplemental text, a second verse to illuminate the first. Once again he closed his eyes, opened his Bible, and placed his finger on the page. And when he opened his eyes, the first words he saw were the last half of Luke 10:37: “And Jesus said to him, ‘Go and do likewise.’”
As you might imagine, the preacher chose another means for selecting his Sunday scripture.
This story rightly points to the insanity of the preacher’s method of text selection, but it also hints at the challenge of preaching on Judas Iscariot.
While we don’t hesitate to preach on Mary or Peter or Thomas or Paul, Judas is different. Yes, he’s one of Jesus’s chosen companions, someone who heard Jesus’s words and saw his deeds, and yet he betrays him. What can one say about a man who is the face of failed discipleship? What can we possibly learn from one whose name has become synonymous with betrayal?
To answer those questions I think we have to dig deeper into why Judas betrayed Jesus.
Through the years, biblical scholars, preachers, and theologians have suggested at least three possible motives for why Judas did what he did.[i]
Some have suggested it was divine necessity.
By the time we get to our reading in Matthew, Jesus has told his disciples three times that he “must go to Jerusalem,” where he will be “delivered”—which is the same word translated elsewhere as “betrayed”—“into the hands of men and killed.” Some say that for Christ to accomplish his work someone had to betray him and God chose Judas as that someone. They say he had no choice. He was predestined or ordained to betray Jesus.
As strange as it may sound, there’s something appealing about that possibility. If it is true it would absolve Judas of responsibility. He simply did what God destined him to do. It might also suggest that God has so ordered all lives—including our own—that people can’t help but do what they do. One could argue that God made the baker to bake, the giver to give, even the liar to lie. One could hardly be held accountable for doing what he or she was destined to do.
But our reading suggests Judas had more freewill than this approach suggests. Notice, for example, that Judas initiates his betrayal. He is the one who goes to the chief priests and elders and offers to deliver Jesus into their hands, for a price. The fact that he asked for payment suggests he could have decided against doing it. Notice also that Jesus warns Judas against betraying him. As they were sharing the Passover meal, Jesus says that “the Son of Man goes as it is written of him, but woe to that man by whom the Son of Man is betrayed.” In doing so, he imputes responsibility to Judas. He is not a pawn or puppet of God. He has chosen the path he will take.
Others suggest it was not divine necessity that led Judas to betray Jesus but good, old-fashioned greed.
That is, of course, what our text suggests. When Judas went to the chief priests and elders, he asked, “What will you give me if I deliver him over to you?” It was clearly a solicitation for money, and they obliged, giving him “30 pieces of silver.”
While we don’t know much about Judas, John’s Gospel suggests such greed might be in keeping with his character. In John’s account of the woman anointing Jesus with expensive perfume, it is Judas--not the disciples, as in Matthew, but Judas--who objects, suggesting the perfume should have been sold to help the poor. But, John’s says, Judas did so “not because he cared about the poor, but because he was a thief, and having charge of the moneybag he used to help himself to what was put into it.”
While none of us would condone selling out Jesus, it’s not hard to understand how it could happen.
The movie “Silence” is based on Shusaku Endo’s historical novel about two Jesuits’ attempt to find their mentor after he disappears amid persecution of Christians in Japan. According to one reviewer, the most powerful weapon the Inquisitor uses to persuade Christians there to betray their Lord is not torture but comfort. Father Rodrigues, the imprisoned teacher, is provided with food, clean clothes, and honor, not simply to woo him but to show the starving, near-naked peasants that rejecting their Christian faith would be profitable for them. It is hard to blame them when they choose life’s comfort over Christ for whom they are suffering. In fact, the reviewer suggests it happens all the time.
Yet greed may not have been the main issue for Judas. “Thirty pieces of silver” is a pretty meager sum. While it had symbolic significance--in Exodus it was the value of a slave and in Ezekiel the wages of a shepherd—Judas certainly could have gotten more. And if it was all about money, it’s hard to explain why Judas wanted to return it after Jesus was condemned. If money was the point, what happened to Jesus wouldn’t matter.
Still others say it was not divine necessity or greed that drove Judas but rather frustration.
Judas had spent three years in the presence of Jesus. He had heard him talk about the coming kingdom of God. He had witnessed the crowds hanging on Jesus’s every word. He had glimpsed Jesus’s glory. He had believed that Jesus was the long-awaited Messiah, the one who was to lead the revolution, the one to rally all of Israel against Rome and restore the nation to its former glory.
But, some suggest, Judas grew tired of waiting for Jesus to act. So he sought to force Jesus’s hand by delivering him to the chief priests and elders. He figured the great military messiah within Jesus would emerge and the people would follow.
Most of us can appreciate such impatience. Two-thousand years later we still only get glimpses of the kingdom of God here and there, now and then. We too become frustrated with Jesus when we’re holding a loved one losing the fight against cancer. When some of us went to Kenya and few years ago and saw the plight of people there—the poverty and the corruption that facilitates it—we were more than frustrated that the kingdom to come had not yet come. There are times in which we grow impatient and want to spur Jesus on.
Such impatience would make sense of Judas’s regret. If he thought his betrayal would launch the revolution and lead to Israel’s freedom, then he would naturally be distressed when the chief priests and elders turn Jesus over to be executed. But then again, if Judas expected Jesus to lead an armed insurrection against Rome, he probably wanted to be a part of it, a general in the Lord’s army, so to speak. If that was his motive, why did he run to the chief priests and elders with his regret? It would have made more sense to pick up the fallen flag and rally the disciples and crowd to rise in defense of Jesus. But he didn’t do that.
Now there is something to be said for all these possible explanations for Judas’s betrayal, yet our text hints at a fourth. One I believe is far deeper. It suggests Judas betrayed Jesus because he no longer believed Jesus was the Savior of Israel. It suggests Judas’s failure was not rooted in divine necessity, greed, or frustration, but in lost hope.
Our reading most clearly points to this lost hope in the dialogue Jesus and the disciples share during the Passover meal. While they break bread, Jesus announces that one of them will betray him. That news frightens all of the disciples. And so, in Matthew’s Gospel, each one asks Jesus, “Is it I, Lord?” The only exception is Judas. While he asks the same question, he says instead: “Is it I, Rabbi?”
That difference may seem small but it is significant. While both “Lord” and “Rabbi” are terms of respect and honor, the fact that they are set in opposition to one another here suggests a difference in how the disciples and Judas view Jesus. For Peter, James, John and the rest, “Lord” evokes the Old Testament, where the term is used as a synonym for the name of God. It implies one with absolute power and authority and to which one owes absolute allegiance. The earliest known confession of faith in Jesus is “Jesus is Lord,” because the church understood him to be God’s power and presence in the world.
The fact that Judas uses the term “rabbi” or “teacher” suggests he doesn’t share the disciples’ view of Jesus. In fact, in Matthew’s Gospel “rabbi” is a negative term. In chapter 23, Jesus says that the scribes and Pharisees “love being called rabbi by others” but are hypocrites who don’t practice what they preach. He tells the disciples they should never use that title or allow themselves to be called by it.
And yet not only does Judas call Jesus “rabbi” at the Passover meal, he uses it again in the Garden of Gethsemane. When he arrives with the authorities to arrest Jesus, he identifies him with the words, “Greetings, Rabbi,” hinting again that he has lost hope in Jesus as the one to redeem Israel.
That lost hope makes sense of Judas’ decision to go to the chief priests and elders and to ask them for money. Why not, if Jesus is not what Judas had hoped he would be? It makes sense of his failure to heed the warning Jesus offered about betraying him. Why would he care what Jesus said if Jesus wasn’t anything more than another teacher of the faith? It also makes sense of his change of mind—not repentance, but change of mind, they are two different Greek words. While he didn’t believe in Jesus as Lord, he probably didn’t expect him to be killed and didn’t want his blood or anyone else’s on his hands. And it even makes sense of his suicide. Without hope, he simply gives up.
What our reading suggests is that Judas betrayed Jesus because he lost hope in Jesus as the one to redeem Israel.
That failure is, in and of itself, sad. But do you know what makes Judas’s story truly tragic?
If he had only held on a little longer, waited out the next few days, hung on until Sunday morning, he would have found the hope he’d lost.
“[He] didn’t need to take his own life,” writes King Duncan. “He didn’t even need to spend the rest of his life punishing himself. He could have made a new start. His sin could have been washed away by the grace of the man he delivered into the hands of the authorities.”[ii]
If only he’d have hung on, he could have discovered that Jesus was the one for which he and all of Israel hoped.
There are times in life when all of us need to be reminded to persevere. We need to be reminded of what God has done for us in Jesus Christ. But that is especially true of those of you who might be losing--or maybe have lost--hope. When you’re wondering where God is when your children suffer or why evil so often seems to triumph over good or how it is that the kingdom has come but so much remains the same, remember Judas’s story and don’t give up. Don’t turn away from Christ and the faith, for hope in him is never in vain. It has been confirmed by his resurrection, by the transformation of his disciples, by the emergence of the church, and by the continuing power of the Spirit at work in his people today. More importantly, it has been confirmed by a legion of Judases who failed their Lord but still hung on to find the grace to believe again.
[i] See Douglas R. A. Hare, Matthew, Interpretation Commentary, John Knox Press, Louisville, KY 1993, p. 295
[ii] See King Duncan, https://sermons.com/sermon/day-of-decision/1347549
Judas makes a deal with the Jewish leaders to “hand over” or betray Jesus for “thi…
14 Then one of the Twelve--the one called Judas Iscariot--went to the chief priests 15 and asked, "What are you willing to give me if I hand him over to you?" So they counted out for him thirty silver coins. 16 From then on Judas watched for an opportunity to hand him over.
26:1–28:20 Review · Jesus’s execution by Rome and resurrection/vindication by God: In 26:1–28:20, Matthew narrates Jesus’s final days and hours as he willingly suffers and goes to his execution to restore his people and usher in God’s reign. Though the disciples desert him and Rome and the Jerusalem leaders crucify him as a criminal, God vindicates Jesus as Messiah and Lord at his resurrection.
26:1–16 · Matthew signals the conclusion of the fifth discourse with the familiar formula, “When Jesus had finished [saying these things],” this time referencing “all these things” to signal the final of the five blocks of Jesus’s teaching (26:1; see “Structure” in the introduction). Immediately afterward, Matthew narrates another passion prediction by Jesus (cf. 16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19) and the intensifying plot by the Jewish leadership against Jesus (26:3–5; cf. 21:46). Jesus’s prediction connects his crucifixion—a Roman form of execution—to the Passover feast, which is two days away (26:2; cf. 26:17–29). Passover, one of three central Jewish festivals, celebrated Israelite freedom from bondage to Egypt. As such—and given the great numbers of Jewish pilgrims attending—Passover could become the locus of political foment, as the chief priests and elders fear (26:5; cf. 27:24 for Pilate’s similar concern). No one in power—the Jerusalem leaders or Rome—wanted a messiah to arise during Passover! (For a historical example, see Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 17.9.3).
In 26:6–13 (set in Bethany, just east of Jerusalem), Matthew narrates how an unnamed woman anoints Jesus with expensive perfume—an act Jesus commends and the disciples decry. Jesus interprets her act as preparation for burial (with perfumes often used in embalming) and praises her deed as one that will be recounted along with the spread of the gospel itself (26:13). Her action contrasts Judas’s act of betrayal in 26:14–16. As one of Jesus’s inner circle (“one of the Twelve”), Judas will have opportunity to lead the chief priests to Jesus when he is away from the people, who might rise to Jesus’s defense (cf. 26:5).
Big Idea: Matthew contrasts the Jewish leaders and Judas, who conspire against Jesus, and even the disciples, who continue to lack understanding about Jesus’ impending death, with an unnamed woman who anoints Jesus for his burial, pointing toward his missional death to bring covenant renewal through the forgiveness of sins.
Understanding the Text
Chapters 26–28 narrate the passion and resurrection of Jesus. After Jesus predicts his coming death again (26:2; also 16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19), Matthew narrates the plot against Jesus by the Jewish leaders (26:3–5; also 12:14; 21:45–46). The woman who anoints Jesus (26:6–13) is the first of a number of women highlighted in the Passion Narrative who display discipleship qualities or remain with Jesus when the Twelve desert him (27:19, 55–56, 61; 28:1–10). The scene in which Jesus shares the Passover with his disciples (26:17–30) highlights Judas’s betrayal (26:23–25; see 26:14–16, 47–50) and Jesus’ sacrifice and death “for the forgiveness of sins” (see 1:21).
Interpretive Insights
26:1 When Jesus had finished saying all these things. This formula has concluded each of the major Matthean discourses containing Jesus’ teaching (7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1). In this final repetition of the formula Matthew includes “all” to provide a summative reference to the teachings of Jesus. At this point in the story Jesus has concluded his teachings as he turns to his final days in Jerusalem.
26:2 the Passover is two days away. Matthew sets the context for Jesus’ coming death during the Passover festival (as do all the Gospels) and will portray Jesus making specific connections between the Passover meal and his death (26:20–29).
the Son of Man will be handed over to be crucified. Jesus has predicted his crucifixion during his travels to Jerusalem (16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19). Here he reaffirms that his journey will end on a cross.
26:3 Caiaphas. Caiaphas was high priest in the years AD 18–36, a religious and political role. According to Josephus, (Joseph) Caiaphas was appointed by Pilate’s predecessor, Valerius Gratus (Ant. 18.35).
26:5 there may be a riot among the people. During Passover, one of the three major Jewish festivals, Jerusalem and its environs swelled with pilgrims coming to celebrate. Given its ties to Israel’s deliverance from Egypt (Exod. 12–14), Passover held the potential for revolutionary activity. Josephus, for instance, speaks of the Roman procurator Cumanus (mid-first century), who feared that the large number of people attending the Passover “might afford occasion for an uprising [and] ordered one company of soldiers to take up arms and stand guard on the porticoes of the temple so as to quell any uprising that might occur” (Ant. 20.106 [see also Matt. 27:24]).
26:6 alabaster jar of very expensive perfume. Perfumes were used in preparing a body for burial. If the woman intended her actions to prepare for Jesus’ burial (26:12), then it is ironic that she, although not privy to Jesus’ passion predictions, understands his mission, while his disciples, who have heard of his coming death four times now, do not (16:21; 17:22–23; 20:17–19; 26:1–2).
26:11 The poor you will always have with you. Jesus justifies the unnamed woman’s act of anointing him for burial by alluding to Deuteronomy 15:11. In Deuteronomy the context focuses on care for the poor, with its refrain about being “openhanded toward your fellow Israelites who are poor and needy” (15:11 [cf. 15:8, 10]). And this context is certainly something that Jesus and Matthew would have been aware of. So it is inappropriate to take this statement from Matthew (or Deuteronomy) and universalize what was quite specific to the unique event of Jesus’ coming death; that is, this statement should not be interpreted proverbially as an excuse to avoid merciful care for the poor. In fact, by allusion to Deuteronomy, the context of care for the poor is likely relevant to the Matthean context. In other words, care for the poor should be a Christian duty because ongoing poverty will require such action (cf. 25:31–46).
26:13 what she has done will also be told, in memory of her. The woman who has anointed Jesus as preparation for his burial, although unnamed, is promised that her action will be recounted wherever the gospel itself is proclaimed. This statement highlights the centrality of Jesus’ death within the good news.
26:14 Judas Iscariot. Matthew has referred to Jesus’ disciple Judas Iscariot previously with the descriptor “who betrayed him [Jesus]” (10:4). So the reader is prepared for the act of betrayal here, although there is no specific reason provided for his betrayal other than his request for payment.
26:16 Judas watched for an opportunity to hand him over. Matthew has already indicated that the Jewish leaders desire to arrest Jesus in secret and, if at all possible, not during the Passover festival, so as to avoid rioting (26:3–5). This sets the context for Judas watching for an opportune time to betray Jesus to the authorities, presumably at night and outside the city in order to avoid a public arrest in front of a sympathetic crowd (see 26:47). In fact, hints of secrecy occur across the rest of this chapter (e.g., 26:18, 20 [see commentary], 48; and in Jesus’ rather cryptic responses at 26:25 and 64).
26:17 On the first day of the Festival of Unleavened Bread. Although the Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread originally seem to have been two distinct feasts (Exod. 12:1–30), at some point they began to be celebrated as a single festival (Deut. 16:1–8; Philo, Spec. Laws2.150). The combined festival lasted from Nisan (the Jewish month corresponding to March/April) 14 to 21, with the first day (Nisan 14) being the day on which the lambs were sacrificed; presumably this is the day Matthew refers to here.1
26:18 Go into the city to a certain man. The Greek word for “a certain man” (deina) occurs only here in the New Testament and is used when a speaker wants the person’s identity to remain unknown (or simply does not know it [BDAG 215]). With deina, Matthew indicates that Jesus has prearranged a location for the Passover meal that he will share with his disciples. The reference may also indicate the secretive nature of their plans, especially if Jesus is planning to celebrate the meal on Nisan 14 rather than Nisan 15 (see comments on 26:20).
26:20 When evening came. This clause (opsias genomenes) is usually taken to indicate that Jesus and his disciples celebrate the Passover meal on Nisan 15 (as all Jews would), since in Jewish reckoning each new day begins at nightfall. In this scenario, the disciples have prepared for the Passover meal sometime during the daytime hours on Nisan 14 and eat the meal with Jesus after sundown (per Jewish custom) on Nisan 15.
R. T. France persuasively suggests that this temporal clause refers to later the same evening (“later on”), as in 14:23 (opsias genomenes), where it does not make sense to have an inauguration of evening when evening has already arrived at 14:15 (opsias genomenes). If this is correct, then Jesus has prearranged a clandestine Passover meal with his disciples (see 26:18). He then has his disciples prepare the meal at the beginning of Nisan 14 just after sundown, when they would attract less attention than in daylight. Even later into the evening (Nisan 14), they celebrate the Passover in secrecy, the day before the large crowds in Jerusalem would be celebrating it. By that time, Jesus will already be dead. This scenario fits the hints of secrecy that run through chapter 26 (see 26:16), explains the omission of a lamb at the meal, and coheres with John’s chronology of Jesus’ death.2
26:24 just as it is written about him. Throughout Matthew’s Gospel the theme of Scripture’s fulfillment in Jesus has been emphasized. Jesus’ passion is also deliberately set in the context of Scripture’s fulfillment. Here and at 26:54 and 26:56 Scripture and the prophets provide the context and reason for Jesus’ arrest and missional death.
26:26 Take and eat; this is my body. Jesus draws on the Passover meal to infuse meaning into his coming death. Matthew has already highlighted the theme of Jesus as enacting return from exile and new exodus (as these themes converge in Isaiah [e.g., Matt. 1–4; 14:19]). The same connection is made here by identifying Jesus with the Passover sacrifice that brings forgiveness and freedom.
26:28 This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins. The phrase “blood of the covenant” is an allusion to Exodus 24:8, where Moses sprinkles sacrificial blood on the people to ratify Yahweh’s covenant with them (with identical wording in the Septuagint). This allusion points to Jesus as the climax of the covenant. Some commentators also see an allusion to Isaiah 53:11–12 in the language of “poured out for many,” a text already evoked at 20:28 (“a ransom for many”).[3] Finally, this climactic narrative moment brings full circle the promise of the angel that Jesus will “save his people from their sins” (1:21).
Some manuscripts include the adjective “new” before “covenant,” but it is more likely that copyists added the word to conform to Luke 22:20 than that scribes omitted it. Also, Matthew seems to be cautious in using this adjective (see the sidebar “What’s ‘New’ in Matthew?” in the unit on 9:9–34).
Teaching the Text
Jesus as the Messiah will bring covenant renewal and forgiveness of sins by his missional death. By connecting Jesus’ coming death with the Passover celebration in very specific ways, Matthew indicates that Jesus ushers in a new exodus or deliverance. The hope for such a new exodus comes from Isaiah’s vision of God returning to Israel in restoration; this Isaianic vision is drawn with allusions to the exodus from Egypt, with its parting of the waters and God’s victory over Pharaoh (e.g., Isa. 43:16–19; 48:20–21; 51:9–11). Isaiah’s message is implicit but clear: just as God redeemed Israel from their Egyptian oppressors, so God would bring restoration from Babylon. Matthew picks up this theme as fitting to the redemption God brings through Jesus at the fullness of time. With his statement that the Passover bread is his body (26:26),
Jesus was drawing into one event a millennium and more of Jewish celebrations. The Jews had believed for some while that the original Exodus pointed on to a new one, in which God would do at last what...
he had long promised: he would forgive the sins of Israel and the world, once and for all. Sin, a far greater slave-master than Egypt had ever been, would be defeated in the way God defeated not only Egypt but also the Red Sea. And now Jesus, sitting there at a secret meal in Jerusalem, was saying, by what he was doing as much as by the words he was speaking: this is the moment. This is the time. And it’s all because of what’s going to happen to me.4
So how can this theme of Jesus inaugurating the new exodus impact our preaching? This theme seems particularly fruitful as we prepare people to celebrate the Lord’s Supper or Eucharist. As we commemorate Jesus’ death in the Lord’s Supper, we can provide rich resources to people by highlighting the connections between Jesus’ offering of himself for our salvation and the Jewish celebration of and hope for God’s continued saving work. We can preach with confidence that it is God’s pattern to save and redeem; salvation does not begin with Jesus, though it most certainly culminates in him. And by emphasizing the connection between the Lord’s Supper and the Jewish hopes for God’s new exodus, we tap a deep vein within the Scriptures about God’s commitment to restoration and the newness of salvation available then and now for God’s people; as we read in Isaiah 43:16–19,
This is what the Lord says—
he who made a way through the sea,
a path through the mighty waters,
who drew out the chariots and horses,
the army and reinforcements together,
and they lay there, never to rise again,
extinguished, snuffed out like a wick:
“Forget the former things;
do not dwell on the past.
See, I am doing a new thing!
Now it springs up; do you not perceive it?
I am making a way in the wilderness
and streams in the wasteland.”
Illustrating the Text
Jesus as the Messiah will bring covenant renewal and forgiveness of sins by his missional death.
Christian Liturgy: Alexander Schmemann describes the Lord’s Supper (Eucharist) as a kind of entry into a fourth dimension. By doing so, he intimates the way this celebration of the church points ahead to the newness of salvation and the final consummation of the kingdom.
The liturgy of the Eucharist is best understood as a journey or procession. It is the journey of the Church into the dimension of the Kingdom. . . . Our entrance into the presence of Christ is an entrance into a fourth dimension which allows us to see the ultimate reality of life. It is not an escape from the world, rather it is the arrival at a vantage point from which we can see more deeply into the reality of the world.5
Quote: N. T. Wright explores the connection between sin and death, helping us to understand more deeply Jesus’ reflection on his coming death “for the forgiveness of sins” (26:28).
To be released from sin is to be released from death, and since Jesus died in a representative capacity for Israel, and hence for the whole human race, and hence for the whole cosmos (that is how the chain of representation works), his death under the weight of sin results immediately in release for all those held captive by its guilt and power. . . . Forgiveness of sins in turn (just as in Isaiah 54–55) means new creation, since the anti-creation force of sin has been dealt with. And new creation begins with the word of forgiveness heard by the individual sinner.6
Christian Music: African American spirituals often draw on exodus imagery, with its vision of God’s action to free Israel from Egyptian slavery. Because African Americans experienced brutal slavery themselves, many songs of the slave community spoke to their longing for freedom from slavery and for freedom in Christ. One such song, “Oh, Mary,” celebrates God’s victory in the exodus as an expression of the singer’s hopes for freedom.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep, don’t you mourn.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep, don’t you mourn.
Pharaoh’s army got drowned.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep.
Some of these mornings bright and fair,
Take my wings and cleave the air.
Pharaoh’s army got drowned.
Oh, Mary, don’t you weep.
Direct Matches
An epithet or appellation for the disciple named “Judas” who betrayed Jesus (Matt. 10:4; Mark 3:19; Luke 6:16). A word of uncertain derivation, it may signify “man of Kerioth,” a city in southern Judea (so the alternate textual readings at John 6:71; 12:4; 13:2, 26; 14:22: “from Kerioth”), the plural of “city,” or an Aramaic adaptation of the Latin sicarius, “assassin” or “terrorist.” The latter would place him with the Sicarii, a group of terrorists who murdered Roman sympathizers with curved swords (Acts 21:37 38; Josephus, J.W. 2.254; Ant. 20.186).
(1) One of the apostles identified as “Judas son of James” (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) and “Judas (not Judas Iscariot)” (John 14:22), probably the same person as Thaddaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18). (2) A leading Jerusalem believer and prophet, “Judas called Barsabbas” (i.e., “son of the Sabbath” or “son of Sabbas”; possibly a relative of “Joseph called Barsabbas” in Acts 1:23). Along with Silas, he was sent with Paul and Bar-nabas to add verbal testimony to the letter to the Gentile Christians from the apostles and elders after the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). (3) One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus, he betrayed Jesus. See Judas Iscariot.
One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus (Matt. 10:4). He is identified beforehand as the one who would betray Jesus (Mark 3:19) and is noted as having a devil (John 6:66 71). John further attributes his betrayal of Jesus to Satan (John 13:2, 27), and Luke asserts that before the betrayal Satan entered into Judas (Luke 22:3).
Peter notes that Judas’s punishment, death, and abandonment of office were predicted by David in the psalms (Acts 1:15–20). Speaking euphemistically, Peter remarks that Judas went to his own place, no doubt a reference to hell (1:25).
A priest is a minister of sacred things who represents God to the people and the people to God. The OT identifies priests of Yahweh and priests of other gods and idols. The only pagan priest that the NT mentions is the priest of Zeus from Lystra who wanted to offer sacrifices to Paul and Barnabas, whom the crowd mistook for deities (Acts 14:13). All other NT references build upon OT teaching about priests of Yahweh.
Early biblical history records clan heads offering sacrifices for their families (Gen. 12:7 8; 13:18; 22; 31:54; 46:1). Although the patriarchs performed these duties, they are never called “priests”; the only priests mentioned from this time are foreigners such as Melchizedek, the Egyptian priest of On, and Moses’ father-in-law Jethro (Gen. 14:18; 41:45, 50; 46:20; Exod. 3:1; 18:1). Whereas all Israelites could be called “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6), a distinctive priesthood came to light when God instructed Moses to prepare special priestly clothes for Aaron and his sons (Exod. 28). The high priest was distinguished from the others by more magnificent clothes. By failing to wear their special clothes while serving at the tabernacle, the priests would incur guilt and die (Exod. 28:43).
In NT times many priests exerted religious and civil power as leaders of the Sadducees and the Essenes. Some priests, such as Zechariah, were portrayed as righteous men (Luke 1:5–6). Others were said to have come to faith in Jesus (Acts 6:7). Supporting the role assigned by Moses, Jesus regularly required those whom he healed to show themselves to the priest. Even so, most Gospel references to priests underscore their opposition to Jesus’ ministry and the role they played in his trial and crucifixion. This opposition continued after the resurrection, as priests challenged the witness of the apostles. When Peter and John proclaimed that a crippled beggar had been healed by Jesus’ power, the priests and others jailed, interrogated, and forbade them from speaking in Jesus’ name (Acts 4:1–20). The Sanhedrin questioned Stephen about charges of blasphemy and speaking against the temple and the Mosaic law (6:11–7:1). Saul (Paul) received a letter of authority from the high priest to arrest Christians (9:1–2). Later, as a follower of Jesus, he stood trial before Ananias, who charged him before Felix (24:1), and a wider group of chief priests who charged him before Festus (25:1–3).
Hebrews uniquely highlights how the priesthood of Jesus surpassed the OT priesthood. The OT priests presented sin offerings, but their sacrifices needed to be repeated regularly, whereas Jesus, the faithful and merciful high priest, offered a sacrifice that never needed repeating and was available to everyone at all times. Jesus also surpassed the Aaronic priests because they first needed to offer sacrifices for their own sins, but he never sinned. Furthermore, since he offered the perfect sacrifice of himself, all people, not just priests, could draw near to God.
The NT develops the idea of a priesthood of all believers by taking the concept that Israel would be a kingdom of priests and transferring it to the church (1 Pet. 2:4–9; cf. Exod. 19:6). Reflecting the general biblical view of priesthood, believers offer spiritual sacrifices to God, represent God to the world by revealing his works of salvation, and represent the world to God through prayer. In the NT, the priesthood of believers is corporate; a priestly office in the church is never expressly mentioned.
Direct Matches
Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.
Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.
When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.
New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.
For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.
After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.
It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.
Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).
Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).
One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus (Matt. 10:4). He is identified beforehand as the one who would betray Jesus (Mark 3:19) and is noted as having a devil (John 6:66–71). John further attributes his betrayal of Jesus to Satan (John 13:2, 27), and Luke asserts that before the betrayal Satan entered into Judas (Luke 22:3).
Much has been written about his motive for betraying Jesus, but a simple look at the biblical text reveals Judas’s interest in gain. John notes that as the group’s treasurer, Judas regularly stole from the money box. His apparent concern for the poor at the anointing of Jesus was in fact self-serving (John 12:1–8). It was for gain that Judas betrayed Jesus to the chief priests. After agreeing to thirty pieces of silver, Judas sought an occasion to betray Jesus, especially when there was no crowd (Matt. 26:14–16; Luke 22:3–5).
At the table on the night before the crucifixion, Jesus predicted his betrayal. After the disciples questioned who the betrayer might be, Jesus pronounced a woe on the betrayer and noted it would have been better if that one had not been born. Jesus identified Judas as the betrayer, though only Judas understood (Matt. 26:21–25; Mark 14:17–21). John makes it clear that none of the other disciples understood the real reason why Judas was leaving the upper room (John 13:28–30).
Since Judas knew that Jesus would later be in the garden of Gethsemane, he led the soldiers and religious leaders there (Luke 22:48). Jesus noted the irony of Judas using a kiss, a sign of friendship, to betray him (Mark 14:43–52).
Subsequently, Judas regretted the betrayal and proclaimed Jesus’ innocence to the chief priests. The religious leaders had no concern for his regrets. After casting the money to the floor, Judas left. The leaders thought it unlawful to keep the money, so they bought a field for the burial of strangers. Because the people knew that blood money bought the “potter’s field,” that field was thereafter called the “Field of Blood.” Matthew notes this as fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 27:9–10). As for Judas, he hanged himself; falling headlong, his body burst open and his intestines gushed out (Matt. 27:3–10; Acts 1:18).
Peter notes that Judas’s punishment, death, and abandonment of office were predicted by David in the psalms (Acts 1:15–20). Speaking euphemistically, Peter remarks that Judas went to his own place, no doubt a reference to hell (1:25).
Secondary Matches
The tenth and longest book of the twelve Minor Prophets. Zechariah’s prophecy is one of the most intriguing in the OT, beginning with eight chapters of night visions and ending with six additional chapters of oracles. The second part of the book is quite obscure and apparently more randomly presented than the first part.
Zechariah’s importance to a Christian audience is highlighted by two facts: first, no other OT book is quoted more often in the Gospel passion narratives; second, it influenced the book of Revelation.
Historical Background
The superscription (1:1) names Zechariah son of Berekiah, the son of Iddo, as the source of the oracles that follow. Little is known about who Zechariah was, though some speculate that he came from a priestly family, on the assumption that his ancestor Iddo is to be identified with the priest of the same name who came back to Judah with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:4).
On the other hand, the text is unambiguous about the date of Zechariah’s prophecies, at least those in the first eight chapters. Table 13 lists and analyzes the dated oracles by Zechariah and by his contemporary Haggai. Haggai and Zechariah are unusually precise in the dates that they give the oracles in their books. They are dated to a fairly brief period during the reign of the Persian king Darius.
Table 13. The Dated Oracles of Zechariah and Haggai
Hag. 1:1 – Year 2, Month 6, Day 1 of Darius (Aug. 29, 520 BC) – Temple to be built
Hat. 1:5 – Year 2, Month 6, Day 24 of Darius (Sept. 21, 520 BC) – Work on temple resumed
Hag. 2:1 – Year 2, Month 7, Day 21 of Darius (Oct. 17, 520 BC) –Glory of the temple
Zech. 1:1 – Year 2, Month 8 of Darius (Oct./Nov. 520 BC) – Zechariah’s authority
Hag. 2:10, 20 – Year 2, Month 9, Day 24 of Darius (Dec. 18, 520 BC) – Zerubbabel as God’s signet
Zech. 1:7 – Year 2, Month 11, Day 24 of Darius (Feb. 15, 519 BC) – First night vision
Zech. 7:1 – Year 4, Month 9, Day 4 of Darius (Dec. 7, 518 BC) – An issue about fasting
(Ezra 6:15) – Year 6, Month 12, Day 3 of Darius (Mar. 12, 515 BC) – Temple completed
The opening verse of Zechariah refers to the second year of King Darius of Persia, which points to 520 BC. This date fits well with the purpose of the prophecies of the first eight chapters, which serve to encourage the returnees to resume rebuilding the temple.
This historical background to the book begins in 539 BC with the Persian defeat of the Babylonians, who had exiled the Judeans. Cyrus then issued a decree (2 Chron. 36:22–23; Ezra 1:1–4) that allowed Judeans to return and rebuild Jerusalem. The first waves of Judeans to return came under the leadership of Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel, both of whom are in turn credited with rebuilding the foundation to the temple in the 530s BC. However, due to external pressure as well as economic hardship, the people stopped their reconstruction of the holy site. The ministry of Zechariah (and Haggai, his contemporary) had as its purpose in large part to inspire the people to resume rebuilding the temple (see Ezra 5:1–2), which was begun in 520 BC and finished in 515 BC.
Although the date of Zech. 1–8 is uncontroversial, there is considerable disagreement about the date of the oracles in Zech. 9–14. These chapters are less concerned with immediate issues of the postexilic community and more interested in the far-distant future.
Literary Considerations and Outline
Zechariah begins by situating his words in the tradition of the “earlier prophets” (see 1:2–6). The book is a fascinating collection of prophetic visions that take place at night as well as other types of judgment and salvation oracles. Zechariah, especially chapters 9–14, has often been compared to apocalyptic books like Daniel, which use bizarre imagery to describe the end of history.
I. Superscription (1:1)
II. The Prophet Calls on God’s People to Repent (1:2–6)
III. Eight Night Visions (1:7–6:8)
IV. A Crown for Joshua, the High Priest (6:9–15)
V. The Prophet Answers a Question about Fasting (7:1–8:23)
VI. Oracle: The Coming of the King (9:1–11:17)
VII. Oracle: The Future of the People of God (12:1–14:21)
Theological Message
The night visions of chapters 1–8 fit in with their historical setting. The people and their leaders had been discouraged by internal economic concerns and pressures from external forces that did not want them to flourish. Zechariah spoke of divine visions that expressed God’s intention to protect the people and to lead them to a new level of prosperity. Accordingly, the people should complete the construction of the temple, whose foundation had been laid (4:1–14). The visions also address the need for continual purification from the type of sin that led to the exile in the first place (3:1–10; 5:1–11).
Chapters 9–14 culminate in a vision of God’s ultimate victory over those who continue to resist his will. This section includes oracles against foreign nations (9:1–8) as well as a vision of a new king in Zion (9:9–13). Chapter 14, the final chapter, describes a final battle in which God will come as a warrior to save his people and judge their enemies.
New Testament Connections
The book of Zechariah, with its night visions, has an atmosphere different from that of many of the other prophets. Even so, most of its core concerns are similar. Zechariah speaks to his audience, both ancient and modern, with a warning about the dangers and consequences of sin, as well as with encouragement about God’s ultimate triumph over evil. Zechariah urgently appeals to his contemporaries to rebuild the temple, showing the importance of institutional worship, but he also clearly states that compassion and mercy toward the vulnerable must undergird religious devotion (7:1–14).
For the Christian, Zechariah’s vision of a coming king and an ultimate divine victory over evil points not only to Christ’s earthly ministry but also to his ultimate return as described in the book of Revelation. This association was not lost on the NT authors. They saw Christ as fulfilling the expectation of a messianic king who makes a humble appearance, bringing righteousness and salvation to Jerusalem while riding on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Matt. 21:5; John 12:15), betrayed and pierced (Zech. 11:12–13; 12:10; cf. Matt. 26:15 pars.; 27:9–10; John 19:34, 37). But it is this king who will subdue the nations (Zech. 12:8–9) and establish his kingdom on earth (14:3–9).
The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals. Gold is mentioned in the Bible as early as the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:11) and at the end is pictured as making up the streets of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:21). Among the metals mentioned in Scripture are gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, lead, and iron. Precious stones and minerals also appear in Scripture, often used to adorn items, such as the high priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:15–21). Here these materials will be discussed in chronological order of appearance.
Copper
Copper was the first metal to be used for simple farm tools and weapons. It was used as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC but was not in widespread use until approximately 3300 BC. Copper mines have been found on the Sinai Peninsula at places such as the Timna Valley and Faynan and also extensively on the island of Cyprus, which supplied copper to the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman empires.
References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.
Bronze
The use of bronze, an alloy made of copper and tin, in biblical lands dates to about 2300 BC. Bronze, compared to pure copper, is easier to work with and has a longer life. It can be worked with hammer and anvil or poured into a mold. It has the same available applications as copper; thus it was used to make all the tools and weapons that were made of copper. Bronze was widely used during the second millennium BC, encompassing the biblical time period from Abraham to the judges, and its use continued as the raw materials were available. It was the metal of choice until the advanced technology of ironworking.
The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:10–11, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1 Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2 Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).
Iron and Steel
Iron originally was found in meteorites and thus was scarce and worked as a precious metal. After a permanent source of iron ore was found, iron began to be worked in a few areas around 1200 BC. It increased in popularity over time, and around 1000 BC, or roughly the time of the united monarchy, it was being extensively used. Phoenician traders were very active during this time, and they would have brought much iron from the mines of southern Spain. Around the tenth century BC the technology to work iron into steel through the quenching and carbonization of the metal became commonplace. A large number of iron-producing sites have not been found in Palestine, and no deposits of the raw material have been located. Iron deposits have been found between the Jordan and the Euphrates rivers, but whether the ancients were aware of these deposits is unknown.
Once the technology to turn iron into steel became known, both became highly valued. At the same time, it is possible that copper had become more difficult to obtain due to a change in international trading routes. The first steel implement to be unearthed in Palestine was a pick found in Upper Galilee dating to the eleventh century BC.
One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron Age I period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1 Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2 Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1 Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2 Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).
Tin
Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).
Lead
Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).
Gold and Silver
Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1 Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.
Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.
Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1 Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).
Precious Stones
Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.
Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).
The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1 Kings 10:10).
Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.
Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.
When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.
New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.
For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.
After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.
It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.
Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).
Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).
“Piece of money” translates the Hebrew word qesitah in the NRSV of Gen. 33:19; Josh. 24:32; Job 42:11 (NIV: “piece of silver”), a currency of unknown value, as well as the Greek word statēr in the KJV of Matt. 17:27 (NIV: “four-drachma coin”). Although gold is rarely mentioned as currency (2 Kings 5:5; Ps. 119:72), silver is common (e.g., Gen. 20:16; Zech. 11:13), continuing into the NT period (Matt. 26:15). See also Coins.
Jesus’ personal return to earth at the end of history. Three main Greek terms are used in the NT to describe this event: parousia, apokalypsis, and epiphaneia. The word parousia means “presence” or “arrival” and was used in ancient times to describe the arrival of a ruler or king (e.g., Matt. 24:3, 27, 37, 39; 1 Cor. 15:23; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thess. 2:1, 8; James 5:7–8; 2 Pet. 3:4, 12; 1 John 2:28). The term apokalypsis refers to an “unveiling” or “revealing” of Jesus Christ at the end of the age (Rom. 2:5; 1 Cor. 1:7; 2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7, 13; 4:13; cf. Rev. 1:1). The word epiphaneia speaks of an “appearing” or “manifestation” and refers to the visible, earthly appearance of Jesus (2 Thess. 2:8; 1 Tim. 6:14; 2 Tim. 4:1, 8; Titus 2:13).
Jesus clearly predicted his second coming in his Olivet Discourse: “Then will appear the sign of the Son of Man in heaven. And then all the peoples of the earth will mourn when they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven, with power and great glory” (Matt. 24:30). Jesus uses the word “come” in this discourse to speak about his return (Matt. 24:39, 42–44, 46; 25:19, 27, 31). Jesus’ return is also predicted by angels (e.g., Acts 1:11) and apostles (Phil. 3:20; Acts 3:20–21; 1 Cor. 11:26; Heb. 9:28).
The NT describes certain events that will precede Jesus’ coming. There will be wars, famines, earthquakes, and other cosmic disturbances (Matt. 24:6–8, 29). Believers will be persecuted and hated (Matt. 24:9–13, 21–22). Many erstwhile believers will turn away from the faith (Matt. 24:10–13; 1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 3:1–5; 2 Pet. 3:3–4). There will be false messiahs and false prophets who will deceive many through signs and wonders (Matt. 24:11, 23–26). The “man of lawlessness” (sometimes referred to as the antichrist) will be revealed (2 Thess. 2:1–12). In addition, the gospel will be preached to all nations (Matt. 24:14).
Although Jesus’ coming is certain, its exact time is uncertain in the sense that it cannot be predicted. Jesus himself said, “But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36 [cf. Acts 1:7; 3:21; 2 Pet. 3:4, 8–9]).
When Jesus comes again, his return will be visible to all, like “lightning that comes from the east is visible even in the west” (Matt. 24:27). The last trumpet will announce his coming in awesome power and great glory with his holy angels (Matt. 16:27; 24:30–31; 25:31; 1 Cor. 15:52; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:16; 2 Thess. 1:7; 2:8; Jude 14). His coming will also be sudden and unexpected, “like a thief in the night” (1 Thess. 5:1–2; see also Matt. 24:37–39, 43–44; 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 16:15).
Jesus will come again for several reasons. He will raise the dead (John 5:28–29; 1 Cor. 15:22–23, 52; 1 Thess. 4:16) and separate the wicked from the righteous (Matt. 24:40–41; 25:31–32). He will transform the bodies of believers into glorious resurrection bodies (1 Cor. 15:51–53; Phil. 3:20–21), gather his followers to himself (1 Thess. 4:17; 2 Thess. 2:1), and reward them for their faithfulness (Matt. 16:27; 24:46–47; 1 Thess. 2:19; 2 Tim. 4:8; 1 Pet. 5:4; Rev. 22:12). The believer’s suffering will be replaced with the Lord’s praise (2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7; 4:13) and the full experience of salvation (Heb. 9:28). By contrast, Jesus’ second advent means wrath for the wicked (Matt. 24:51; Rom. 2:5; 2 Thess. 1:8–9; Jude 15; Rev. 20:11–15) and destruction for God’s enemies (1 Cor. 15:25–26; 2 Thess. 2:8; Rev. 19:11–21; 20:7–10).
Since his coming is imminent but its timing uncertain, believers should eagerly expect his return (1 Cor. 1:7; 11:26; 16:22; Phil. 3:20; James 5:7–8; Rev. 22:20). Remaining watchful and ready consists of being faithfully engaged in doing what Jesus instructed (Matt. 24:46; 25:14–30; 1 John 2:28), even if this means suffering (Matt. 24:13; 1 Pet. 1:6–7). Believers are called to live holy and blameless lives in anticipation of meeting Jesus face-to-face (1 Thess. 3:13; 5:23; 1 Tim. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13; 2 Pet. 3:11–14; 1 John 2:28–29; 3:2–3). The promise of Jesus’ return is a motivation for mission (2 Tim. 4:1–2; 2 Pet. 3:12) and obedience (Rev. 22:7, 12, 17). It is, in short, the “blessed hope” of the believer (Titus 2:13).
Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.
Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.
When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.
New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.
For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.
After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.
It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.
Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).
Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).
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