Since the imagery of war and armor is quite prominent throughout the NT, this section in Ephesians does not specifically represent any new teaching. Paul, for example, speaks of his own Christian life as a spiritual fight (1 Cor. 9:24–27), and the author of the Pastorals encourages Timothy to “fight the good fight” (1 Tim. 1:18; 6:12) in an age of apostasy. On several occasions Paul even identifies the weapons that the Christian is to use. Because the battle is a spiritual one, he says, “the weapons we fight with are not the weapons of the world. On the contrary, they have divine power to demolish strongholds” (2 Cor. 10:4). He exhorts the Romans to “put on the armor of light” (Rom. 13:12), whereas his admonition to the Thessalonians is to be “putting on faith and love as a breastplate, and the hope of salvation as a helmet” (1 Thess. 5:8).
There are at least two possible sources for this kind of imagery. The original and most immediate source of inspiration may be the pieces of armor that the Roman armies used. Paul had sufficient opportunity to observe such armor on the soldiers who were guarding him in prison. But although the Roman military power is the nearest at hand, the author of Ephesians undoubtedly is working from concepts that had been fairly well established in the church.
The most obvious starting point for this biblical imagery lies in Isaiah 59:17, where God is pictured as the warrior who arms himself for battle: “He put on righteousness as his breastplate, and the helmet of salvation on his head; he put on the garments of vengeance and wrapped himself in zeal as in a cloak.” In the prophecy of Isaiah 11:5, it is the Messiah who comes for war and judgment: “Righteousness shall be the girdle of his waist, and faithfulness the girdle of his loins” (RSV). This imagery is carried into the apocryphal literature, where it states that the coming of the Lord and even all of creation will be armed for battle (Wisdom of Solomon 5:17–20). The idea of the heavenly armor originates in these OT sources and reaches its fully developed form in the NT picture of the Christian warrior.
Apart from the idea that the Christian life can be considered as a battle or a fight, it is likely that these exhortations were particularly useful when Christians were being persecuted. In 1 Peter 4:1, for example, the believers are exhorted to “arm themselves” spiritually for the suffering that awaits them.
In Ephesians, the Christian warrior is exhorted to “put on the full armor of God” (6:11) for the battle against the forces of wickedness. Here there is no indication of persecution or suffering. The exhortation clearly is intended for the present life of the church, although mention of the coming evil day (6:13) brings in an element of the future as well. The author indicates that this is his final exhortation to the readers (6:10). Thus, they who are already in Christ by virtue of their baptism are to continue to find strength for their new life “in the Lord” (6:10).
The numerous references to “stand” (6:11, 13, 14) emphasize the theme of watchfulness and steadfastness that characterizes this early catechism (cf. 1 Cor. 16:13; Col. 4:12; James 4:7; 1 Pet. 5:8, 9). Although the NT often speaks about an inner warfare caused by the passions of the flesh (Rom. 7:23; Gal. 5:17; James 4:1; 1 Pet. 2:11), the enemies that the readers of Ephesians are to resist are spiritual in nature and include the devil and “the rulers, … the authorities, … the powers of this dark world” (6:12).
There is very little evidence to indicate whether such an exhortation was connected specifically with baptism. Although baptism would be a suitable occasion to remind new Christians that they have spiritual armor to face the world, there is little to commend this connection in Ephesians. The most tangible evidence in this respect is found in Ignatius’ letter to Polycarp: “Let your baptism be your arms; your faith, your helmet; your love, your spear; your endurance, your armor” (6.2).
The most that one can say about the author’s final exhortation in the Epistle to the Ephesians is that it is built upon traditional imagery of the Christian warrior and early catechetical material on steadfastness and watchfulness in the Christian life. This section could, as Mitton suggests, pick up the warnings that the author developed in 5:3–20, or even in 4:25–31, where the readers are admonished not to give the devil a chance (4:27). The exhortations in 6:10–20 provide specific ways in which evil can be thwarted (p. 219).
6:10 Finally, that is, this is the last or concluding exhortation. The phrase be strong in the Lord is not a plea for self-effort. The present passive verb endynamoō literally means “be made strong in the Lord continually.” The next phrase indicates that this empowerment is possible because of the resources that the Lord supplies—in his mighty power.
Within this verse there are three Greek words for power—dynamis, kratos, and ischus. Distinctions between these words are not always possible or necessary; the message that comes through is that God’s resources enable the believer to face evil. These same words in 1:19 described the spiritual gifts of the believer (indicative); now believers are exhorted to experience the effect of that power in their daily life (imperative).
6:11 Put on is a common expression in Ephesians and Colossians used, as has been seen, in the context of baptism (4:24; Col. 3:10, 12). The aorist tense indicates that the author is thinking of a specific time or situation when this took place in the believer’s life. “This would fit a baptismal occasion when the new Christian is ready to step out in his new venture of Christian discipleship” (Mitton, p. 220). Stand, as noted above, was a common theme in the catechetical instruction of the early church.
The believer’s equipment is the full armor of God (tēn panoplian tou theou)—full in the sense of adequacy and quality and not completeness, since there were other items that a “fully armed” person would require for combat. What is included here, however, is all that the believer needs to stand against the devil’s schemes. Methodeia, from which we derive the English words methodical, planning, inquiry, and so on, also means “cunning, subtlety, and scheming cleverness”—hence devil’s schemes or “wiles” of the devil (RSV). The language is quite similar to another exhortation in Scripture: “Be self-controlled and alert. Your enemy the devil prowls around like a roaring lion looking for someone to devour” (1 Pet. 5:8).
6:12 In addition to the devil, believers face a host of wicked spiritual forces, described as rulers (archōn), authorities (exousia), and powers (kosmokrator) of this dark world. Stott gives a rather striking and complete picture of the evil forces that believers face: “The enemy,” he states, is “powerful,” “wicked,” and “cunning,” (pp. 263–67). No wonder, then, that believers are summoned to build up their strength and to “put on God’s armor.” “Only the power of God can defend and deliver us from the might, the evil and the craft of the devil” (Stott, p. 266).
By stating that the believer’s warfare is not against flesh and blood but cosmic powers, the author is utilizing the same cosmic mythology that he used earlier (1:21; 3:10) and that is found in other parts of the NT (Rom. 8:38; Gal. 4:3; Col. 1:16; 2:15, 20; 1 Pet. 3:22). Basically, these classes of evil spirits are a comprehensive designation for the enemy that Christians face. By belonging to the heavenly order they are nonmaterial or superterrestrial: “Though their present domain extends over the earth, their origin and base of operations lie beyond this world” (Mitton, p. 222). Only Ephesians uses the term kosmokrator (a compound noun made up of kosmos, “world,” and kratos, “rule”). It is a title that was applied to a number of pagan gods (Beare, p. 738). Here, it affirms that these evil powers exercise their authority in the world (kosmos) and thus over the believer.
This passage takes the reader back to Ephesians 1:21, which describes Christ’s victory and exaltation over these evil forces. Believers “in Christ” through their faith and baptism share in that victory and exaltation (2:1–10). In Colossians, Christ’s victory and authority over evil powers are stated even more emphatically (1:16; 2:15). The main point of the epistle is that, by virtue of Christ’s work, these spirits no longer exercise any control over the believer—“You died with Christ to the basic principles of this world” (2:20). Nevertheless, believers are admonished continually to “become” what they “are” (the tension between the indicative and imperative).
The evil and cosmic powers are presented as still exercising power over the believer even though they have been defeated by Christ (6:12). They are still active; they continually attempt to regain their once-eminent position; they are a constant threat to the believer’s spiritual welfare. This is why the readers are exhorted to utilize the armor that God has given to them.
6:13 Therefore put on the full armor of God. The imagery of “putting on” the different pieces of armor may come from observing a soldier dressing himself or being dressed for battle. But given the nature of the Christians’ armor and their having received that armor when they became believers, it is unlikely that one should think of the Christian soldier as gradually dressing to face Satan. To “put on” (6:11, 13) is a call for believers to utilize what they already possess.
The coming day of evil commonly is interpreted to mean some future eschatological conflict (Mark 13; 2 Thess. 2:8–10; 1 John 2:18; 4:17) or the final battle of Armageddon (Rev. 16:12–16; 20:7, 8). True, believers are warned in Scripture to prepare themselves for eschatological judgment, but this is not what appears to be in the apostle’s mind; he sees the conflict as a current crisis and so admonishes them to be ready. The coming day of evil is a reminder of the ever-present reality of wickedness and temptation. Those equipped with God’s armor will be able to stand their ground.
When assaults come, believers are assured that the devil will not be able to move them—and after you have done everything, to stand. Though the context of the passage emphasizes “readiness” and “firmness,” katergazomai has the meaning of combat leading to victory (contra Barth, Eph. 4–6, pp. 765, 766). The result of this combat, however, is not progress in conquest but the strengthening of one’s position (stand your ground). Moule reminds readers that the picture of the battle in Ephesians is not a “march” but “the holding of the fortress of the soul” (p. 151). Here, “The scene is filled with the marshalled host of the Evil One, bent upon dislodging the soul, and the Church, from the one possible vantage-ground of life and power—union and communion with their Lord” (p. 154).
6:14 Having discussed the benefits and the need for preparedness, the apostle finally describes the individual pieces of the believer’s armor. Again, there is no attempt to be complete, since a number of items are omitted (cf. disc. on 6:11; also Beare, who quotes Polybius’ account of the armor carried by the Roman spearman, p. 740). But this does not mean that the believer is inadequately equipped, since the author believes that the six items he lists are the essential ones: The belt, breastplate, shoes (feet fitted), shield, helmet, and sword picture truth, righteousness, the gospel of peace, faith, salvation, and the word of God.
In interpreting these items, it is wise to heed the advice of Mitton: “It is, however, a mistake to overelaborate the precise correspondence in each case.… The emphasis is rather on the total equipment. Just as the soldier in physical warfare needs all six items, if he is not to be needlessly vulnerable at some points, so the Christian needs each piece of spiritual equipment for his struggle” (p. 223). Stand firm, then.
First, stand ready with the belt of truth buckled around your waist: In a culture where the people wore long loose-fitting robes, garments were tied close to the body when quick action was required. Here, the believer is summoned to stand, therefore, literally, “having girded (perizōnnymi) your loins in truth” (cf. RSV; the meaning is the same as in 1 Pet. 1:13, where the phrase “loins of your mind” is used). “This means getting rid of anything which might be a hindrance in the struggle against evil, eliminating an easy-going casualness which might make him less than ready for the fray” (Mitton, p. 225).
Truth could carry two meanings: It may be a specific reference to the gospel that is the true message (Col. 1:5), or to the equivalent concepts of genuineness, faithfulness, reliability, and integrity. If the gospel or correct doctrine was intended, one would expect to see the article (“the truth”). This verse could be an allusion to the previous emphasis on truthfulness and integrity within the body of Christ (4:25ff.; 2 Cor. 6:7).
Second, stand with the breastplate of righteousness: Righteousness is one of the qualities of the divine warrior (Isa. 11:5; 59:17); in 1 Thessalonians, faith and love are the breastplate (5:8); as God’s servants, writes Paul, “with weapons of righteousness in the right hand and in the left” (2 Cor. 6:7). In NT usage, righteousness (dikaiosynē) can mean the justification of the sinner as well as the moral quality of godliness (dikaios). Stott takes the expression to mean righteousness of character and conduct and quotes G. G. Findlay for support: “ ‘The completeness of pardon for past offence and integrity of character that belong to the justified life, are woven together into an impenetrable mail’ ” (p. 279). In either case, righteousness constitutes the breastplate that protects the heart.
6:15 Third, the Christian warrior’s feet have been fitted with the readiness that comes from the gospel of peace. With this equipment the believer is ready to bear the Good News. The imagery is similar to the description of God’s servant, the Messiah, in Isaiah 52:7: “How beautiful on the mountains are the feet of those who bring good news, who proclaim peace” (also Rom. 10:15). Earlier in the epistle, the author stated that “he came and preached peace to you” (2:17).
In the context of Ephesians, peace was proclaimed to the Gentiles (those “far off”) and the Jews (those “near”), and it became a reality when they were reconciled to each other through Christ (2:15). In this verse, the emphasis seems to be on the immediacy of the spiritual battle that all believers face and their readiness to proclaim the gospel that Christ has defeated these evil forces of darkness.
6:16 Fourth, take up the shield of faith. According to ancient historians, the large door-shaped protective shield was composed of two layers of wood covered with a flame-resistant hide. The flaming arrows that the enemy shot would strike the shield and burn out without penetrating it. Faith, claims the author, acts like an impregnable shield and will extinguish all the flaming arrows of the evil one. Faith is complete confidence in and reliance upon God to give the victory.
6:17 Fifth, take the helmet of salvation (cf. 1 Thess. 5:8). In the case of the divine warrior (Isa. 59:17), salvation is the helmet that God wears into battle. In that context, the helmet symbolized God’s “power and readiness to save others,” not protection, as in Ephesians (Beare, p. 743; also Moule, p. 157). As protective headgear, the helmet guards “the centre of life. The sense of salvation puts life beyond all danger” (Westcott, p. 97).
The use of take or “receive” (dechomai) is significant. Earlier, the writer used “put on” (endyō, analambanō) for the other pieces of armor. So far, one could picture the soldier dressing and attaching each piece of armor carefully. Beare suggests that once a soldier was fully clad, the helmet and sword would not be taken up from the ground by himself but would be handed to him by his attendant or armor bearer (Beare, p. 743). By analogy, salvation and the word of God are gifts that believers receive. Salvation is a gift of God, and “there is no doubt that God’s saving power is our only defence against the enemy of our soul” (Stott, p. 282).
Sixth, and finally, take … the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God. An issue related to this verse is how to interpret the phrase the sword of the Spirit (tēn machairan tou pneumatos). Is it “the sword which consists of the Spirit, or the sword which the Spirit provides?” (Mitton, p. 227). And how does this relate to the next phrase, which is the word of God?
The best explanations take the sword as given by the Spirit but identified as the word of God—the sword which is the word of God (for biblical examples comparing speech to a sword, cf. Ps. 57:4; 64:3; Isa. 49:2; Heb. 4:12; Rev. 1:16; 2:16; 19:15). The word of God is not only the gospel (1 Pet. 1:25) but all of the words of God that come from his Spirit. “Salvation is the Christian’s helmet, the indwelling Spirit is his sword. The Spirit gives him the word to speak” (cf. Mark 13:11, and Isa. 51:16; Houlden, p. 339; also Mitton, p. 227).
6:18 Although the military imagery continues into this verse—arm yourselves and be alert—the prayer to which the readers are summoned should not be taken as a seventh piece of the Christian’s armor. God has given his splendid armor to the believer, but the “putting on” and the utilization of that armor in battle calls for discipline in prayer in the Spirit. According to Stott, “Equipping ourselves with God’s armor is not a mechanical preparation; it is itself an expression of our dependence on God, in other words, of prayer” (p. 283).
The prayer that the believers are admonished to utter has some significant qualities about it. First, it is to be unceasing: pray … on all occasions. The Christian warrior, although heavily armed, can only stand firm against the enemy through the agency of prayer. Praying is done in the Spirit. To do so is not to be transposed into some ecstatic or euphoric condition beyond the senses but to live in the realization that the Spirit is the believer’s helper (5:18) and intercessor (Rom. 8:15, 16, 26, 27). “It is an approach to God relying not on our own piety, but on the help which God in his Spirit offers to us” (Mitton, p. 228).
The Greek, and most English translations (RSV, NIV), employ the two expressions prayers (proseuchē and “supplication” or requests (deēsis). Most commentators feel that “prayer” always addresses God, whereas “supplication” may be used to address either God or humankind. The GNB “asking for God’s help” takes the Greek as a request to God and not as intercession on behalf of human beings.
Second, prayer is to be intense. Be alert and always keep on praying. In other words, maintain a spirit of watchfulness and perseverance. A Christian warrior must not be caught off guard. This exhortation toward constancy and watchfulness in prayer and the Christian life is common to the NT (Luke 18:1; Rom. 12:12; 1 Cor. 16:13; Phil. 4:6; Col. 4:2; 1 Thess. 5:17; 1 Pet. 5:8). But since this phrase falls between two other exhortations, it is not entirely clear where “perseverance” (keep on praying) belongs. Should it go with the idea of praying constantly with all alertness, or does it relate to the following phrase, in which believers are summoned to intercede for others? Beare suggests that alertness refers to the believer’s spiritual conflict but that this, in turn, leads to “persevering intercession on behalf of all his comrades in the fight” (p. 746).
Third, prayer is unlimited. Always keep on praying for all the saints. Since all believers are involved in a spiritual battle, prayer must transcend its narrow individualism and encompass the entire body of Christ. As members of an army, believers must manifest a concern for all who are fighting along with them. Here the apostle’s concerns are not unlike those in 1 Peter, where, in a similar context of warning his readers about the devil, Peter writes: “Resist him, standing firm in the faith, because you know that your brothers throughout the world are undergoing the same kind of sufferings” (5:9).
6:19–20 The thought of Christians praying for one another leads the apostle to think of his needs for prayer as well. (Cf. this pattern in Col. 4:3; 1 Thess. 5:25; 2 Thess. 3:1. This verse is almost identical in substance with Colossians 4:3.) Basically, the apostle has two requests: First, pray … that whenever I open my mouth, words may be given me. Literally, the phrase reads, “Pray … so that a word (logos) may be given to me to open my mouth.” According to Abbott, “ ‘Opening the mouth’ is an expression used only when some grave utterance is in question” (p. 189). God is the giver of this special utterance, but the apostle knows that he is the bearer of it.
Second, he requests boldness to make known the mystery of the gospel. This concern is repeated in the next verse, thus indicating the burden that the apostle felt for a clear presentation of the gospel. The mystery refers elsewhere in Ephesians to the unity of Jews and Gentiles in the body of Christ (3:3–6, 9). Although he is an ambassador in chains (hylasis) because of the gospel, he envisions further opportunities to serve as the Lord’s representative.
Additional Notes
6:12 In addition to disc. and bibliography on principalities, powers, etc. on 1:22; 3:10; and Col. 1:16; 2:15, 20, see D. E. H. Whiteley, “Ephesians vi. 12—Evil Powers,” ExpT 68 (1956–57), pp. 100–103. Whiteley sums up the teaching of 6:12 this way: “Because Christ is One with God and because we are members of Christ, the whole power of God is behind us in our struggle with the Evil Powers” (p. 103). Another helpful source dealing with the struggle of believers with evil powers that have already been defeated by Christ is O. Cullmann’s Christ and Time (London: SCM, 1951 ed.); Cullmann’s analogy of “D” and “V” Day has become famous.
6:15 Barth takes en hetoimasia to mean “steadfastness” rather than “readiness.” Thus shoes are more of a defensive weapon enabling the believer to stand and resist the devil (Eph. 4–6, pp. 770–71; 797–99).
