This term occurs in the KJV of Rom. 9:29; James 5:4 (NIV: “Almighty”). In both cases the word in the Greek text (sabaōth) is a transliteration of the Hebrew term tseba’ot. This word occurs approximately five hundred times in the OT and is variously rendered. Among English translations, the NIV is practically alone in translating it as “Almighty,” but in doing so it follows the practice of the LXX. Most translations render it as “hosts” or “armies.” The underlying thought is that Israel’s God is “Yahweh of hosts” or “Yahweh of armies” (a phrase occurring approximately 280 times), the God who commands all the armies of both heaven and earth.

The term is grounded in the Israelite understanding of God as a warrior (Exod. 15:3) who fights alongside and for Israel against its enemies (holy war). In doing so he commands the armies of the heavens (the angels) as well as Israelite soldiers. It is also important to note that when Israel forsakes its God to serve other deities, “Yahweh of armies” will become the unseen commander of the armies of Israel’s enemies (e.g., the Assyrians or Babylonians) to fight against Israel (see, e.g., Isa. 7:18–20).

God’s people were to observe the Sabbath on the seventh day of each week by resting from normal daily work. It is first explicitly introduced in Exod. 16:23–30, where God provides twice as much manna for the Israelites in the desert on the sixth day so that they might enjoy his provision for them on the seventh day without having to gather it on that day.

The Sabbath command is incorporated into the Ten Commandments (Exod. 20:8–11). The motivation given in Exodus for keeping the Sabbath is the fact that God made the world in six days and rested on the seventh (cf. Gen. 2:2–3)—hence sometimes it is considered a “creation ordinance.” God’s rest was his enjoyment of a world that met his expectations, and thus the weekly celebration might look to a time when the world would once again truly enjoy such “rest.” In Deut. 5:12–15 the motivation is given as the new creation event, the redemption of Israel from slavery in Egypt.

The week, marked off by its Sabbath, is closely associated with the new moon as a quarter of that natural cycle (1 Chron. 23:31; Isa. 1:13). The people of Mesopotamia observed a lunar festival shabbatu, but we do not know of any people independently of Israel observing a weekly Sabbath. The Sabbath is a communal rather than an individual observance, including even “any foreigner residing in your towns” (Exod. 20:10; Neh. 13:15–22), a sign of Israel’s covenant relationship with God (Exod. 31:13–17; Isa. 56:6).

Although religious worship is not prominent in the Sabbath injunctions in the OT, there was to be a gathering of God’s people on that day with special offerings (Lev. 23:3; Ezek. 46:3–5), and it was a day when a visit to a prophet might be more likely (2 Kings 4:23). Psalm 92 is identified as a psalm for the Sabbath.

The terms “Sabbath” or “sabbath rest” could also be applied to special days, such as the Day of Atonement, which did not fall on the seventh day (Lev. 16:31). In an extension of the sabbatical system, the land was to enjoy a Sabbath of rest every seven years (Lev. 25:4–7).

By NT times, regular gatherings were held at local synagogues on the Sabbath wherever a sufficient number of observant Jews resided. Jesus offended Pharisaic sensitivities with regard to Sabbath observance, using it to alleviate human suffering and presenting himself as the true representative of humanity, for whom the Sabbath was designed (Matt. 12:1–13; John 5:9–10). The healings on the Sabbath day draw attention to the realization of God’s creative and redemptive purposes for the world.

The writer to the Hebrews treats the Sabbath as a foretaste of the ultimate rest God provides for those who persevere in faith and obedience (Heb. 4:1–11).

Paul regards the victory of Christ as bringing a freedom “with regard to a religious festival, a New Moon celebration or a Sabbath day” (Col. 2:16 [cf. Gal. 4:10]). Some Christians understand this as denying continuity of the Sabbath principle of a weekly day of rest. Others understand it in a way similar to Jesus’ remarks on Pharisaic restrictions imposed on the day and see a continuity of Sabbath observance, perhaps with a change of day, to make it a celebration of the Lord’s resurrection on the first day of the week.

A Sabbath day’s walk or journey describes the maximum distance a faithful Jew could walk on the Sabbath day without becoming guilty of violating the fourth commandment, which prohibits working on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:8–11). This expression is used a single time in Scripture (Acts 1:12) to describe the distance from the city of Jerusalem to the Mount of Olives. Traditionally, the Jewish rabbis considered a Sabbath day’s walk to be a distance of no more than twelve hundred yards, or about two-thirds of a mile.

The idea of a Sabbath day’s walk illustrates the mind-set of Jewish legalism on matters where Scripture is silent. On the one hand, the Jewish rabbis had a potentially legitimate concern to make the principles of God’s word practical and applicable to the average person in everyday life. On the other hand, they often ended up making arbitrary decisions that had no scriptural warrant. Even worse, as Jesus pointed out, these Jewish leaders often became so preoccupied with minor matters of the law that they “neglected the more important matters of the law—justice, mercy and faithfulness” (Matt. 23:23), or in this case, on the positive command of keeping the Sabbath day holy.

The Sabbatical Year was part of a wider pattern of six periods of work followed by one of rest. God instituted a seventh year of rest (Exod. 23:10–11; Lev. 25:1–7; Deut. 15:1–17), calling it a “sabbath of rest” (shabbat shabbaton), a term also used with regard to the weekly Sabbath (Exod. 31:15; 35:2; Lev. 23:3) and the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:31; 23:32). This year was environmentally beneficial, providing rest for the land, as the Israelites were not to sow seed, prune vines, or harvest crops. There is no indication in the historical books that the law was actually practiced, and when the Israelites were taken into exile, the land finally enjoyed its Sabbath rests (2 Chron. 36:21).

The Sabbatical Year had sociological implications. Because the land was not harvested, the poor could avail themselves of whatever it produced. It was a year for canceling debts and freeing slaves, who were not to be sent away empty-handed. These instructions were based on a paradigm of redemption: just as the Israelites were slaves in Egypt and God redeemed them, so they were to free slaves and provide for them. Those who had means were not to refuse essential loans just because the seventh year was coming. These practices would have kept the Israelites from developing a permanent underclass. The seventh year was also a time for public and corporate reading of Torah during the Feast of Tabernacles (Deut. 31:10–13).

A name for people of three ancient kingdoms descended from Ham (Gen. 10:6–7; 1 Chron. 1:9) and known in the ancient world for their gold, frankincense, and merchant culture (Ps. 72:10; Isa. 60:6; Ezek. 27:22). The name “Sabean” could be applied to any one of these three peoples. First, and most prominent, is the south Arabian Sheba. Located in modern Yemen, this may be the kingdom of the famed Queen of Sheba, who visited Solomon (1 Kings 10:1–13; 2 Chron. 9:1–12). These Sabeans are also mentioned by the prophet Joel (Joel 3:8). Second, it is believed that along their northern trade routes a separate people of the same name may have emerged in the vicinity of Medina. Some think that these are the Sabeans who attacked Job’s children (Job 1:15). They are also mentioned in conjunction with Tema or Dedan (Job 6:19; Ezek. 38:13). The third group of Sabeans may also be a trade colony of the South Arabian Sabeans. These people are known by the Hebrew seba’ (not sheba’ ). Their kingdom was located across the Red Sea in modern Eritrea and Ethiopia. Gold is desired from both Sheba and Seba in a royal psalm (Ps. 72:10). God offers Seba and its neighbors as ransom for his people (Isa. 43:3). Later, Isaiah refers to these Sabeans as “tall” people (Isa. 45:14). A final reference to the African Sabeans may be found in Ezek. 23:42, where a possible scribal error causes some to prefer “Sabeans” (saba’im) over the similar word for “drunkard” (soba’im).

The third son of Cush (Gen. 10:7: “Sabtah”; 1 Chron. 1:9: “Sabta”). He can be tentatively identified with Shabaka (r. 712–698 BC), an Ethiopian pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt and predecessor of Shabataka (r. 705–690 BC), known as Sabteka in the Bible.

The third son of Cush (Gen. 10:7: “Sabtah”; 1 Chron. 1:9: “Sabta”). He can be tentatively identified with Shabaka (r. 712–698 BC), an Ethiopian pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt and predecessor of Shabataka (r. 705–690 BC), known as Sabteka in the Bible.

The fifth son of Cush (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9). He can be tentatively identified with Shabataka (r. 705–690 BC), an Ethiopian pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt and successor of Shabaka (r. 712–698 BC), known as Sabtah in the Bible.

The fifth son of Cush (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9). He can be tentatively identified with Shabataka (r. 705–690 BC), an Ethiopian pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt and successor of Shabaka (r. 712–698 BC), known as Sabtah in the Bible.

The fifth son of Cush (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9). He can be tentatively identified with Shabataka (r. 705–690 BC), an Ethiopian pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt and successor of Shabaka (r. 712–698 BC), known as Sabtah in the Bible.

The fifth son of Cush (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9). He can be tentatively identified with Shabataka (r. 705–690 BC), an Ethiopian pharaoh of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty in Egypt and successor of Shabaka (r. 712–698 BC), known as Sabtah in the Bible.

(1) The Hararite father of Ahiam, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:35). He is named as “Sharar” in 2 Sam. 23:33. (2) One of the eight sons of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4).

(1) The Hararite father of Ahiam, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:35). He is named as “Sharar” in 2 Sam. 23:33. (2) One of the eight sons of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4).

A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the sixth of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:10).

Various Hebrew and Greek words are rendered as “bag,” representing a flexible container used to carry provisions, money, measuring weights, or spices and other valuables. A bag could be made of animal skins, leather, or cloth. A small bag might be fastened to a belt, while a traveler’s bag large enough to carry several days’ provisions would be slung over the shoulder. Its construction could range from a simple bundle of cloth tied with string to a more fabricated carrying case. In the OT, Joseph put grain in his brothers’ traveling bags (Gen. 42:25); later the brothers were advised to present Joseph with gifts of spices and nuts to be toted in their bags (43:11). David carried a shepherd’s provision bag and used it to hold the stones that he chose for his sling when he killed Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40, 49). Bags were used to hold currency or precious metals (2 Kings 5:23; 12:10; Isa. 46:6). Merchants carried measuring weights of metal or stone in a bag. The Bible stresses the importance of carrying honest measuring standards in those bags (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11). Job pours out his hopelessness to God, longing for his sins to be metaphorically tied up in a bag (14:17).

In the Gospels, two kinds of bags are mentioned. One is the traveler’s bag used to carry food and clothing while on a journey. Jesus tells his disciples not to take such a bag when he sends them out as apostles to preach, heal, and drive out demons (Matt. 10:10; Mark 6:8; Luke 9:3; 10:4). Just before his arrest, Jesus reverses that advice, instructing his disciples to take not only a bag (for provisions) and purse (for money) but a sword as well (Luke 22:35–36). A different Greek word is used for the moneybag or box that Judas is in charge of and from which he pilfers (John 12:6).

A medieval brass instrument, the forerunner of the modern-day trombone. The word appears in the KJV of Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15, most likely a mistransliteration of the Aramaic word sabbekha’. The actual instrument to which Daniel refers is more likely a larger Syrian seven-stringed harp with a rich, dark tone, though there is some evidence that it could be a small, handheld harp. The NIV translates it as “lyre,” and other versions as “trigon” (NRSV, RSV, NASB, ESV). It was used in the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar’s “band” to entice people to worship the image of gold he set up. See also Trigon.

Made of goat or camel hair, a material that was made into sacks for grain and into clothes generally worn to express grief or repentance (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31). Occasionally sackcloth was worn to express social protest (Esther 4:1; Dan. 9:3). It was generally black or dark in color (Rev. 6:12), rough in texture, and worn close to the body, even next to the skin in extreme cases (1 Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 6:30; Job 16:15).

The words “sacrifice” and “offering” often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers to a gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a gift consecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice” is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other “sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices were offered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important, they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for their sins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have with people and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.

Old Testament

OT offerings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground into flour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water), and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Although the Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people had their own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the God of Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how to sacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrifices are recorded as taking place before the law was given.

Prior to the law. Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a common interpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it did not include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts, minkhah, usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cain only brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), while Abel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from the firstborn of the flock).

Immediately after the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burnt offering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and other sacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicates that God approved of and accepted it. It is significant that immediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, his descendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closely related to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story of Abraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israel receiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen. 31:43–54).

Sacrificial laws in Leviticus. Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most being in Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understood sacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means to bring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in the community, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use, and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas are developed in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israel was required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made of clean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain or wine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering was connected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer person being allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat was unaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases, only the best—what was “without defect”—was to be offered.

Priest as mediator. Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, the priest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned or become unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid a hand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s death represents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin or whether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead is unclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of the sacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of the offering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously given the sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restored to fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancient world, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts that could manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting an improper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motive resulted in rejection.

Types of sacrifices. Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17; 6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), the shelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t (4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most of these focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought such an offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly given to God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice, their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that it belonged to him.

1. The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrifice connected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, it was accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” The worshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, or young pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killed it. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, the rest was burned up.

2. The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is often used for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler. When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grain offering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, on occasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21). Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consisted of unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and was presented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burned as a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to the priests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drink offering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offerings frequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. The showbread may have been considered a grain offering.

3. The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) has traditionally been called the “peace offering,” as the term is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated that the worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’s relationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could be used to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, or simply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God out of free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer a shelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper brought a male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid a hand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its blood on the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the major organs. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”

This offering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existing between those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, the officiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests the breast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan, tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgiving offering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow or freewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eaten in the prescribed time period was to be burned.

4. The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of an individual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in the tabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering could purify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who were unclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and so forth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).

The kind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with the offender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregation sinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before the veil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place. The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinned sacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar, and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought and slaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on the horns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest given to the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, and the very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiation apparently indicated that the sins of some members of the community had more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contact with the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring a more costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more than they could afford.

5. The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins. A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on the altar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. The rest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what was misappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the person wronged or to the priests.

Altars. According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle the blood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at the tabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history other sacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitly used for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’s instruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of these were used by priests making rounds so that people from different areas could sacrifice to God (1 Sam. 7:17). Others were used by individuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name of the Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars were mainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grain and drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings were offered only at the tabernacle or temple.

Times and purposes. The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regular sacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented every morning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8). Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon (Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebrate the major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39), particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might also accompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’s deliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be brought along with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2 Sam. 24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowship offerings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having been captured by the Philistines (2 Sam. 6:1–19).

Sacrifices could also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task. When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were brought for twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, and grain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated (1 Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when a priest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vow dedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God so that they could again become a normal member of the congregation (Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied the announcement of or installation of a king (1 Sam. 11:14–15; 1 Kings 1:9, 25).

Although the sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back into fellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them from him. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual than in obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1 Sam. 15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel were guilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertility cults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos 4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites were aimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence. Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship that they looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in its pure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).

New Testament

The NT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in the early first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Mary brought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could be purified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev. 12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passover lamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate the Feast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went with them, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he was twelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after he grew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalem to celebrate the feasts.

Jesus’ disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after his resurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the time when sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem church leaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for the purification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serve as Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felix that he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poor and present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentile believers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), early Jewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing the gospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. They likely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple in AD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.

Even so, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as the final sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authors consider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relate it to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in the most detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merely the shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals could not adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb. 10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lamb whose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3; 1 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1 Pet. 1:19; 1 John 1:7; Rev. 5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered a propitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1 John 2:2).

The end of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come to God through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead of animal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made (1 Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followers should offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom. 12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could be considered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one an acceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of the gospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering (Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types of sacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, and sharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last of these points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as a fragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).

One of three Jewish factions, they did not believe in the resurrection of the dead or in angels or spirits (Acts 23:8). Known as the aristocracy of the priesthood, Sadducees dominated the Sanhedrin, including the high priesthood (Acts 5:17). They were committed to the Torah, but not to the Pharisaic oral tradition. See also Jewish Parties.

(1) The son of Ahitub, and a descendant of Aaron (1 Chron. 6:1–15, 53), he was a priest during the time of David and became high priest during the time of Solomon. Initially, Zadok is mentioned alongside the high priest Abiathar (2 Sam. 8:17). Both men served as spies for David when Absalom, the king’s son, took Jerusalem during a civil war. The priests’ sons, Ahimaaz and Jonathan, were runners reporting to David. Toward the end of David’s life, Abiathar supported Adonijah’s bid for the kingship, so when Solomon became king, he was removed from the high priesthood.

Zadok anointed Solomon as king and became the sole high priest, fulfilling a prophetic word uttered against the house of Eli years before (1 Kings 2:35; cf. 1 Sam. 2:27–36). In his vision of a future temple, Ezekiel often references the priestly line of Zadok (Ezek. 40:46; 43:19; 44:15; 48:11).

(2) An otherwise unknown descendant of David named in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1:14).

In the Bible, saffron is mentioned only in Song 4:14, in a list of fragrant items used metaphorically by the lover to describe his beloved. Produced from flowers, saffron was an expensive spice used both for culinary and medicinal purposes. See also Flowers; Spices.

Old Testament

Phoenicians and Philistines. As a people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked and timber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites of biblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring or shipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises on alliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenician states to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and had access to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians (the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity for their seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily between Syria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout the Mediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia (Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Another seagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose base of power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. The Bible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in the twelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

The perennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precluded joint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and the Phoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritime activities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of the Philistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remained confined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attempt to take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. When they did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert a military and political presence among the agrarian Israelites and Judahites rather than to establish permanent settlements and Philistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at Medinet Habu (in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III) depict a naval battle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs include pictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israelite seafaring. One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes the Danites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg. 5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlapped with the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlapped substantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg. 5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked in the port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. In another passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It is noteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughly between Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance of natural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificial harbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of such a project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet of breakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported from Italy—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors in this region.

Solomon’s fleet. The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign of Solomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, which is near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1 Kings 9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, to which a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. The story confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians in the area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram [the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew the sea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men” (1 Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have been imported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1 Kings 9:11). Even at the height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embark on sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

The success of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only on warm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial control of the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. This favorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout the biblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on the seas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel was an essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and with it to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. The Phoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean, could never independently control the long overland route from Phoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory of Israel and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerful Israelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiram sent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen and supplies for the construction of the temple (1 Kings 5:10–12). Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships” that would return to port every three years bringing “gold, silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat. In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted to repeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 22:48–49; 2 Chron. 20:35–37). According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they could set sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of the story disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political and economic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

By this time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, with the northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politically closer to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel, Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, married Jezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal (1 Kings 16:31). According to 1 Kings, King Ahaziah of Israel (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat by sending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomon in the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion, possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northern dominance. According to 2 Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat did cooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that the ships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat for too close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In 1 Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’s venture there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overland route between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success of any voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

However the contradiction between 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles regarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions of the story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commanded the interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, and its successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of all three.

Ships of Tarshish. Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon and Jehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1 Kings 10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associated with the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron, lead, tin, gold, and silver (1 Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer. 10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish” is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of their cargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekiel observes, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for your wares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Your oarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

In the Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan (Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of the eastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples of the Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia” [see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that the ships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeastern Turkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul [Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony of Tartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This location figures in the interpretation of the identification of the destination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he were avoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head toward Spain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus in Cilicia.

In addition to these two geographical options, some have attempted to explain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as deriving from the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the many references to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used to transport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar has proposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos, meaning “oar.”

Descriptions of ships and seafaring. Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek. 27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. The picture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built and manned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber for the construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, among other places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen (v. 7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were from the Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list a large number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety of cargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and the Israelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheat from Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm” (v. 17)—thus filling out the picture of what the Israelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury items imported by their country from elsewhere.

In 1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician ships that had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, each measuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wine and were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean.

Ships and sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded a ship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on the Mediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features of ancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Not only the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumably non-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing of a god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god (1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure. When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the same strategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits of ancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods who controlled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance, are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples (presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the port cities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm 107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from an Israelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on the sea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters” (i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God of Israel, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm. This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a storm and the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safe haven.

Noah’s Ark

According to the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen. 6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, the ship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as having six decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozen cubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (a rough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships are described as providing space for the builder’s family and every living creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but its dimensions are not given.

Because of the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to draw conclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historical antiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblical text, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship in history, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming, completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also 450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore and aft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with early twentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant length rendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. The largest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the Greek Syracusia (third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis (second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s “Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered in modern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Pliny the Elder; and Ptolemy IV’s Tessarakonteres (third century BC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This last ship was not designed for cruising in open water.

New Testament

Fishing in the Sea of Galilee. Several of Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee, and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing and traveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both from boats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermen on the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto the beach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish (Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enough to transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boats could be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort to rowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesus stood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark 4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen miles long. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea to avoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g., Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In 1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-first century AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had been scuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “Jesus Boat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in length and has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of wood were used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life. While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or his disciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and it provides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

A second source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT is the account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the case of Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paul learned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats: among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, he recalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea” (2 Cor. 11:25).

Paul’s journeys. A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives some idea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1. Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleucia in Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus (Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). After journeying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where he embarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing again through the port at Salamis (14:26).

2. The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but rather with a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustrating that although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, the overland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul would repeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travel was fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternative land route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It is during the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts of Paul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed the short distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the island of Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast from Berea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey, Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus (18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call not mentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of sea travel so far mentioned.

3. The third missionary journey once more began with a long overland trip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had many associates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean, from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point, Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while his companions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, he sailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south of Cyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship again hugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Paul disembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate the variety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailing in deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there were reasons to make frequent stops.

4. Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to a trial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. From the account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at sea in the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and it carried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiers and prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’s friend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’s owner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and took soundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’s course could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds: twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to the lee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, but the only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

When extended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option was simply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in a harbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learn something of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many of which are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hull of the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), the lifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchors were deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncoming waves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargo and gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah, sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see also the protective emblems in 28:11).

When all other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on a sandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage to the boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, the decision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of the ship (27:41).

Metaphors and illustrations. Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. James likens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship: although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a great ship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of the unwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph. 4:14). In 1 Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience is likened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’s faithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

Old Testament

Phoenicians and Philistines. As a people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked and timber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites of biblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring or shipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises on alliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenician states to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and had access to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians (the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity for their seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily between Syria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout the Mediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia (Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Another seagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose base of power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. The Bible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in the twelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

The perennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precluded joint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and the Phoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritime activities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of the Philistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remained confined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attempt to take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. When they did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert a military and political presence among the agrarian Israelites and Judahites rather than to establish permanent settlements and Philistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at Medinet Habu (in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III) depict a naval battle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs include pictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israelite seafaring. One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes the Danites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg. 5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlapped with the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlapped substantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg. 5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked in the port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. In another passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It is noteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughly between Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance of natural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificial harbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of such a project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet of breakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported from Italy—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors in this region.

Solomon’s fleet. The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign of Solomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, which is near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1 Kings 9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, to which a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. The story confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians in the area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram [the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew the sea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men” (1 Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have been imported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1 Kings 9:11). Even at the height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embark on sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

The success of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only on warm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial control of the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. This favorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout the biblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on the seas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel was an essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and with it to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. The Phoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean, could never independently control the long overland route from Phoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory of Israel and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerful Israelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiram sent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen and supplies for the construction of the temple (1 Kings 5:10–12). Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships” that would return to port every three years bringing “gold, silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat. In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted to repeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 22:48–49; 2 Chron. 20:35–37). According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they could set sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of the story disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political and economic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

By this time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, with the northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politically closer to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel, Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, married Jezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal (1 Kings 16:31). According to 1 Kings, King Ahaziah of Israel (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat by sending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomon in the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion, possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northern dominance. According to 2 Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat did cooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that the ships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat for too close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In 1 Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’s venture there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overland route between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success of any voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

However the contradiction between 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles regarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions of the story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commanded the interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, and its successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of all three.

Ships of Tarshish. Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon and Jehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1 Kings 10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associated with the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron, lead, tin, gold, and silver (1 Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer. 10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish” is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of their cargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekiel observes, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for your wares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Your oarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

In the Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan (Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of the eastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples of the Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia” [see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that the ships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeastern Turkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul [Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony of Tartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This location figures in the interpretation of the identification of the destination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he were avoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head toward Spain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus in Cilicia.

In addition to these two geographical options, some have attempted to explain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as deriving from the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the many references to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used to transport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar has proposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos, meaning “oar.”

Descriptions of ships and seafaring. Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek. 27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. The picture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built and manned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber for the construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, among other places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen (v. 7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were from the Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list a large number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety of cargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and the Israelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheat from Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm” (v. 17)—thus filling out the picture of what the Israelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury items imported by their country from elsewhere.

In 1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician ships that had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, each measuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wine and were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean.

Ships and sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded a ship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on the Mediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features of ancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Not only the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumably non-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing of a god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god (1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure. When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the same strategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits of ancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods who controlled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance, are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples (presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the port cities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm 107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from an Israelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on the sea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters” (i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God of Israel, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm. This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a storm and the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safe haven.

Noah’s Ark

According to the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen. 6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, the ship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as having six decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozen cubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (a rough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships are described as providing space for the builder’s family and every living creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but its dimensions are not given.

Because of the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to draw conclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historical antiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblical text, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship in history, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming, completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also 450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore and aft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with early twentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant length rendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. The largest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the Greek Syracusia (third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis (second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s “Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered in modern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Pliny the Elder; and Ptolemy IV’s Tessarakonteres (third century BC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This last ship was not designed for cruising in open water.

New Testament

Fishing in the Sea of Galilee. Several of Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee, and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing and traveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both from boats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermen on the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto the beach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish (Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enough to transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boats could be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort to rowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesus stood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark 4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen miles long. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea to avoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g., Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In 1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-first century AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had been scuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “Jesus Boat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in length and has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of wood were used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life. While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or his disciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and it provides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

A second source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT is the account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the case of Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paul learned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats: among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, he recalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea” (2 Cor. 11:25).

Paul’s journeys. A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives some idea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1. Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleucia in Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus (Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). After journeying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where he embarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing again through the port at Salamis (14:26).

2. The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but rather with a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustrating that although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, the overland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul would repeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travel was fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternative land route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It is during the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts of Paul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed the short distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the island of Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast from Berea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey, Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus (18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call not mentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of sea travel so far mentioned.

3. The third missionary journey once more began with a long overland trip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had many associates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean, from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point, Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while his companions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, he sailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south of Cyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship again hugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Paul disembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate the variety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailing in deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there were reasons to make frequent stops.

4. Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to a trial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. From the account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at sea in the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and it carried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiers and prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’s friend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’s owner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and took soundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’s course could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds: twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to the lee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, but the only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

When extended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option was simply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in a harbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learn something of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many of which are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hull of the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), the lifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchors were deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncoming waves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargo and gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah, sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see also the protective emblems in 28:11).

When all other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on a sandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage to the boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, the decision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of the ship (27:41).

Metaphors and illustrations. Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. James likens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship: although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a great ship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of the unwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph. 4:14). In 1 Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience is likened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’s faithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

Used as a reference for God’s people in the OT and NT, the Hebrew word qadosh (e.g., Ps. 16:3) and the Greek word hagios (e.g., Acts 9:13; 2 Cor. 1:1) emphasize being singled out or consecrated. The Hebrew root was also used to designate cult prostitutes (qadeshah) as “consecrated,” though in Scripture this use is relatively infrequent (e.g., Gen. 38:21; Deut. 23:17). Another Hebrew word sometimes translated “saint” is khasid (e.g., 1 Sam. 2:9; Pss. 30:4; 31:23 KJV), which emphasizes faithfulness and devotion to God. In biblical terms, then, the saints of God are those whom he has designated as belonging to him and who live in faithfulness to him. They are not necessarily noted for exceptional holiness or meritorious acts. Thus, Paul places “his saints” in parallel with “all who have believed” (2 Thess. 1:10 NRSV).

The Bible speaks of saints as sometimes being in need (Rom. 16:2; 2 Cor. 8:4; 9:1, 12) and persecuted (Rev. 13:7), but also as called to endure (Rev. 13:10) and offer help, especially to other saints (Rom. 12:13; Gal. 6:10; 1 Tim. 5:10). The saints are the recipients of the faith (Jude 1:3), of grace (Rev. 22:21), and of special equipping for ministry in the church (Eph. 4:12) and prayer (Rev. 5:8; 8:3–4). As those who belong to the Lord, the saints will be raised to eternal life (John 6:39; 1 Cor. 15:22–23).

“Saint,” however, has come to function as a title given to Christians of exceptional merit, beatified or canonized by the Roman Catholic Church. The need for canonization and beatification arose from the Catholic doctrine of the veneration, invocation, and intercession of the saints (see Augustine, Quaest. Hept. 2.94; Faust. 20.21) and is connected to the Catholic doctrine of the “communion of the saints” (a phrase drawn from the Apostles’ Creed), which includes believers in heaven, on earth, and in purgatory, recognizing them as saints in the general sense by virtue of their being redeemed and set apart for fellowship with God. These doctrines suggest that just as Paul, for example, sought the prayers of the church on earth (Rom. 15:30; 2 Cor. 1:11), so also prayer by members of the church in heaven might be sought. Canonization, then, publicly establishes which persons can be surely known to be in heaven and may be properly asked to intercede on behalf of the church on earth.

Protestants, on the basis of the unique intercession of Christ Jesus (1 Tim. 2:5), exclude invocation of heavenly saints as unnecessary and unwarranted. They further find no basis in the Scriptures for a doctrine of purgatory. Thus, Protestant understandings of the communion of the saints focus on the believers on earth, who, “being united to one another in love, have communion in each other’s gifts and graces and are obliged to the performance of such duties, public and private, as to conduce to their mutual good, both in the inward and outward man” (Westminster Confession of Faith 28.1).

(1) The Hararite father of Ahiam, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:35). He is named as “Sharar” in 2 Sam. 23:33. (2) One of the eight sons of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4).

A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the sixth of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:10).

The Hebrew word sikkut in Amos 5:26 has traditionally been interpreted as “Sakkuth,” the name of an obscure astral deity in the Akkadian pantheon, but recently this equation has been shown to be untenable. The Hebrew word is better understood as a noun meaning “stela” or “standing stone.” The NIV translation “shrine” is based on the LXX (the NIV mg. has “Sakkuth your king”). God rebukes the Israelites in Samaria for erecting a stela of their king for worship.

In the Greek NT (cf. KJV, RSV), two different people in Luke’s genealogy for Jesus. (1) The father of Boaz (Luke 3:32 ESV, NRSV, NIV mg.), elsewhere named “Salmon” (Ruth 4:21; Matt. 1:4–5) and “Salma” (1 Chron. 2:11 NASB, NRSV, KJV). (2) The father of Eber (Luke 3:35 KJV), elsewhere named “Shelah” (Gen. 10:24; 11:12–15; 1 Chron. 1:18, 24).

The first stop on Paul and Bar-nabas’s journey to the island of Cyprus (Acts 13:5). Located on the east coast of Cyprus, Salamis was an important Greco-Roman commercial city with a notable Jewish population.

Listed as a descendant of King Jehoiachin of Judah in 597 BC before the king was carried off into Babylonian exile (1 Chron. 3:17). Most often he is remembered as the father of Zerubabbel, an important Jewish leader in the early postexilic period (Ezra 3:2, 8; Hag. 1:1). In 1 Chron. 3:17–19 he appears as Zerubabbel’s uncle, suggesting a levirate marriage (Deut. 25:5–10). Shealtiel is listed in the genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1:12; Luke 3:27).

A city along the boundary of the half-tribe of Manasseh that previously was ruled by King Og of Bashan (Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11; 1 Chron. 5:11). This city is currently identified with Salkhad, which is east of the Jordan.

A city along the boundary of the half-tribe of Manasseh that previously was ruled by King Og of Bashan (Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11; 1 Chron. 5:11). This city is currently identified with Salkhad, which is east of the Jordan.

A city along the boundary of the half-tribe of Manasseh that previously was ruled by King Og of Bashan (Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11; 1 Chron. 5:11). This city is currently identified with Salkhad, which is east of the Jordan.

A city along the boundary of the half-tribe of Manasseh that previously was ruled by King Og of Bashan (Deut. 3:10; Josh. 12:5; 13:11; 1 Chron. 5:11). This city is currently identified with Salkhad, which is east of the Jordan.

A shortened and probably archaic form of “Jerusalem.” Melchizedek was the king of Salem (Gen. 14:18; Heb. 7:1–2). The name “Salem” means “peace.”

A place mentioned only in reference to Aenon, where John conducted his last baptisms (John 3:23). Its location is debated, with several issues being considered. First, John is thought to have started in the south and moved northward along the Jordan. Second, ancient church fathers wrote that it was eight Roman miles south of Scythopolis. Third, a location that fits with the text needs to have an abundance of water present. Of the several possibilities, none has been satisfactorily agreed upon.

Under the Mosaic law, the spit of certain sick persons caused ritual uncleanness to others if it contacted them (Lev. 15:8), and the inability to control one’s own saliva indicated insanity (1 Sam. 21:13). Jesus’ use of saliva in healings (Mark 7:33; 8:23; John 9:6) reflects Jewish and Hellenistic belief in the curative nature of saliva. His mixing it with clay was viewed by his opponents as breaking the Sabbath law (John 9:16). Spitting in the face was a deliberate, contemptuous insult (Num. 12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10). Isaiah and Jesus himself prophesied the humiliation of the Messiah being spat upon (Isa. 50:6; Mark 10:34; Luke 18:32; cf. Matt. 26:67; 27:30; Mark 15:19; Luke 18:32).

A descendant of the Benjamite tribe who returned from the exile to resettle in Jerusalem (Neh. 11:8). Some versions also spell the name of the priest in Neh. 12:20 as “Sallai,” but the NIV spells it as “Sallu.”

(1) The son of Meshullam from the tribe of Benjamin, he resettled in Jerusalem after the Babylonian exile (1 Chron. 9:7; Neh. 11:7). (2) A priest who returned with Zerubbabel and Jeshua after the exile (Neh. 12:7). He is called “Sallai” in some versions of Neh. 12:20.

(1) The father of Boaz (1 Chron. 2:11; NIV: “Salmon”) and an ancestor of David, he is in the genealogy of Jesus. He is also called “Salmon” (Ruth 4:20–21) and “Sala” (Luke 3:32; NIV: “Salmon”). (See also Sala; Salmon.) (2) The son of Hur and the father/founder of Bethlehem (1 Chron. 2:51, 54).

The father of Boaz and an ancestor of David and Jesus. The English spelling stems from Ruth 4:21 (Heb. salmon) and Matt. 1:4–5 (Gk. Salmōn), but variant spellings are used at 1 Chron. 2:11 (Heb. salma’ ); Ruth 4:20 (Heb. salmah); and Luke 3:32 (Gk. Sala).

Modern Cape Sidero, the northward-pointing promontory on the eastern end of the island of Crete, past which Paul sailed en route to Rome in an attempt to avoid unfavorable winds (Acts 27:7).

Mark lists Salome among the women who observed Jesus’ crucifixion (Mark 15:40), who followed and cared for Jesus in Galilee (15:41), and who attempted to anoint Jesus’ body (16:1). Matthew 27:56 may speak of her as “the mother of Zebedee’s sons,” who asked Jesus to honor her sons (Matt. 20:20–21). Although of doubtful accuracy, several extrabiblical sources relate Salome to Mary, Joseph, or Zachariah. Additionally, Josephus identifies the daughter of Herodias (Matt. 14:6–11; Mark 6:22–28) by this name.

A crystallized mineral compound, often harvested from the Dead Sea, used with food for flavor and preservation (Job 6:6) and medicinally rubbed on infants (Ezek. 16:4). Salt was to be added to the grain offering to represent the covenant (Lev. 2:13). Just as salt survives the sacrificial fires, so does the covenant survive the difficulties of life. In the first century, salt was known as a preservative, seasoning, and fertilizer. All these uses may be behind Jesus’ statement that his disciples were “the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13), indicating that they were important for the welfare of the world.

The large salt lake to the south of the Jordan River. The Bible refers to this lake as the Salt Sea (Num. 34:12 ESV), Sea of the Arabah (Josh. 3:16), and Eastern Sea (Ezek. 47:18), but not the Dead Sea. Josephus called it Lake Asphaltitis. The Dead Sea is forty-two miles long and eleven miles wide. Located in the depths of the Jordan Rift Valley, the shore of the Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth, about 1,385 feet below sea level, and its waters are the second saltiest on earth. Only Lake Asal in Djibouti is saltier. The Dead Sea is more than 30 percent salt, whereas the Mediterranean Sea is only 4 percent salt. Because of the high salt content, nothing lives in the Dead Sea except microscopic organisms. Nevertheless, Ezekiel prophesied that its waters will be fresh and teeming with life (47:8–10). The Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan River, wadis such as the Arnon and the Zered, and springs such as En Gedi, but water escapes only through evaporation.

Several important biblical and historical events occurred around the Dead Sea. Lot’s wife was turned into a pillar of salt as Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. From Mount Nebo Moses looked down upon the Dead Sea. David hid from Saul in the caves at En Gedi. The Romans besieged Herod’s fortress at Masada. The Qumran scrolls (DSS) were found in caves along its northwestern shore. Because of modern demands for freshwater upstream, the Dead Sea’s water level has dropped significantly.

The father of Zimri, a man who was put to death by the priest Phinehas because he brought a Midianite woman into his family (Num. 25:14).

Many of the letters, or epistles, in the Bible include salutations consisting of expressions of goodwill from the sender to the recipient. Salutations can be found at the beginning and end of the NT Epistles. While the salutation itself was not the invention of the authors of the NT Epistles, the form has been adapted in this literature to express explicitly Christian theological content.

The simplest form of salutation found in the NT is simply “Greetings,” which appears in James 1:1, as well as in the letter sent from Jerusalem to Antioch (Acts 15:23) and the letter of Claudius Lysias to Felix (Acts 23:26). See also the examples of secular correspondence in Ezra 4:17; 7:12; Dan. 4:1.

Most of the letters bearing the name of Paul begin with the greeting “Grace and peace to you from God our Father and from the Lord Jesus Christ” (Rom. 1:7) or a slight variation thereof (1 Cor. 1:3; 2 Cor. 1:2; Eph. 1:2; Phil. 1:2; Col. 1:2; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:2; Titus 1:4; Philem. 3). The salutation in Gal. 1:3–5 is a theological expansion of Paul’s standard salutation. The salutations in 1 Tim. 1:2 and 2 Tim. 1:2 include “Grace, mercy, and peace.”

The salutation of the Petrine letters is “Grace and peace be yours in abundance” (1 Pet. 1:2; 2 Pet. 1:2). Salutations are also found in 2 John 3; Jude 2; Rev. 1:4–5. Hebrews, 1 John, and 3 John do not begin with salutations.

In a number of cases, salutatory remarks function to close the letter near its end, often in connection with individual greetings. See Rom. 16:20; 1 Cor. 16:21–24; 2 Cor. 13:14; Gal. 6:18; Eph. 6:23–24; Phil. 4:23; Col. 4:18; 1 Thess. 5:28; 2 Thess. 3:16–18; 1 Tim. 6:21; 2 Tim. 4:22; Titus 3:15; Philem. 25; 1 Pet. 5:14.

The term “salvation” is the broadest one used to refer to God’s actions to solve the plight brought about by humankind’s sinful rebellion and its consequences. It is one of the central themes of the entire Bible, running from Genesis through Revelation.

Old Testament

In many places in the OT, salvation refers to being rescued from physical rather than spiritual trouble. Fearing the possibility of retribution from his brother Esau, Jacob prays, “Save me, I pray, from the hand of my brother Esau” (Gen. 32:11). The actions of Joseph in Egypt saved many from famine (45:5–7; 47:25; 50:20). Frequently in the psalms, individuals pray for salvation from enemies that threaten one’s safety or life (Pss. 17:14; 18:3; 70:1–3; 71:1–4; 91:1–3).

Related to this usage are places where the nation of Israel and/or its king were saved from enemies. The defining example of this is the exodus, whereby God delivered his people from their enslavement to the Egyptians, culminating in the destruction of Pharaoh and his army (Exod. 14:1–23). From that point forward in the history of Israel, God repeatedly saved Israel from its enemies, whether through a judge (e.g., Judg. 2:16; 3:9), a king (2 Kings 14:27), or even a shepherd boy (1 Sam. 17:1–58).

But these examples of national deliverance had a profound spiritual component as well. God did not save his people from physical danger as an end in itself; it was the necessary means for his plan to save them from their sins. The OT recognizes the need for salvation from sin (Pss. 39:8; 51:14; 120:2) but, as the NT makes evident, does not provide a final solution (Heb. 9:1–10:18). One of the clearest places that physical and spiritual salvation come together is Isa. 40–55, where Judah’s exile from the land and prophesied return are seen as the physical manifestation of the much more fundamental spiritual exile that resulted from sin. To address that far greater reality, God announces the day when the Suffering Servant would once and for all take away the sins of his people (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

New Testament

As in the OT, the NT has places where salvation refers to being rescued from physical difficulty. Paul, for example, speaks of being saved from various physical dangers, including execution (2 Cor. 1:8–10; Phil. 1:19; 2 Tim. 4:17). In the midst of a fierce storm, Jesus’ disciples cry out, “Lord, save us! We’re going to drown!” (Matt. 8:25). But far more prominent are the places in the Gospels and Acts where physical healings are described with the verb sōzō, used to speak of salvation from sin. The healing of the woman with the hemorrhage (Mark 5:25–34), the blind man along the road (Luke 18:35–43), and even the man possessed by a demon (Luke 8:26–39), just to name a few, are described with the verb sōzō. The same verb, however, is also used to refer to Jesus forgiving someone’s sins (Luke 7:36–50) and to his mission to save the lost from their sins (Luke 19:10). Such overlap is a foretaste of the holistic salvation (physical and spiritual) that will be completed in the new heaven and earth (Rev. 21–22). The NT Epistles give extensive descriptions of how the work of Jesus Christ saves his people from their sins (see below).

Components

In several passages (e.g., Rom. 5:1–11; Eph. 2:1–10; Titus 3:4–7) “salvation” is clearly a summary term for the totality of what God has done for his people in and through Christ. Salvation is such a rich and multifaceted work of God that it takes a variety of terms to bring out its fullness. “Regeneration” refers to the new life that God imparts, bringing a person from spiritual death to spiritual life (John 3:3–8; Eph. 2:4–7; Titus 3:4–7). “Justification” speaks of God declaring a person not guilty in his court of law on the basis of Christ’s sacrificial death and life of perfect obedience (Rom. 3:21–5:12; Gal. 2:14–21). “Atonement” describes Christ’s payment for sin and resulting forgiveness (Rom. 3:21–26; Heb. 2:17). “Redemption” captures the reality of God paying the price to bring his people out of their slavery to sin and into the freedom of the Spirit (Gal. 4:1–7; 5:1). “Reconciliation” refers to God turning hardened rebels and enemies into his friends (Rom. 5:10–11; 2 Cor. 5:18–21; Col. 1:20–22). “Adoption” extends that reality into the astonishing truth that God makes those whom he reconciles not just his friends but his sons and daughters (Rom. 8:14–25; Gal. 4:1–7). In “sanctification” God sets his people apart for his special purposes and progressively changes them into the image of Christ (1 Cor. 1:30 ESV, NRSV, NASB; cf. Rom. 8:29). The final component is “glorification,” when God brings to completion the work of salvation by granting his people resurrection bodies, removing every last stain of sin, death, and the curse and placing them in a new heaven and earth (Rom. 8:30; 1 Cor. 15:35–57; Rev. 21–22).

Prepositions of Salvation

Another way that the Bible fills out the nature of salvation is through the various prepositions connected to it. The prepositions in the following list are among the more significant.

From. Since the basic idea of salvation is rescue from danger, it is not surprising that Scripture describes that from which believers are saved. David cries out to God, “Save me from all my transgressions” (Ps. 39:8). Salvation from sin is possible only through Jesus, for it is he who “will save his people from their sins” (Matt. 1:21). Reflecting on the work of Jesus on the cross, Paul claims that because of the sacrificial death of Christ believers are saved from God’s wrath (Rom. 5:9–10). At the same time, the crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus saved people from their slavery to sin (Rom. 6:1–11). As a result of these and other things from which Christ has saved people, on the day of Pentecost Peter exhorts his audience to be saved “from this corrupt generation” (Acts 2:40). Thus, the unanimous testimony of Scripture is that believers have been saved from their sin and its consequences.

To/into. Believers are saved not merely from something; they are saved to/into certain states or conditions. Whereas they were once slaves, believers have now been saved “into the freedom and glory of the children of God” (Rom. 8:21 [cf. Gal. 5:1]). Through the cross God “has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves” (Col. 1:13). Another way of stating this reality is to speak of the peace into which believers now have been brought as a result of Christ’s work on their behalf (John 14:27).

By. Scripture frequently uses the preposition “by” to express the instrument of salvation. Stated negatively, “It is not by sword or spear that the Lord saves” (1 Sam. 17:47). In the broadest sense, believers are saved from their sins by the gospel (1 Cor. 15:1–2). More specifically, salvation is by the grace of God (Eph. 2:5, 8). The preposition “by” can also express the agent of salvation. A distinguishing feature of Israel was that it was saved from its enemies by God (Deut. 33:29; Isa. 45:17). The same thing is meant when Scripture speaks of God saving his people by his right hand (Ps. 17:7) or his name (Ps. 54:1).

Through. The consistent testimony of the Bible is that salvation comes through faith (e.g., Eph. 2:8–9). Through faith, believers have been justified (Rom. 3:22; 5:1–2) and made children of God (Gal. 3:26). It is not righteousness based on the law that matters, “but that which is through faith in Christ” (Phil. 3:9). The remarkable actions of God’s people throughout history have been accomplished through faith (Heb. 11:1–40).

In. Especially in Paul’s writings the various components of salvation (see above) are modified with the phrase “in Christ” or “in him.” Believers are chosen (Eph. 1:4), redeemed (Eph. 1:7), justified (Gal. 2:17), and sanctified (1 Cor. 1:2) in Christ. Indeed, God has blessed believers “in the heavenly realms with every spiritual blessing in Christ” (Eph. 1:3).

With. Many of the components of salvation that believers experience are said to happen “with Christ.” Believers are united with Christ in his death, burial, and resurrection (Rom. 6:4–11; Gal. 2:20). With Christ, believers have been made alive, raised up, and seated in the heavenly realms (Eph. 2:4–6; Col. 2:13). Because of their union with Christ, believers share in his inheritance (Rom. 8:16–17; Gal. 3:29; 1 Pet. 1:4). Even the very life of the believer is said to be currently “hidden with Christ in God” (Col. 3:3).

Tenses of Salvation

The Bible speaks of salvation in the past, present, and future tenses. Pointing to a definitive experience in the past, Paul tells believers that “in this hope we were saved” (Rom. 8:24). Yet he can also speak of himself and other believers as those “who are being saved” (1 Cor. 1:18; 2 Cor. 2:15), pointing to a process that is ongoing. Just a few sentences after assuring believers that they have been justified already (Rom. 5:1–2), he can still say that believers will “be saved from God’s wrath” through Christ (Rom. 5:9–10).

The use of these three tenses reflects the “already and not yet” dynamic of salvation. Through the obedience, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus, God has rescued his people from their sins. But the final and complete realization of all the benefits of salvation must still await the return of Christ and the establishment of a new heaven and earth (Rev. 19–22).

Conclusion

Without a proper understanding of humankind’s plight as a result of its rebellion, the Bible’s repeated emphasis on salvation makes little sense. Because sin is humanity’s greatest problem, salvation is humanity’s greatest need. Given the breadth, width, and depth of what God has done to save his people from their sins through Jesus Christ, it is no wonder that the author of Hebrews asks, “How shall we escape if we ignore so great a salvation?” (2:3).

Samaria was the capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel. After the fall of Jeroboam I’s dynasty, and the reigns of Baasha, Elah, and Zimri, the ruling center of the northern kingdom moved from Tirzah to Samaria during the rule of Omri (r. 882–871 BC), the first king of northern Israel’s third dynasty. He built a new capital and called it “Samaria,” based on “Shemer,” the name of the person from whom he bought the hill on which it was built (1 Kings 16:24).

Samaria remained the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel until it fell to the Assyrians under Sargon II in 721 BC, when he deported most of the population to other areas of the Assyrian Empire (2 Kings 17:6). According to Sargon’s annals, he improved the city and populated it with peoples deported from other countries that he had conquered. The report of the fall of Samaria in 2 Kings 17:24 generally agrees with this. The populace of Samaria worshiped its own gods and the God of Israel as well.

In the Persian period, Samaria was ruled by an appointed governor, Sanballat the Horonite. The book of Nehemiah relates Sanballat’s plots to keep the returned exiles from building the walls of Jerusalem. In the time of Herod the Great, the city of Samaria was rebuilt and renamed “Sebaste.”

Besides being the name of the capital city of the northern kingdom of Israel, “Samaria” was a name for the northern kingdom itself. The northern kingdom was always politically and economically more prosperous than Judah.

The Bible says that Samaria fell as a result of its worship of other gods and lifts up the “sin of Jeroboam” (1 Kings 16:31), the establishment of golden calves in Bethel and Dan as a rival to the Jerusalem temple, as the chief sin. In Hos. 8:6, a pronouncement of judgment against the golden calf at Bethel, the calf is called the “calf of Samaria.” All of the northern kings, even Jehu (r. 842–814 BC), who was relatively faithful to Yahweh, did not remove the golden calves. Second Kings 17:8–23 contains a catalog of the various ways in which the northern kingdom was unfaithful to Yahweh. In general, the prophets declare God’s judgment on Samaria. For example, Hosea pronounces judgment on Samaria for moral and ethical sins (7:1–7).

In the NT, Samaria is the region between Galilee and Judea through which Jews avoided traveling. By this time, there had been great animosity between the Jews and Samaritans for centuries. Luke lists Samaria as one of the regions to which Jesus’ disciples would be witnesses (Acts 1:8). The archaeological ruins of Samaria lie eight miles northwest of the modern city of Nablus. The town of Sabastia is located there today. See also Samaritans.

According to the Bible, the Samaritans are the descendants of the peoples whom Sargon II settled in Samaria after he conquered it and the northern Israelites (see also Samaria). As such, they were not quite Jewish, not quite Gentile. Although there is a Samaritan religious sect, it is a mistake to equate Samaritans in the Bible with one of the sectarians in every instance. Samaritans are mentioned rarely in the OT; for example, 2 Kings 17:29 reports that the Samaritans worshiped the gods that they brought from their home countries at high places that they made.

The NT mentions the Samaritans. The story of the woman at the well in John 4 depicts Jesus ministering to a Samaritan. We learn in this passage (John 4:9) that Jews like Jesus did not eat or drink from the same vessel as a Samaritan since they believed it would render them ritually unclean [see NET: “For Jews use nothing in common with Samaritans”]. One of the chief points of contention between Jews and Samaritans is highlighted in this passage: Samaritans believe that Mount Gerizim is God’s chosen worship site, not Zion. Also alluded to here is the Samaritans’ belief in a “returning one” (Aram. taheb), who will guide the Samaritans to repentance and reestablish proper worship. In John 8:48 Jesus’ opponents level a charge against him, asking him if he is not indeed a Samaritan and possessed by a demon.

In the Synoptic Gospels, Samaritans are variously depicted as being included in Jesus’ ministry (Luke 9:52) or excluded from it (Matt. 10:5). In other places in the Gospels, Samaritans are used as a foil by which Jesus indicts his listeners for not following God as well as they should. His Jewish audience would not have missed the point in his parable when the Samaritan proves to be a more compassionate neighbor than the priest or Levite (Luke 10:25–37), or when Jesus heals ten lepers and only one, a Samaritan, returns to praise God and give thanks (17:16). Given Luke’s emphasis on the inclusive nature of the Gospel, his mentioning of Samaritans in such positive ways highlights that emphasis.

In the book of Acts, Luke continues to use the Samaritans as an example of how the Gospel is for everyone. Peter and John, after confirming that Samaria had received and responded to the word, preached in the villages of the Samaritans (Acts 8:14–25).

Scholars are not certain when Jews and Samaritans became two different religious groups, but most likely this happened when John Hyrcanus destroyed the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim in 128 BC. Although there were tensions before this, as is evident in Nehemiah and in Josephus, before the destruction of their temple the rift probably was not complete.

The Samaritans exist today and have the following basic beliefs: (1) There is only one God. (2) Moses was the last and greatest prophet. (3) The five books of Moses are the only authoritative Scripture. (4) Mount Gerizim is God’s chosen place. (5) There will be a day of judgment and recompense. (6) The “returning one,” the Taheb, will appear.

Reconstructing the beliefs of the Samaritans before the fourth century AD is difficult because all we have before then are the sparse statements of outside sources and archaeological remains. Archaeological remains of a Samaritan synagogue on the Greek island of Delos include dedicatory inscriptions dated from the late third to early second centuries BC and the second to first centuries BC. These inscriptions mention those who worship on Mount Gerizim.

Possibly an official of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. According to the Hebrew text, he, along with other Babylonian officials, took his seat in Jerusalem’s middle gate during the siege (Jer. 39:3 NRSV). Some versions, including the NIV, have correctly understood this name to be a misunderstanding of the passage. It is possible to understand “Samgar-Nebo” as a proper name, but based on a parallel Akkadian expression, “Samgar” is more likely a title to be associated with the previous name. “Samgar” should then be understood as either the name of a locality (NIV: “Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar”) or a title (NET: “Nergal-Sharezer, who was a high official”). See also Nebo-Sarsekim.

An early king of Edom from the town of Masrekah (Gen. 36:36–37; 1 Chron. 1:47–48).

An important mountainous island, with a capital city by the same name (meaning “height” or “mountain”), in the Aegean Sea to the southwest of Ephesus. A naval and cultural center (and the birthplace of Pythagoras), Samos apparently had a large population of Jews by the second century BC (cf. 1 Macc. 15:15–24). At the end of his third missionary campaign, Paul’s ship either came near or stopped at (Gk. paraballō, a nautical term meaning “to approach, arrive at, sail to”) Samos en route to Miletus (Acts 20:15).

A small island in the northeast of the Aegean Sea, south of Thrace. With a peak over a mile above sea level, Samothrace (“the height/mountain of Thrace”) is the highest of all the Aegean islands and a conspicuous navigational landmark. On his second missionary campaign, Paul’s ship overnighted at Samothrace en route to Neapolis (Acts 16:11), and he may have stopped there on the third missionary campaign (see Acts 20:6).

The last judge of Israel whose story is found in the book of Judges (the story of Eli’s and Samuel’s judgeship is found in 1 Samuel). The period of judges was a time of spiritual confusion, moral depravity, and political fragmentation. The situation became increasingly worse as time wore on in Judges, and the time of Samson was the worst of all. Samson did nothing except to satisfy his own desires and lusts. He did not care about God, his family, or his nation. Even so, God used him to deliver Israel in spite of his sin.

Samson’s mother had been childless. An angel announced that she would have a child, but she must consecrate him as a Nazirite, a special holy status. Numbers 6:1–21 describes the rules by which such a person must live, including not drinking wine, cutting one’s hair, or coming into contact with anything that was dead. (See also Nazirite.)

When Samson grew up, he did not seem particularly interested in observing Nazirite requirements or even acting like a good Israelite. Against his parents’ wishes, he even married a Philistine woman (Judg. 14). On the way to the wedding, he scooped honey out of the carcass of a dead lion, thus breaking his Nazirite vow. He also came up with a riddle and bet his Philistine groomsmen that they could not solve it. When they did (because they forced his wife to reveal the answer to them), he killed thirty Philistines in order to steal their clothes to pay off the bet. This story sets a pattern for the following stories of Samson pursuing his own desires and, when frustrated, killing Philistines or destroying their property. Samson was doing this for his own ends; God was using it to weaken the Philistines.

The climactic story is more of the same. Samson took up with another Philistine woman, Delilah. She pestered him to reveal the secret of his great strength. At first, he misled her twice by saying that his strength would be diminished if he was bound by “seven fresh bowstrings” (Judg. 16:7) or if she wove the seven braids of his hair (16:13–14), both of which she did, to no effect. Finally, he gave into her nagging and told her his secret. Delilah then cut off his hair, rendering him powerless. After Samson was taken captive, he was put on display in the Philistine temple. He prayed for the strength to bring the temple down on the heads of the Philistines, and God granted it. “Thus he killed many more when he died than while he lived” (16:30). But even this act was done not for the glory of God, but rather to “get revenge on the Philistines for my two eyes” (16:28), which the Philistines had gouged out. Even so, the book of Hebrews points to Samson as an example of faith, perhaps referring not to his personal faith, but to the fact that God used him to further his purposes of salvation (Heb. 11:32).

Samuel oversaw the transition from the period of judges to the time of the monarchy. He was the final judge (1 Sam. 7:6, 15–16; cf. 8:1 NIV mg.). He also was a priest (2:18) and functioned as a prophet (3:20).

The account of his life begins when his mother, Hannah, desperately prayed that God would open her barren womb. The situation in Israel was not good. Eli, the high priest, was incompetent and spiritually dull. He even mistook her sincere prayers for the blabbering of a drunkard (1 Sam. 1:12–16). In answer to her prayers and her vow to dedicate her future child as a Nazirite (cf. Num. 6:1–21), God opened her womb, and Samuel was born. Upon his birth, he was committed to the service of Yahweh at the tabernacle.

Samuel was quite different from Eli’s wicked sons, Hophni and Phinehas. While they stole from the sacrifices and slept with the women who ministered at the tabernacle, Samuel “was ministering before the Lord” (1 Sam. 2:18). The narrative even draws a contrast between Samuel and Eli in that the latter was dull and did not immediately recognize that God was speaking to Samuel one evening (1 Sam. 3).

Sometime after the death of Eli, Samuel found himself in the position of leadership as a judge in Israel (1 Sam. 7). God used him to inflict a serious, but not decisive, defeat against the Philistines. Afterward Samuel set up a stone called “Ebenezer” (“stone of help”) to commemorate the event.

The people, however, felt that Israel needed a stronger central leader to expel the Philistines from their land, so they requested that Samuel anoint a king over them (1 Sam. 8:5). This worried and angered Samuel, who took it as a personal affront, and in reality it was more seriously an insult toward God. The people should have trusted God to provide the victory over the Philistines. Even so, God directed Samuel to anoint a king over the people, and Saul was chosen.

After this event, Samuel no longer was judge over Israel, but he was a priest and a prophet. As such, he led the people in a covenant renewal ritual whereby they reaffirmed their allegiance to God, the heavenly king, even though they now had an earthly king (1 Sam. 12).

As part of his duties, Samuel operated as the conscience of King Saul. He confronted Saul on numerous occasions when the king chose to go his own way rather than obey the commands of Yahweh (1 Sam. 13; 15).

Saul greatly disappointed God and his representative Samuel. Accordingly, God commissioned Samuel to anoint the next king, even before the death of Saul. In Bethlehem, God directed Samuel to anoint David as the future king of Israel.

Samuel died and was buried at Ramah before David’s kingship became a reality (1 Sam. 25:1). Even with death, the story of Samuel does not end. Toward the end of Saul’s life, God cut off communication with him. Desperate to control the outcome of a battle with the Philistines, Saul showed his spiritual perversity by consulting a necromancer. The latter summoned Samuel from the dead (1 Sam. 28), and Samuel pronounced Saul’s demise.

Samuel was remembered as an important and faithful spiritual leader, compared favorably even to Moses (Jer. 15:1; Acts 13:20; Heb. 11:32). He is honored as a prophet whose words anticipated the coming of Jesus Christ (Acts 3:24).

The governor of Samaria who resisted Nehemiah’s efforts to rebuild Jerusalem’s walls. He and his associates (Tobiah and Geshem) appealed to the Persian king but were ultimately unsuccessful (see Neh. 2:10, 19; 4:1–7; 6:1, 2, 5, 12, 14). Even later, Nehemiah deposed one of the sons of the priest Joiada for being the son-in-law of Sanballat (13:28). The name “Sanballat” is Akkadian, meaning “Sin [the god of the moon] gives life,” leading some to think that his family descended from an intermarriage between an Israelite and someone brought into the north by the Assyrians after 722 BC. We know from later inscriptions (e.g., Elephantine papyri and the Wadi ed-Daliyeh Papyrus) that his family continued to be politically important in Palestine during the intertestamental period.

Sanctification and Holiness

In the biblical sense, the word “sanctification” relates directly to the Hebrew and Greek words for “holy” (qadosh and hagios respectively). One may even argue that “holy-fication” would be preferable to “sanctification” to underscore the intertwined nature of these terms. In Scripture, English terms such as “holy”/“holiness,” “consecrate”/“consecration,” and “sanctify”/“sanc-ti-fi-cation”/“saints” express cognates of qadosh/hagios.

Despite continued emphasis by many writers that “holy” speaks to separation and that “to be holy” means “to be set apart,” the biblical terms are relational and speak primarily of belonging. “To be holy” (sanctified) means “to belong to God”; separation follows only as the exclusivity of this relationship demands it.

Qadosh is God’s adjective. God’s character defines the meaning of “holy,” not the other way around. Holy, then, cannot be reduced to religious notions of purity (and/or exclusivity) but rather must be understood in light of the full expression of God’s character and will. While other adjectives such as “great,” “majestic,” and “powerful” can also describe humans, God exclusively determines the meaning of the adjective qadosh (hagios). “Holy” has no meaning apart from God. Humans (and things) become holy only as they belong to God. For example, an ordinary table dedicated to God becomes a holy table. The people belonging to God are a holy people. Different from other spirits, the Holy Spirit belongs to God and expresses his presence exclusively (cf. Isa. 6:3; 52:1).

It follows that holiness and divine presence are tightly interwoven. God opens the door into his presence, enabling sanctification (John 17:18; 1 Cor. 1:2; Heb. 10:10), and he calls for his people not to violate his relational presence (2 Cor. 7:1; 2 Tim. 2:21; Heb. 12:14). Sanctification, then, is not as much an intrinsic “either/or” quality (granted or not granted) as it is a relational “more or less” quality based on God’s dynamic presence. Put differently, the biblical perspective on holiness resists reduction to a mere “holy versus profane” dichotomy and cannot be reduced to a simple declaration (granted!) or to a specific list of godly requirements (dos and don’ts).

Old Testament

The gradation of the OT priesthood into levels of holiness that enabled entrance and service in weaker or stronger intensities of God’s presence underscores further this dynamic quality of holiness. Although all the people of Israel were holy (belonging to God), the priests enjoyed a higher degree of holiness than the ordinary Israelite. Within the ranks of the priests, the high priest went through stricter rituals of consecration (Exod. 29:1–8, 20–21; Lev. 8:7–24; 21:13–15), since he alone could minister in the most intensive presence of God (Lev. 16:1–17). Less holy were those of the Aaronic lineage born with physical defects. Although sufficiently holy to eat from the most holy offerings, they could not serve at the altar (Lev. 21:16–23).

Average Israelites possessed a lower level of holiness than Levites and priests but could, as individuals, acquire greater levels of holiness through obedience (Lev. 11:44–45; Num. 15:40–41). Moreover, special vows, like that of the Nazirite, enhanced the average Israelite’s quality as holy. The Nazirite vow (Num. 6:1–21) did not transfer priestly status to any person, but it did elevate one’s holiness to a comparable level during the period of dedication.

This dynamic connection between divine presence and sanctification becomes even more evident in the prophets. They were “holy men” because they were endowed with the divine spirit, and as the level of this endowment varied from prophet to prophet, so did their effectiveness as God’s messengers. False prophets still carried the name, but their lack of devotion to Israel’s God caused inaccuracy in their message (e.g., Jer. 6:13–14).

New Testament

This dynamic relationship between divine presence and holiness translates directly to the NT use of hagiasmos (and cognates). Although the Gospels rarely use “sanctification” vocabulary, Jesus’ ongoing polemic against the Pharisees, who had turned their piety (holiness) into a question of mere conspicuous behavior, makes the same point. John’s correlation of Jesus’ sanctification as God’s Son with the disciples’ experience of the Spirit’s empowerment (John 10:34–38; 17:17–19) indicates the same. Sanctification could not be separated from purpose and sending (20:21–23) and could not be reduced to a process of learning specified “Christian” behaviors. This, again, follows the pattern outlined in Acts; it was the outpouring of the Spirit that enabled the disciples to live the Christian life, which required the dynamic, creative power of God’s presence (Acts 1:8; 2:1–21).

Paul’s conversion exemplifies this tight connection between divine presence and sanctification (holiness). Not attaining the experience of God that he expected from keeping the law, Paul found the law-promised access to God in Christ. This turned him into a theologian of the Spirit who focused on the relational quality of God’s presence. In Paul’s vernacular “divine presence,” as expressed through the language of holiness or sanctification, stems from the relational work of the Holy Spirit. Accordingly, sanctification centers on deepening the relationship between God and the Spirit-filled Christian. Sanctification as a process of “learning” ethics surfaces only as a derivative; ethics is a by-product of divine presence, not vice versa. The antidote to the vices of the flesh (Gal. 5:18–21) is not a contrasting list of virtues of the Spirit but rather a fruit, the product or result, of living in God’s presence (Gal. 5:22–23).

For Paul, Spirit possession was synonymous with being a Christian (Rom. 8:9). His concern involved the intensity of the Spirit’s presence. The Spirit could be grieved and his presence quenched—a devastating situation to the Christian’s power and sanctity (Eph. 4:30; 1 Thess. 5:19).

In ancient times, footwear generally was sandals, a flat sole constructed of leather, wood, or matted grass secured to the foot with leather straps. Soldiers and dignitaries had more-substantial foot coverings than common people had (cf. Eph. 6:15). Sandals were common and cheap; their quality and presence or absence were indicators of social status (Ezek. 16:10; Luke 15:22). Prisoners were unshod (2 Chron. 28:15; Isa. 20:2–4), and those in mourning also went barefoot (2 Sam. 15:30; Ezek. 24:17). One put on sandals in preparation for a journey (Exod. 12:11; Mark 6:9; Acts 12:8). Moses and Joshua were instructed to take off sandals when they stood on holy ground (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The transfer of a sandal from one party to another sealed a property transaction (Ruth 4:6–10; cf. Ps. 60:8), while the removal of the sandal of a man who refused to marry his brother’s widow was a ceremony of disgrace (Deut. 25:9–10).

The lowest servant in a household removed guests’ sandals and washed their feet, as Jesus demonstrated for his disciples (John 13:5; cf. 1 Sam. 25:41; Luke 7:38). John the Baptist did not consider himself worthy of the humble task of untying Jesus’ sandal (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:7; Acts 13:25).

In Acts 27:17 the KJV translates the Greek word Syrtis as “quicksands,” referring to the “sandbars of Syrtis” (NIV, NLT) or simply “the Syrtis” (NRSV, ESV). See also Syrtis.

The Jewish ruling body in Jerusalem that played a part in Jesus’ execution and the persecution of the early church. The Greek word for this body, synedrion, often is translated as “council,” and in ancient sources other than the Bible the word does not denote one specific ruling authority but rather is used for many different city or regional councils. However, in the NT the word refers to the council in Jerusalem headed by the high priest that was charged by the Roman authorities with maintaining order among the Jewish people. According to Jewish tradition, Moses instituted the Sanhedrin at God’s prompting, so that its members might lead the nation as God’s anointed elders (see Num. 11:16–17). Further tradition says that Ezra called the Sanhedrin together again following the exile.

In the first century AD, the Sanhedrin functioned as the highest judicial authority of the nation of Israel (which sheds light on Matt. 5:22). The Sanhedrin contained members from the Sadducees and the Pharisees, along with other prominent members of the Jewish establishment. In the Gospel of Mark it is described as being made up of “the high priest, and all the chief priests, the elders and the teachers of the law” (Mark 14:53). As the highest authority representing the religious establishment of Israel, the Sanhedrin under the high priest Caiaphas played a prominent role in the final conflict that led to Jesus’ crucifixion. John indicates that the Sanhedrin, and Caiaphas in particular, plotted to kill Jesus just after the raising of Lazarus from the dead (John 11:45–53). Caiaphas expressed the fear that the Sanhedrin’s authority would be usurped if Jesus continued to gain popularity through his miracles, and also that a messiah would trigger a backlash of oppression from the Roman rulers.

After Jesus was taken from the garden of Gethsemane, the Sanhedrin tried him on a charge of blasphemy using false testimony, and some of the Gospels also have the accusers claim that Jesus promised to destroy the temple and raise it in three days, taking his words as a literal threat against the temple (Matt. 26:58–68; Mark 14:53–65; Luke 22:63–71; see also John 18:13–27). The Sanhedrin was unable to carry out a sentence of death that the charge of blasphemy called for, however, and so they were forced to bring Jesus to the Roman authorities to achieve their desired result. When Jesus was brought before Pilate, they portrayed his crime as proclaiming himself to be the “King of the Jews,” thereby tailoring the charge to make him look like a revolutionary rather than a religious teacher with whom the Sanhedrin disagreed (Matt. 27:11–14; Mark 15:2–5; Luke 23:2–7; John 18:29–38). The man who arranged for the burial of Jesus, Joseph of Arimathea, is said to be a member of “the Council” (Mark 15:43), but Luke is quick to mention that Joseph had “not consented to their decision or action” regarding Jesus’ fate (Luke 23:51).

Following the death and resurrection of Jesus, the Sanhedrin attempted to suppress the budding Christian movement by arresting Peter and John and having them beaten for preaching about Jesus (Acts 4:1–21). The Sanhedrin also ordered the apostles “not to speak in the name of Jesus” (5:40). Paul, after being arrested, was brought before the Sanhedrin so that they might determine his crime, and he cleverly used the disagreement between the Sadducees and the Pharisees regarding the resurrection of the dead to disrupt the assembly (23:1–9). They then plotted to kill him (23:12–22).

A town given to Judah in the southern part of their territory (Josh. 15:31). There is a possibility that it is also known as Hazar Susah (Josh. 19:5) and Hazar Susim (1 Chron. 4:31) because of its placement in the list of cities with Ziklag. Its precise location is unknown.

A descendant of the giants (NIV: “descendants of Rapha”) of the Philistines. Saph was killed in battle by Sibbekai the Hushathite, a soldier of King David (2 Sam. 21:18). In 1 Chron. 20:4 he is called “Sippai.”

One of the towns included in Micah’s lament (Mic. 1:11). Micah says that its residents will be led into captivity in shameful nakedness. Its location is unknown.

Sapphira and her husband, Ananias, died as a result of withholding part of the proceeds of a property sale from the early community of believers (Acts 5:1).

The wife of Abraham, the father of Israel and God’s chosen people. Thus, Sarah is a matriarch (mother) of Israel along with Rebekah and Rachel. When first introduced, her name is given as “Sarai,” but God changes it to “Sarah” (at the same time Abram’s name is changed to “Abraham” [Gen. 17:15–16]). Both names mean “princess.” The significance of the change may be subtle, since “Sarai” is an East Semitic version of West Semitic “Sarah,” indicating her transition from Mesopotamia to the promised land.

According to Gen. 11:29–30, Sarai was married to Abram before they entered the promised land. The passage also announces that she was barren. Since an essential part of the divine promises to Abram is that he will be father to a great nation, the lack of offspring is a considerable problem and propels much of the plot of the narrative (esp. Gen. 12–26).

In brief, Sarai’s inability to conceive is an obstacle to the fulfillment of the promise and is a threat to Abram’s faith. Thus, when a famine forces them to go to Egypt to survive, he tells his wife to lie about her status by saying that she is his sister. Although it is true that she is his half sister, the statement is a lie because he hides the most relevant part of his relationship with her and puts the matriarch in danger (Gen. 12:10–20; 20:12). Abraham’s faith (the narrative does not reveal Sarah’s thinking except perhaps in Gen. 18:10–15, when she laughs at the thought of giving birth in her old age) in God’s ability to fulfill the promise fluctuates, and he certainly has not come to a consistent position of trust even just before the birth of Isaac (Gen. 20). As a matter of fact, acting on fear and trying to produce an heir, Abraham takes a concubine, Hagar, who gives birth to Ishmael. Sarah’s relationship with Hagar is troubled (Gen. 16), and Sarah treats her harshly and eventually has Hagar and Ishmael expelled from their camp (21:8–21).

Eventually, in advanced old age, Sarah gives birth to Isaac, the child of the promise (Gen. 21:1–7). Sarah is not mentioned in the story of the “binding of Isaac,” the focus again being on Abraham’s faith.

Sarah predeceases Abraham, and he buys a field from Ephron the Hittite in order to bury her (Gen. 23), the first part of the promised land owned by the people of promise. This location near Hebron became the burial spot of Abraham and other patriarchs.

Later OT literature often looks back on Abraham as patriarch, but only Isa. 51:2 explicitly mentions Sarah in the role of cofounder of the people of God. She is mentioned also in the NT, along with Abraham, as the one through whom God brings the promise of a son to fulfillment (Rom. 4:19; 9:9; Heb. 11:11). In 1 Pet. 3:6 Sarah is put forward as a model of wifely submission because she obeys Abraham and refers to him as her lord (likely a reference to the Greek version of Gen. 18:12).

The wife of Abraham, the father of Israel and God’s chosen people. Thus, Sarah is a matriarch (mother) of Israel along with Rebekah and Rachel. When first introduced, her name is given as “Sarai,” but God changes it to “Sarah” (at the same time Abram’s name is changed to “Abraham” [Gen. 17:15–16]). Both names mean “princess.” The significance of the change may be subtle, since “Sarai” is an East Semitic version of West Semitic “Sarah,” indicating her transition from Mesopotamia to the promised land.

According to Gen. 11:29–30, Sarai was married to Abram before they entered the promised land. The passage also announces that she was barren. Since an essential part of the divine promises to Abram is that he will be father to a great nation, the lack of offspring is a considerable problem and propels much of the plot of the narrative (esp. Gen. 12–26).

In brief, Sarai’s inability to conceive is an obstacle to the fulfillment of the promise and is a threat to Abram’s faith. Thus, when a famine forces them to go to Egypt to survive, he tells his wife to lie about her status by saying that she is his sister. Although it is true that she is his half sister, the statement is a lie because he hides the most relevant part of his relationship with her and puts the matriarch in danger (Gen. 12:10–20; 20:12). Abraham’s faith (the narrative does not reveal Sarah’s thinking except perhaps in Gen. 18:10–15, when she laughs at the thought of giving birth in her old age) in God’s ability to fulfill the promise fluctuates, and he certainly has not come to a consistent position of trust even just before the birth of Isaac (Gen. 20). As a matter of fact, acting on fear and trying to produce an heir, Abraham takes a concubine, Hagar, who gives birth to Ishmael. Sarah’s relationship with Hagar is troubled (Gen. 16), and Sarah treats her harshly and eventually has Hagar and Ishmael expelled from their camp (21:8–21).

Eventually, in advanced old age, Sarah gives birth to Isaac, the child of the promise (Gen. 21:1–7). Sarah is not mentioned in the story of the “binding of Isaac,” the focus again being on Abraham’s faith.

Sarah predeceases Abraham, and he buys a field from Ephron the Hittite in order to bury her (Gen. 23), the first part of the promised land owned by the people of promise. This location near Hebron became the burial spot of Abraham and other patriarchs.

Later OT literature often looks back on Abraham as patriarch, but only Isa. 51:2 explicitly mentions Sarah in the role of cofounder of the people of God. She is mentioned also in the NT, along with Abraham, as the one through whom God brings the promise of a son to fulfillment (Rom. 4:19; 9:9; Heb. 11:11). In 1 Pet. 3:6 Sarah is put forward as a model of wifely submission because she obeys Abraham and refers to him as her lord (likely a reference to the Greek version of Gen. 18:12).

A son of Shelah, a son of Judah, he, along with Joash, ruled in Moab and Jashubi Lehem (so NIV; NRSV takes the verb as indicating he married into Moab), perhaps during the reign of David or Solomon when Israel had control over that area (1 Chron. 4:22).

A city of the ancient Roman province of Asia, it was located approximately fifty miles northeast of Ephesus, in what is modern Turkey. During the sixth century BC, Sardis was among the most wealthy and powerful cities in the world. This prominence, however, was in relative decline in subsequent centuries. In AD 17 a severe earthquake destroyed the city, though it was quickly rebuilt within a decade. The church at Sardis is among the seven churches addressed in the book of Revelation (Rev. 1:11). The message to it reflects a complacent church resting on its past accomplishments (Rev. 3:1–6).

One of the three clans of the descendants of Zebulun, counted at the second wilderness census (Num. 26:26).

The KJV rendering of the Hebrew word ’odem (NIV: “carnelian”) and the Greek word sardion (NIV: “ruby”). The former is an orange-red gemstone that adorns Aaron’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:17; 39:10) and the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13). The latter is a precious stone used in the gemstone imagery of God on the throne and is the sixth foundation stone in the city wall of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 4:3; 21:20).

A small Sidonian town (“Sarepta” in Luke 4:26 KJV) where a widow served Elijah a meal with all that was left to her household (1 Kings 17:7–24). Her faith and God’s miraculous provision for her in return during the three years of famine are contrasted to the Israelites’ lack of faith. At the day of the Lord, God promises that the exiles of Israel will be able to extend the western border to this town (Obad. 20).

The third ruler of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, Sargon II (r. 721–705 BC), took credit for his predecessor’s defeat of Samaria in 722 BC and advanced the policies of Tiglath-pileser III. Most of his reign was marked by warfare. His three western campaigns went as far as Egypt. Around 714 BC, Egypt incited Ashdod and others to rebel against Assyria. Isaiah warned Hezekiah against relying on Egypt. Hezekiah’s role in the rebellion is unclear, but he appears to have heeded Isaiah’s advice. On Sargon’s third campaign, in 712 BC, he captured Ashdod (Isa. 20:1) and other cities in today’s Gaza Strip. Subsequently he defeated Babylon in 710 BC and removed Marduk-Baladan, who later rebelled against Sennacherib.

The first town listed in the border description of Zebulun’s tribal allotment mentioned in Josh. 19:10–12. From this farthest point, Zebulun’s boundaries continued west, east, and north. Support for Tel Shadud as the location of biblical Sarid exists both philologically in LXX manuscripts as well as archaeologically via remains showing appropriate occupation levels.

“Sharon” refers to the Sharon Plain (e.g., Acts 9:35). The coastal plain, one of the north-south sections into which Palestine can be divided north of the Negev, is the westernmost geographical feature of these strips. The Mediterranean Sea is to the west of the coastal plain and the foothills of the Shephelah to the east. The coastal plain is called the Sharon Plain once it extends north of the Yarkon River. The Sharon Plain is divided by two kurkar (local sandstone) ridges running north to south. North, toward the Carmel Mountains, the plain narrows and virtually disappears at the promontory at Haifa. It widens farther north past Akko and into Lebanon. The Sharon Plain held forests of oaks and terebinth trees during antiquity, but it was deforested during the Ottoman Empire. New forests have been replanted since modern Israel’s statehood.

A Babylonian official identified in Jer. 39:3. The division and significance of the names in the list is disputed. Some versions treat “Nebo” (Heb. nebu) as the second half of Samgar’s name, and read this part of the list as “Nergal-sharezer, Samgar-nebo, Sarsechim the Rab-saris” (NRSV, HCSB; similarly, NASB). The NIV and others (see NLT, REB, NET) instead read the Hebrew as two names, with a place name and a title: “Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-Sarsekim a chief officer.”

A Babylonian official identified in Jer. 39:3. The division and significance of the names in the list is disputed. Some versions treat “Nebo” (Heb. nebu) as the second half of Samgar’s name, and read this part of the list as “Nergal-sharezer, Samgar-nebo, Sarsechim the Rab-saris” (NRSV, HCSB; similarly, NASB). The NIV and others (see NLT, REB, NET) instead read the Hebrew as two names, with a place name and a title: “Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar, Nebo-Sarsekim a chief officer.”

A great-grandfather of Abraham, he was the son of Reu, the father of Nahor, and an ancestor of Jesus (Gen. 11:20–23; 1 Chron. 1:26; Luke 3:35). As with other names in Abraham’s ancestry, forms of personal and place names similar to this occur in ancient extrabiblical Semitic texts.

Clothing serves not only the utilitarian function of protecting the body from the elements (1 Tim. 6:8; James 2:15–16) but also a number of socially constructed functions, such as identifying the status of the wearer (James 2:2–3) and expressing cultural values such as modesty and beauty. The full range of such functions is attested in the Bible, and clothing plays a prominent symbolic role in a number of texts. Evidence concerning Israelite and other ancient clothing comes not only from the Bible but also from reliefs, pottery decorations, incised ivories, and, to a limited extent, textile fragments recovered in archaeological excavations.

In biblical lands most clothing was made from the wool of sheep or goats. More expensive articles (such as the garments of priests and aristocrats) could be made from linen, a textile made from the plant fiber flax. Other items, such as sandals, belts, and undergarments, were made from leather. Biblical law forbade the mixture of woolen and linen fibers in Israelite clothing (Deut. 22:11).

Articles of Clothing

A number of specific articles of clothing can be identified in the Bible. Egyptian and Mesopotamian pictures suggest that in OT times each nation was known for a distinctive costume or hairstyle. Some notion of how Israelite costume was perceived, at least that of royalty, may be derived from the depiction of the northern king Jehu (842–814 BC) and his retinue on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. In this image Israelites are depicted wearing softly pointed caps, pointed shoes, and fringed mantles.

In OT Israel, men wore an undergarment or loincloth held in place by a belt. This loincloth could be made of linen (Jer. 13:1) or leather (2 Kings 1:8). Over this was worn an ankle-length woolen robe or tunic. The tunic of Joseph, traditionally rendered as his “coat of many colors” (Gen. 37:3 KJV, following the LXX), is perhaps better described not as colorful but as “long-sleeved” (see also 2 Sam. 13:18 NASB). The corresponding garments worn by women were similar in appearance, though sufficiently distinct that cross-dressing could be prohibited (Deut. 22:5).

Outside the tunic were worn cloaks (Exod. 22:25–26), sashes (Isa. 22:21), and mantles (1 Kings 19:19). A crafted linen sash was a marketable item (Prov. 31:24), whereas a rope belt was a poor substitute (Isa. 3:24). Both Elijah and John the Baptist wore a belt of leather (2 Kings 1:8; Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The characteristic garment of the elite was a loose-fitting, wide-sleeved, often elegantly decorated royal robe (Heb. me’il  ). This garment was worn by priests (Exod. 28:4), nobility, kings, and other highly placed members of Israelite society, such as Samuel (1 Sam. 15:27–28), Jonathan (1 Sam. 18:4), Saul (1 Sam. 24:4), David (1 Chron. 15:27), David’s daughter Tamar (2 Sam. 13:18), and Ezra (Ezra 9:3).

In the NT, the inner garment was the tunic (chitōn), and the outer garment was the cloak (himation). This distinction lies behind the famous command of Jesus: “From one who takes away your cloak do not withhold your tunic either” (Luke 6:29 ESV). The Gospel of John reports that the tunic taken from Jesus at the time of his death was made seamlessly from a single piece of cloth (John 19:23).

Footwear consisted of leather sandals attached to the feet by straps (John 1:27). Sandals were removed as a sign of respect in the presence of deity (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The exchange of footwear also played a role in formalizing various legal arrangements (Ruth 4:7–8; see also Deut. 25:9).

Special Functions of Clothing

According to Genesis, the first humans lived initially without clothing or the shame of nakedness (Gen. 2:25). After eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, Adam and Eve realized that they were naked and fashioned clothing from leaves (3:7). Later, God made “garments of skin” for Adam and his wife (3:21). The significance of this story and the meaning of the divinely fashioned garments have a long history of interpretation going back to antiquity. Clearly, however, the story illustrates that a basic function of clothing is to cover nakedness—a motif that soon after this story is featured again in the story of Noah and his sons (9:21–23).

Rebekah’s ploy to secure the birthright for her son Jacob involved disguising him in the clothing of his brother Esau (Gen. 27:15; see also Saul’s use of disguise in 1 Sam. 28:8). This tale illustrates how especially in a culture in which individuals owned what would, by modern standards, be considered a limited amount of clothing, clothing itself became an extension of the individual’s identity. In the same way, Jacob himself later was tricked into thinking that one of his own sons was dead, based on the identification of an article of clothing (Gen. 37:31–33). That Isaac could detect Esau’s distinctive smell on his clothing may also indicate the infrequency with which garments were changed and laundered (Gen. 27:27; see also Matt. 10:10). So closely was clothing identified with its owner that a garment could be used as collateral or a pledge, though biblical law regulates this practice for humanitarian reasons (Exod. 22:26). Perhaps because the production of clothing was labor intensive, making clothes for someone was sometimes considered an act of intimacy or an expression of love, so that descriptions of this aspect of clothing in the Bible are quite poignant (see 1 Sam. 2:19; Acts 9:39). When clothing wore out, it was discarded and replaced (Ps. 102:26; Isa. 51:6; Luke 12:33). During the forty years in the wilderness, as a special provision to the Israelites, their clothes and shoes did not wear out (Deut. 8:4; 29:5; Neh. 9:21).

Clothing was an emblem not only of one’s identity but also of one’s office. Thus, when the authority of Elijah passed to his disciple Elisha, Elisha received his master’s cloak or mantle (2 Kings 2:13–14; see also Isa. 22:21). Examples of this function are multiplied when we consider the significance of clothing in symbolizing the role of priests in ancient Israel (e.g., Exod. 29:5–9; 39:27–31). The story of Tamar illustrates that the status of certain women was expressed by their clothing, including that of the prostitute (Gen. 38:15) and the widow (Gen. 38:14, 19).

Biblical texts reveal a rich gestural language involving clothing. In several biblical accounts, spreading the corner of one’s garment over a woman appears as a courtship or marriage ritual (Ruth 3:9; Ezek. 16:8). Giving garments as gifts was a way of honoring or elevating the recipient (Gen. 45:22; Judg. 14:12; Ezek. 16:10; Dan. 5:7), including royal investiture (Pss. 45:8; 93:1; 104:1). The guards who tortured Jesus prior to his crucifixion made light of his status as “king” by dressing him in a royal purple robe (Luke 23:11; John 19:2–3). Grasping someone’s garment, especially its hem, signified entreaty (1 Sam. 15:27–28; Zech. 8:23; Mark 5:27–28). Tearing one’s garments was a way of expressing despair or repentance (Gen. 37:29; Josh. 7:6; Judg. 11:35) or of lodging an especially strong protest (Num. 14:6; Matt. 26:65; Acts 14:14). In some cases, the tearing clothing was accompanied by the act of donning sackcloth and ashes, which signified a further degree of self-humiliation or mourning (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31; 2 Kings 19:1; Matt. 11:21; in Jon. 3:8 animals are included as well, perhaps to comic effect). In such instances, shoes and headwear were also removed (2 Sam. 15:30; Isa. 20:2; Ezek. 24:17). A number of these customs can be understood in terms of the correlation of nakedness with shame, and clothing with honor. Military captives often were stripped naked as a form of humiliation (Lam. 4:21; Ezek. 23:10; Amos 2:16). In Luke 8:27 Jesus encounters a demon-possessed man who neither lived in a house nor wore clothing. In this case, the lack of clothing represents the full measure of human degradation.

Clothing stands symbolically for attributes such as righteousness and salvation (Job 29:14; Ps. 132:9; Isa. 61:10), the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:53–54; 2 Cor. 5:2–4), glory and honor (Job 40:10), union with Christ (Rom. 13:14; Gal. 3:27), compassion and other virtues (Col. 3:12; 1 Pet. 5:5), and purity (Rev. 3:18).

The Hebrew word satan means “accuser” or “adversary.” Passages in the OT apply it to human and divine figures enforcing justice or hindering purposes, often on behalf of God (e.g., Num. 22:22; 1 Kings 11:14). The satan appears in Job 1–2 and Zech. 3 as a member of the heavenly council responsible for accusing and indicting. In some later Second Temple Jewish and Christian writings satan appears as a proper name for a leading evil divine being. See also Devil, Demons.

In Num. 35:31–32 the KJV translates the Hebrew word koper as “atonement,” referring to the “ransom” (NIV, NRSV, NET) that is rejected as a substitute for the death penalty due for murder.

The official title of a governmental ruler under the sovereignty of the Persian king. These rulers were entrusted with the provinces of the Persian Empire. According to Dan. 6:1, Darius appointed 120 of them over the empire. They appear in the books of Ezra, Esther, and Daniel. The KJV translates the Hebrew term (’akhashdarpan) as “prince” or “lieutenant.”

In Greek and Roman mythology, satyrs were sylvan gods associated with drunkenness and sexual licentiousness and characterized by a mixture of human and goatlike (or equine) features. Following the LXX and the Vulgate, some older English translations of the Bible rendered the noun sa’ir (“he-goat”) as “satyr” or “demon.” In several cases, the context suggests the translation “goat,” without connotations of the mythological entity (Isa. 13:21; 34:14). In two cases, the context does involve the worship of false deities (Lev. 17:7; 2 Chron. 11:15; and, with a minor textual emendation, possibly 2 Kings 23:8). In such cases, the translation “goat-idol” may be an appropriate way of avoiding the anachronism introduced by using the Greek-derived terms “satyr” and “demon” in the translation of the Hebrew text.

(1) The first king of Israel (1 Sam. 9:1–2 Sam. 1:27; 1 Chron. 9:35–10:14). Out of fear of their enemy the Philistines as well as displeasure over Samuel’s wicked sons, the people of Israel asked Samuel for a king like all the other nations had (1 Sam. 8). Though God and Samuel both expressed displeasure with the people’s request, God directed Samuel to anoint Saul as king. Saul’s initial reluctance to make his role public and also his hesitation to immediately confront the Philistines are not a sign of humility, but rather are an early example of the kind of disobedience to God and his prophet Samuel that eventually would bring God’s great anger against him.

Saul’s first significant failure, however, occurred before a battle with the Philistines, while he and his army were camped at Gilgal (1 Sam. 13). Before initiating battle, it was necessary to offer sacrifices. Samuel the priest, however, was late in arriving. Saul grew nervous because his troops were deserting, so he sacrificed the animals. When Samuel arrived, he confronted Saul. After all, with God on one’s side, large numbers of troops were unnecessary. Saul thus displayed a lack of confidence in God by his actions. For this, Samuel announced that he would not found a dynasty of kings (13:13–14).

Soon thereafter, Saul showed his disobedience in another important aspect of war. Upon victory, the king should immediately offer all the plunder to God. In addition, if the enemy came from within the land, all the captives were to be put to death (see Holy War). However, after defeating the hated Amalekites (cf. Exod. 17:8–16; Deut. 25:17–19), Saul kept the sheep and did not personally execute King Agag, their leader (1 Sam. 15). For this, Samuel announced God’s decision to remove him from the kingship and anoint another king (15:26).

At this time, Samuel anointed David, but David did not immediately become king (1 Sam. 16:1–13). For a period of time, David entered into Saul’s service (16:14–23). It was never David’s intention to forcibly remove Saul from the throne (1 Sam. 24; 26), but Saul grew intensely jealous of this popular young man. Indeed, Saul was a man deeply plagued by mental problems, perhaps depression and paranoia, even before the conflict with David. His jealousy also brought him into conflict with his own brave son, Jonathan, who had a deep friendship with David. Saul ejected David from the court and then spent much of his energy trying to track him down and kill him. He was, however, unsuccessful.

Eventually, God abandoned Saul. He was defeated and killed by the Philistines in the battle of Mount Gilboa (1 Sam. 31), and David mourned his death and the death of his friend Jonathan (2 Sam. 1).

(2) Another name for the apostle Paul (see Paul).

In the Greco-Roman world the title “savior” (sōtēr) often was ascribed to deities. It carried with it the sense of rescue and preservation for subjects of a particular god. The LXX also uses the term, sometimes with reference to God as Savior (especially in the Prophets), and sometimes referring to deliverers such as the judges.

In the NT, God is also called “Savior” (Luke 1:47). He will rescue his people from sin. At the birth of Jesus, the angel announced that the one born will be a “Savior, who is the Messiah [Christ], the Lord” (Luke 2:11 NRSV). The Samaritans believed in Jesus as the Savior (John 4:42). Peter connected the exaltation and the majesty of Christ to his salvific work (Acts 5:31). In Paul’s thinking, Christ is Savior of the body and is also the model for the husband-wife relationship (Eph. 5:23). Also for Paul, the believer is to anticipate the return of this now-exalted Savior (Phil. 3:20). Of special note are the frequent references to “God our Savior” (e.g., 1 Tim. 1:1), “Christ Jesus our Savior” (e.g., Titus 1:4), or some other such formula. John notes the Father has sent the Son to be Savior of the world (1 John 4:14).

A skin disease, closely related to scabies, characterized by an irritating sensation. Moses gave regulations regarding a variety of skin diseases (Lev. 13:1–14:32). Based on these guiding principles, the priest was able to declare whether a person was clean or unclean. The priest used the term “itch” (Heb. neteq) to differentiate a minor skin disease from leprosy, depending on how it developed (Lev. 13:30–37). Moses warned the Israelites that if they failed to live up to their covenant commitment with Yahweh, they would be inflicted with incurable diseases, one of which was itchy skin (Heb. kheres [Deut. 28:27]). This disease disqualified its victims from the priesthood (Lev. 21:20). Job suffered from an itching disease (Heb. shekhin) and used a potsherd to scratch himself (Job 2:7–8).

Three different Hebrew words and one Greek word are translated in the NIV as “balances” or “scales,” and all probably signify the same basic instrument. Balances in the ancient world consisted of two plates or pans suspended from the ends of a horizontal bar that itself was suspended by a cord or rested on a fulcrum. The object to be weighed was placed in one of the pans, and an object of already-known weight, usually a stone, was placed in the other. Economic transactions depended on the use of proper balances and accurate weights. Standards for weights varied, and it was relatively easy for a merchant or trader to cheat by using substandard weights (Lev. 19:36; Prov. 11:1; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10; Hos. 12:7; Amos 8:5; Mic. 6:11).

Most references to balances in the Bible are figurative. Job complains that his misery could be weighed on scales (Job 6:2), and he declares that if God weighed him with honest scales, God would find him blameless (31:6). Belshazzar, on the other hand, was “weighed on the scales and found wanting” (Dan. 5:27). Isaiah declares that God “weighed the mountains on the scales and the hills in a balance” (40:12), and that God regards the nations as “dust on the scales” (40:15). The psalmist asserts that if humans, whether of low or high degree, were placed on scales, they would actually cause the pan into which they were placed to rise (Ps. 62:9; cf. ESV, NRSB, NASB)! The rider on the black horse in the book of Revelation is portrayed as weighing out vengeance against the earth on a pair of scales (6:5; cf. Ezek. 5:1–12).

In Lev. 13–14, in the context of laws outlining the appropriate action to take with skin conditions and leprosy, the KJV translates the Hebrew word neteq as “scall,” referring to a dry or itchy spot on the skin, usually the scalp. This dryness or itchiness usually is found in patches upon the head and is often caused by parasitic organisms.

A goat that carried away the sins of Israel. Chosen through lot on the Day of Atonement by the high priest, the scapegoat was offered to God alive and then released into the desert (Lev. 16:8, 10). The high priest laid his hands upon the head of the scapegoat, thus symbolically transferring all of Israel’s guilt and sin to it. An appointed man then took the goat into the wilderness and released it, where it would “carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (16:22). The complete removal of Israel’s sin provided a powerful demonstration of the purification offered through the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement. The act of releasing the scapegoat caused the chosen man to become unclean. After bathing himself with water, he was able to reenter the camp (16:26).

The Bible does not have a generic term for the idea of color, but it does use various colors for descriptive and symbolic purposes, and it also refers to different coloring processes. Items can be described as “dyed” (Exod. 25:5), “multicolored” (Ezek. 27:24), or “speckled” (Gen. 30:32) to indicate changes or variety of color.

Certain colors are commonly used in the Bible (listed below), while others occur rarely (e.g., brown and yellow) or not at all (e.g., orange), reflecting the range of colors and dyes available in the ancient Near East. Colors are most often used for two purposes: to describe luxury items indicating wealth and power, and to describe the earthly and heavenly dwelling places of God. Ordinary people and places are not usually described in terms of the colors of their appearance. Exceptions to this include Esau (Gen. 25:25), David (1 Sam. 17:42), and the male lover in Song of Songs (5:10–11).

The following colors have particular significance or symbolic meaning in the Bible:

White. Used to describe the symptoms of leprosy (Lev. 13:3–4), white much more commonly has a positive association, being the color of purity (Isa. 1:18; Rev. 3:4) and glory (Dan. 7:9; Matt. 17:2; Rev. 1:14). Angels appear white (Matt. 28:3) or are dressed in white (Mark 16:2; Acts 1:10). The multitude of worshipers in heaven will wear white robes (Rev. 7:9), having been washed in the blood of the Lamb.

Black. The female lover in the Song of Songs admires the raven black hair of her beloved (Song 5:11). However, black things usually have less positive connotations: storm clouds (1 Kings 18:45), diseased skin (Job 30:30), and the effects of the plague of locusts (Exod. 10:15). Blackness can also be a sign of judgment (Rev. 6:5, 12).

Red. Red is the color of the earth, the color of wine, and the color of blood. Red dyes could be made from crushed insects, plants, and minerals, giving a wide range of different shades (red, scarlet, and crimson are common in the Bible). Scarlet yarn and red-dyed animal skins were included in the offerings made for the construction of the tabernacle (Exod. 25:3–5). Red was used to symbolize sin (Isa. 1:18) and was also associated with warfare (Nah. 2:3; Rev. 6:4).

Blue. Blue tassels adorned every Hebrew garment as a reminder of God’s commandments (Num. 15:38). In the Persian court the royal colors were blue, white, and purple (Esther 1:6; 8:15), and blue garments were worn by the young Assyrian governors (Ezek. 23:6).

Purple. Purple dye was very expensive, so purple cloth was used as a sign of wealth (Prov. 31:22; Acts 16:14) and a sign of authority: the kings of Midian wore purple garments (Judg. 8:26); the wedding carriage of King Solomon was upholstered in purple (Song 3:10); the Babylonian king Belshazzar offered purple robes as a reward for service (Dan. 5:7). Purple robes were put on Jesus before his crucifixion in a mockery of his kingship (John 19:2–5).

Blue, purple, and scarlet were each separately associated with wealth and power, but when used together these three colors were the epitome of opulence and, as such, were associated with the divine presence. The tabernacle curtains were woven from blue, purple, and scarlet yarn (Exod. 26:1), as were the high-priestly garments (28:4–15, 33). The same colors were later used in the temple curtains (2 Chron. 3:14). Blue, purple, and red cloths were used for covering the Ark of the Covenant and its furnishings (Num. 4:6–12). Jeremiah describes idols adorned in blue and purple, an attempt to conceal their worthlessness (10:9).

Gray. Gray hair indicated old age and thus wisdom (Ps. 71:18; Prov. 16:31).

Green. Green is the color of plants and thus was associated with life-giving food and therefore God’s blessing. Green plants were given by God for food (Gen. 1:30), so their removal or destruction was a devastating judgment (Exod. 10:15; Ezek. 17:24; Rev. 8:7). People could be symbolized as green plants when they were fruitful and blessed (Ps. 92:14; Jer. 17:8) or when they were easily destroyed (2 Kings 19:26; Ps. 37:2).

A rod, club, or mace that signified royal authority and power. The king ruled over the nation and enemies with his primary weapon, the scepter (Num. 24:17; Pss. 2:9; 110:2). The king was “the one who holds the scepter” (Amos 1:8). In the hands of the wicked, the scepter symbolized oppression and violence (Ps. 125:3; Jer. 48:17). The scepter symbolized royal authority throughout the ancient world, as evidenced by the many depictions of kings holding scepters. Through metonymy, the OT uses “the scepter” to refer to kingship and kingdoms (Gen. 49:10; Num. 24:17). The Roman soldiers mocked the royalty of Jesus by putting a crown of thorns on his head and a staff in his hand, which represented his scepter (Matt. 27:29).

In Acts 19:14 Sceva is mentioned as a “Jewish chief priest.” His seven sons were among a group of itinerant Jewish exorcists in Ephesus who unsuccessfully tried to exorcize demons in the name of Jesus, which Paul was able to do. No such Jewish high priest is known from other sources, nor is one known to have lived in Ephesus. Sceva may have taken the title for himself to impress the Ephesians.

The word “school” does not appear in the NIV, and it occurs only once in the KJV and NASB, referring to a lecture hall of Tyrannus that Paul used to instruct his disciples (Acts 19:9). The Greek word scholē primarily refers to leisure and suggests having the time to debate and listen to lectures. However, analogies with other Near Eastern cultures whose literature mentions schools support the idea that formal education existed in ancient Israel and Greece. The first schools were developed in the third millennium BC in Sumer to train scribes in cuneiform for official administrative duties or temple work. In preexilic Israel, education was done primarily at home through the family, though it is probable that schools were connected to the temple or court. The first mention of a school in Jewish literature is in Sir. 51:23 in reference to a “house of instruction” (bet midrash).

In Gal. 3:24–25 the KJV translates the Greek word paidagōgos as “schoolmaster,” referring to a function of the OT law as a custodian, guardian, or tutor to prepare a person for salvation by faith in Christ through creating an awareness of the holiness and righteousness of God and an accompanying sense of personal need. The term was used of a slave placed in charge of a boy in a wealthy Greco-Roman household whose task it was to accompany the boy to school and to guide his conduct until he came of age and took on the responsibilities of a man.

A way of knowing (Lat. scientia) through observing nature. The discipline grew up alongside philosophy in ancient Greece but acquired its modern sense of collecting and analyzing data with Aristotle. The approach overlaps with the biblical wisdom tradition and is not incongruous with Paul’s reflections on general revelation (Rom. 1:20).

A person who shows contempt for others by insulting them with words or actions. Proverbs contains many warnings about scoffers and often contrasts the scoffer with the wise man or wise son. The scoffer refuses to listen or be disciplined, whereas the wise person seeks wisdom and responds to discipline. The Hebrew term lets often is translated by the NIV as “mocker.” Scoffers are associated with the last days in 2 Pet. 3:3. However, scoffing is not always described as evil. God is pictured as a scoffer of evildoers in a number of biblical passages (e.g., Pss. 2:4; 59:8).

To treat with contempt, ridicule, despise. The people of God, through their thoughtlessness and rebellion, scorn God and his worship (1 Sam. 2:29). More often the godly are scorned by the wicked (Ps. 69:7, 10, 20; Prov. 23:9). God will also subject his people to scorn when they reject and ignore him (Deut. 28:37; Jer. 18:16; Ezek. 22:4).

A nocturnal arachnid that preys on insects and other arachnids. It has a pointed, poisonous stinger on its tail that is lethal to small animals and very painful or lethal to humans. The Israelites encountered them as they wandered through the wilderness (Deut. 8:15). They are referred to symbolically as a torturous punishment (1 Kings 12:14; Rev. 9:3, 5, 10). When Jesus sends out the seventy-two missionaries, he gives them the authority to trample scorpions without fear of being hurt (Luke 10:19).

This name (lit., “scorpions”) is actually a shortened form of maaleh ’aqrabbim (“ascent of scorpions”). This is a mountain pass (NIV: “Scorpion Pass”) that marks part of the southern boundary of Canaan’s border, according to Num. 34:4; Josh. 15:3; Judg. 1:36. The pass is actually located southwest of the Dead Sea near the Arabah. The area adjacent to this pass is Akrabattene, which is where Judas Maccabeus defeated the Idumeans (1 Macc. 5:3).

The word “scourge” refers to both the act of whipping and the whip used in such action. Such a whip usually was laced with sharp rocks or bones capable of decimating the victim’s body.

Rehoboam notes that he would scourge with scorpions, a reference to the stinging of whips (1 Kings 12:11–14). Job refers to a scourge of sudden death (Job 9:22–23), and Isaiah notes God’s punishment the rebellious have sought to avert (Isa. 28:15).

In the NT, Jesus predicts his own scourging (Matt. 20:19; 27:26 [the fulfillment]) and the scourging and death of his followers (23:34). Paul challenges the authority of a tribune to scourge (mastizō) an untried Roman citizen (Acts 22:25).

An individual with the ability to read and write who uses these skills in a professional manner. The scribe was highly esteemed in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Most scribes were royal secretaries (2 Sam. 8:17; 20:25). Early scribal activities included writing official records, drafting letters, and preparing royal decrees, deeds, and other things (2 Kings 12:10; 25:19; 2 Chron. 26:11). The scribes also read to the king (Jer. 36:21). As a result, scribes often became counselors to the king in matters of state (1 Chron. 27:32). After the exile, scribes became experts in the law of Moses (Ezra 7:6). By NT times, scribes were associated with the Pharisees as professional teachers of the law (Mark 2:16). Along with the chief priests, scribes conspired to kill Jesus (Luke 19:47).

The term “Scripture” ( graphē) appears fifty-one times in the NT, used in reference to the OT. Sometimes the biblical writers cite a specific OT text as Scripture, while at other times they refer to Scripture in a more comprehensive manner.

Most references occur in the Gospels, in which Jesus details the nature and the extent of Scripture. Jesus opened the Scriptures from Moses through all the prophets in order to explain everything about himself as the anticipated Messiah (Luke 24:44–45). The prophetic quality of Scripture is evidenced in OT passages that are referenced in the NT as being fulfilled in his birth, life, betrayal, death, burial, and resurrection.

Jesus characterized the Scriptures as the powerful source of eternal life (John 5:39; 7:38). They have abiding authority and cannot be broken (10:35). He highlighted the dynamic quality of the Scriptures when he said that they speak, testify, and declare.

In Acts, Scripture is the authoritative source from which the apostle Paul explains the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ (17:2; 18:28). Apollos is distinguished as a man with a thorough knowledge of Scripture, and the Bereans were known for their investigative inquiry into the truthfulness of the Scriptures.

The book of Romans opens (1:2) and closes (16:25–26) with references to the gospel as Scripture. Throughout this letter Paul broadens Scripture referents beyond Christ and his redemptive work to include the themes of divine power, the nature of belief, and the prophetic ministry of Elijah. Finally, Paul characterizes Scripture as holy, prophetic, and intimately associated with the Lord himself. The Scriptures are a source not only of eternal life but also of encouragement.

In Galatians, Scripture includes the prophetic anticipation of Gentile participation in the gospel (3:8). It is a convicting authority that shows all people to be bound by sin and unbelief (3:22). The historical narrative account of Gen. 21 is also regarded as Scripture and used in an analogous typological manner (Gal. 4:21–31).

The Pastoral Letters and the book of James cite legal sections of the OT under the heading of Scripture (1 Tim. 5:18 [quoting Deut. 25:4; Lev. 19:13]; James 2:8). The most significant references to Scripture are 2 Tim. 3:16 and 2 Pet. 1:20–21 because they define the origin, nature, and function of Scripture. In addition, 2 Tim. 3:16 details the sufficiency of Scripture in its ability to teach, rebuke, correct, and train. In every period of history, Scripture is sufficient in extent and content to sustain people and nurture their relationship with God.

References to “books” in biblical narratives are more properly said to indicate scrolls, that is, book rolls, made from papyrus, tanned hides of sheep and goats (as were most of the DSS), or parchment (hides with the hair removed and rubbed clean) (2 Tim. 4:13). They were unrolled for reading (Luke 4:17, 20) and could be secured with a wax seal (Rev. 5:1). The physical limitations of scroll length probably affected the size of biblical books. Almost invariably, only one side was written on, which makes Ezek. 2:9–10 and Rev. 5:1 exceptional. See also Books; Writing Implements and Materials.

The KJV rendering of the Hebrew term garab in Lev. 21:20; 22:22, and the NRSV rendering of that term in Deut. 28:27, referring to what was considered an incurable skin disease (NIV: “festering sores”). This is not the scurvy caused by a deficiency of vitamin C, but rather a chronic fungal disease that appears as a draining lesion. Both priests and the animals sacrificed as burnt offerings were to be free of it (Lev. 21:20; 22:22). In Deut. 28:27 God would afflict Israel with “scurvy” because of its disobedience. See also Diseases and Physical Abnormalities.

An ethnic group that inhabited the northern and eastern shores of the Black Sea. The term is also used more generically to refer to a nomadic people who rode on horseback, herded sheep and cattle, and moved from one seasonal pasture to another on the steppes from the Black Sea to what is now southern Russia. They often were employed as military mercenaries by Near Eastern powers.

Scythians are mentioned in Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian, and Greek literature from the seventh century BC to the first century AD, after which time they appear to fade from history. Some earlier biblical scholars associated Scythians with the horse-riding nation that would bring destruction from the north (Jer. 4:29; 5:15–17; 6:22–26; 50:41–42; Zeph. 1:2–18), although more recent scholars normally identify this foe as the Babylonians.

Scythians were renowned for savagery, caricatured as rude and rough, and treated with contempt by outsiders. The Greek word skythizō means “to drink immoderately” and also “to shave the head” because of the Scythian practice of scalping their dead enemies. Josephus describes them as “little better than wild beasts” (Ag. Ap. 2.269).

Scythians are mentioned in 2 Macc. 4:47; 3 Macc. 7:5; 4 Macc. 10:7. The only reference to them in the NT is in Col. 3:11, where they are coupled with barbarians. There is no evidence of a particular problem with Scythians at Colossae, but Paul wishes to point out that there is no place within the church for racial, ethnic, or social contempt.

Known as Scythopolis at the time of Jesus, Beth Shan is a town located at the junction of the plain of Jezreel and the Jordan Valley, west of the Jordan River. This strategic site, with fertile lands and abundant water, overlooks major roads running west toward the Mediterranean and north and south through the Jordan Valley. The name also designates the district surrounding the town.

Modern Tel Beth-Shean (Arabic: Tell el-Husn) has been the site of three archaeological excavations. In 1921–33 the University of Pennsylvania began work on the Early Arab and Byzantine levels and later reached the Middle and Early Bronze Age strata, discovering that Beth Shan served as an administrative center for Egypt during the time of the Late Bronze Age and Iron Age I (1550–1150 BC). The most significant finds of this excavation included three basalt stelae with inscriptions from the reigns of the Egyptian rulers Seti I and Ramesses II and a life-size statue of Ramesses II. Excavations in Beth Shan were renewed briefly in 1983 and in earnest between 1989 and 1996 by the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, with significant artifacts uncovered at almost every stratum. The combined efforts of these excavations have found evidence of continuous occupation from the late Neolithic period (5500–4500 BC) to the Crusader and Ayyubid periods (AD 1099–1291).

Beth Shan is first mentioned in the Bible in connection with Joshua’s division of the land among the twelve tribes of Israel. Although located within the territory of Issachar, it was portioned to the tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 17:11) but remained under the control of the Canaanite inhabitants because they possessed iron chariots. When the Israelites gained strength, they put the Canaanites to forced labor but did not drive them out (Josh. 17:12–13, 16; Judg. 1:27).

During the period of the monarchy, after the Israelites were defeated in battle on Mount Gilboa, the Philistines fastened the bodies of Saul and his three sons to the wall of Beth Shan and placed Saul’s weapons in the temple of Ashtaroth. When news of this atrocity spread, men from Jabesh Gilead retrieved the bodies and buried them (1 Sam. 31:7–13). David later retrieved the bones of Saul and his sons and reburied them in Zela (2 Sam. 21:14). Although Beth Shan had been under the control of the Philistines during Saul’s reign, it is listed within one of Solomon’s administrative districts (1 Kings 4:12).

Not mentioned again in biblical sources, the town continued to play a role in the historical events of the area. After Alexander the Great’s conquests, Greeks settled in Beth Shan and changed the town’s name to “Scythopolis.” It became one of the towns designated as belonging to the Decapolis, a confederation of ten towns primarily situated east and south of the Sea of Galilee. This was the only city of the Decapolis located west of the Jordan River.

Scythopolis was the site of some conflict during the Maccabean revolt (1 Macc. 5:52; 12:40–42). Jews retook control of the area during the reign of the Jewish king Alexander Jannaeus, but its inhabitants were spared from massacre because of kindness shown to the local Jews (2 Macc. 12:29–31). In 63 BC the Roman general Pompey won control of the city from the Jews. The city continued to be occupied during the Roman and Byzantine periods and was conquered in AD 636 by the Arabs, who renamed it “Beisan.”

A material made from the skin of animals, leather was used for various articles, including belts (2 Kings 1:8) and sandals (Ezek. 16:10). Leviticus gives detailed instructions on how to deal with contaminated leather articles and textiles (Lev. 13:48–59). John the Baptist’s leather belt and garment of camel’s hair recalled Elijah’s style of dress (Matt. 3:4; Mark 1:6).

The instructions for building the tabernacle refer frequently to takhash skin (NIV: “durable leather”; Exod. 25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; 39:34; Num. 4:6, 8, 10–12, 14, 25), a fine leather also used for sandals (Ezek. 16:10). Various suggestions for the animal represented by this term include badger (KJV), porpoise (NASB), sea cow (NIV 1984), dolphin (MSG), manatee (HCSB), seal (ASV), goat (ESV), and others. Perhaps the most likely candidate is the dugong, a large marine animal that lives in the Red Sea. Its skin would be hard enough to protect the tabernacle and its furniture as well as to be made into shoes. Other interpreters suggest that takhash actually refers to the color of the skin.

A seabird listed as one of the unclean birds (Lev. 11:16; Deut. 14:15; KJV: “cuckow”).

The KJV uses “dragon” twenty-one times in the OT to translate the Hebrew word tannin, tannim. In Deut. 32:33 the term is used in parallel with peten (“adder” or “cobra”), indicating that it probably refers to a snake of some type. The term is rendered inconsistently by the KJV, so that elsewhere the translation is “whale” (Gen. 1:21; Job 7:12; Ezek. 32:2–3) or “serpent” (Exod. 7:9–10, 12). There is also some confusion in the KJV of tannim with the plural of the noun tan, which means “jackal” (Job 30:29; Ps. 44:19; Isa. 13:22; 34:13; 35:7; 43:20; Jer. 9:11; 10:22; 14:6; 49:3; 51:37; Mic. 1:8; see also Lam. 4:3; Mal. 1:3).

In many passages the LXX uses the term drakōn, which again refers to a serpent. This term is used in the NT only in Revelation, where, as in the OT, the writer probably envisioned not the fire-breathing winged monster familiar to most modern readers but rather something more directly resembling a serpent (note Rev. 12:9, where the “great dragon” is also described as the “ancient serpent” and identified as “the devil, or Satan”). Revelation 12:3 elaborates by describing it as possessing “seven heads and ten horns.” Hence, the dragon of Revelation is linked directly to the serpent in the garden of Eden (Gen. 3), which is ultimately subject to defeat and eternal punishment (Rev. 20:7–10).

A large, freshwater lake in the northern, Galilee region of Israel measuring thirteen miles long, eight miles wide, and between 80 and 150 feet deep. Because it is shaped like a harp, the OT refers to it as the “Sea of Kinnereth,” which comes from the Hebrew word for “harp” (Num. 34:11; Deut. 3:17; Josh. 13:27; 19:35). It is also called “Lake of Gennesaret,” which derives from the lush Plain of Gennesaret nearby (Matt. 14:34), and the “Sea of Tiberias,” which comes from the name of the most prominent city on its banks (John 6:1; 21:1).

The Sea of Galilee is located about sixty miles north of Jerusalem and is fed by the Jordan River. It is surrounded by mountain peaks and cliffs, except on the southern side, where the Jordan River flows out of it. These peaks form a valley and make for strong, frequent, and unexpected storms as the Mediterranean winds blow down the western slopes and swirl across the sea. Jesus demonstrated his power over nature as he calmed such violent storms (Matt. 14:22–33; Mark 6:45–51; John 6:16–21).

The Sea of Galilee boasted a large fishing industry, which provided the ideal location for Jesus to call his first disciples—Peter, Andrew, James, and John, who were fishermen (Mark 1:16–20). Much of Jesus’ ministry in the Synoptic Gospels took place in the towns around the Sea of Galilee. The Sea of Galilee provided an abundance of fishing illustrations (Matt. 13:48) and lessons on discipleship. Its shore may have provided a convenient location for the feeding of the five thousand (Matt. 14:13–21; Mark 6:35–44; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:1–13). After Jesus’ resurrection, his disciples briefly returned to their fishing nets on this lake, resulting in the miraculous catch of 153 fish (John 21:11).

A body of water mentioned in Jer. 48:32 (NASB, KJV) during Jeremiah’s oracle against Moab, perhaps a small lake or reservoir associated with the biblical city of Jazer. The modifier “sea of” is considered a scribal error and is absent in some Hebrew manuscripts (cf. Jer. 48:32 with Isa. 16:8–9, which is reflected in some translations (NIV, NRSV).

The Red Sea separates the Arabian Peninsula (to the north and east) from the African continent along its approximately fourteen-hundred-mile length. At its southern end, the Red Sea is connected to the Indian Ocean through the Gulf of Aden. At its northern end, the Red Sea divides into the gulfs of Suez and Aqaba, which surround the Sinai Peninsula on two sides.

At high points of their political power (1 Kings 9:26; 22:48), the Israelite peoples controlled a Red Sea port at Ezion Geber on the Gulf of Aqaba (near modern Eilat). Maintaining and using this port required not only the cooperation of Phoenician shipbuilding neighbors to the north, but also the subjugation or cooperation of the Edomite peoples who occupied the long overland route between Ezion Geber and the Israelite homeland. According to 1 Kings 9:26–28, it was from Ezion Geber that Solomon sent ships for “gold of Ophir” (1 Chron. 29:4).

Perhaps the best-known appearance of the Red Sea (Heb. yam sup) in the Bible is the story of the exodus from Egypt and the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea by the Israelites (Exod. 14:17–15:21). By many accounts, the passage combines multiple earlier versions of the story, with the result that it is sometimes difficult to understand what is being described in the narration. The seemingly straightforward geographical references to the “Red Sea” lie at the heart of several debates about the interpretation of the story.

First, which body of water did the Israelites cross? The name “Red Sea” derives from the LXX translation (erythra thalassa) of yam sup, a Hebrew term that probably does not mean “red sea.” References to yam sup in the Bible indicate either the Gulf of Suez (Num. 33:10–11) or the Gulf of Aqaba (e.g., 1 Kings 9:26), though not, as in modern usage, the large body of water stretching all the way to the Gulf of Aden. In trying to determine which body of water the Israelites crossed in Exod. 14:17–15:21, we must look for evidence beyond the name of the sea alone. The picture is complicated by the fact that the composite text does not consistently identify the Red Sea (sometimes preferring simply “the sea”); there seem to be conflicting reports about whether the sea was split and thus about the amount of water present at the point of crossing.

Second, what is the meaning of yam sup? Further complicating the matter has been a discussion of the etymological meaning of yam sup. Pointing to an apparent Egyptian cognate (twf ), a number of scholars have argued that Hebrew sup means “reed,” and that yam sup is the name not of a large saltwater sea (the shores of the modern Red Sea are not reedy), but of a marsh in the Lower Nile region (perhaps the easternmost Pelusiac branch of the Nile Delta). This theory takes note of the fact that Exod. 15 (according to many, the oldest account of the event, as well as one of the oldest texts in the Bible) does not refer to a splitting of the sea and has the (perhaps dubious) advantage of requiring something less than a miracle: the Israelites escaped from the Egyptians by crossing a marsh, in which the chariots of the pursuing army became mired down. Another proposal is to interpret sup not as “red” or “reed” but as cognate to Hebrew sop, “end.” In this view, the Israelites crossed a sea that was either “the border sea” (i.e., a geographical border between Egypt and Canaan) or, in a more mythological perspective, the “sea of ending/extinction.”

The large salt lake to the south of the Jordan River. The Bible refers to this lake as the Salt Sea (Num. 34:12 ESV), Sea of the Arabah (Josh. 3:16), and Eastern Sea (Ezek. 47:18), but not the Dead Sea. Josephus called it Lake Asphaltitis. The Dead Sea is forty-two miles long and eleven miles wide. Located in the depths of the Jordan Rift Valley, the shore of the Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth, about 1,385 feet below sea level, and its waters are the second saltiest on earth. Only Lake Asal in Djibouti is saltier. The Dead Sea is more than 30 percent salt, whereas the Mediterranean Sea is only 4 percent salt. Because of the high salt content, nothing lives in the Dead Sea except microscopic organisms. Nevertheless, Ezekiel prophesied that its waters will be fresh and teeming with life (47:8–10). The Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan River, wadis such as the Arnon and the Zered, and springs such as En Gedi, but water escapes only through evaporation.

Several important biblical and historical events occurred around the Dead Sea. Lot’s wife was turned into a pillar of salt as Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. From Mount Nebo Moses looked down upon the Dead Sea. David hid from Saul in the caves at En Gedi. The Romans besieged Herod’s fortress at Masada. The Qumran scrolls (DSS) were found in caves along its northwestern shore. Because of modern demands for freshwater upstream, the Dead Sea’s water level has dropped significantly.

The large salt lake to the south of the Jordan River. The Bible refers to this lake as the Salt Sea (Num. 34:12 ESV), Sea of the Arabah (Josh. 3:16), and Eastern Sea (Ezek. 47:18), but not the Dead Sea. Josephus called it Lake Asphaltitis. The Dead Sea is forty-two miles long and eleven miles wide. Located in the depths of the Jordan Rift Valley, the shore of the Dead Sea is the lowest point on earth, about 1,385 feet below sea level, and its waters are the second saltiest on earth. Only Lake Asal in Djibouti is saltier. The Dead Sea is more than 30 percent salt, whereas the Mediterranean Sea is only 4 percent salt. Because of the high salt content, nothing lives in the Dead Sea except microscopic organisms. Nevertheless, Ezekiel prophesied that its waters will be fresh and teeming with life (47:8–10). The Dead Sea is fed by the Jordan River, wadis such as the Arnon and the Zered, and springs such as En Gedi, but water escapes only through evaporation.

Several important biblical and historical events occurred around the Dead Sea. Lot’s wife was turned into a pillar of salt as Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed. From Mount Nebo Moses looked down upon the Dead Sea. David hid from Saul in the caves at En Gedi. The Romans besieged Herod’s fortress at Masada. The Qumran scrolls (DSS) were found in caves along its northwestern shore. Because of modern demands for freshwater upstream, the Dead Sea’s water level has dropped significantly.

In the biblical world, documents were sealed with clay or wax (1 Kings 21:8; Job 38:14; Neh. 9:38; Jer. 32:10; Rev. 5:1). The integrity of the seal was assured by impressing an image into the soft substance, which would then harden and retain the unique image of the sender’s seal. The archaeological record attests this practice in the form of bullae (the impressions themselves, which survive long after the documents have disintegrated) as well as a large number of seals, which often were carved (Exod. 28:11; 39:6; Sir. 38:27; 45:11) into semiprecious stones or stone cylinders.

A person’s unique seal was closely identified with the owner and could be worn as a ring or pendant (see Gen. 38:18; Esther 8:8; Song 8:6). Besides documents, we have records of the sealing of caves (Matt. 27:66; cf. Dan. 6:17; 2 Macc. 2:5) and bags (Job 14:17; Tob. 9:5). In apocalyptic literature, seals are used to conceal prophecies of the future (Dan. 12:4) and to mark humans as belonging to God (Rev. 7:3–8).

“Season” is used in Scripture mainly in reference to the agricultural seasons, whether it be breeding (Gen. 31:10), plowing (Exod. 34:21), harvest (Num. 13:20; Ps. 1:3), or the many other seasons. “Season” is also used as a way of referring simply to an appropriate time period, such as in Eccles. 3:1. Paul also uses this word in encouraging Timothy to “be prepared in season and out of season” (2 Tim. 4:2). Paul later uses the term to speak of God’s own perfect timing in bringing the word to understanding (Titus 1:3). The great majority of references, however, are agricultural. See also Weather.

(1) A son of Cush (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9; cf. Isa. 43:3). (2) A kingdom located in modern Eritrea and Ethiopia. The people of Seba are referred to as Sabeans (along with the people of two other kingdoms descended from Ham). Presents from both Sheba and Seba are requested in Ps. 72:10 as part of God’s blessing on the king. See also Sabean.

A town in the Transjordan given to the tribes of Reuben and Gad by Moses (Num. 32:3; “Sibmah” in Josh. 13:19). The reference to “Sibmah” in Num. 32:38 is likely to the same town, rebuilt by the Gadites, and “Sebam” may actually be a later alteration to the original name “Sibmah.” It had become a Moabite town by the time of Jeremiah and Isaiah and apparently was known for its lush vines and summer fruits (Isa. 16:8; Jer. 48:32). See also Sibmah.

The eleventh month of the year according to the Babylonian calendar (roughly February/March). See Zech. 1:7.

One of the six desert towns inherited by Judah upon the Israelites’ initial entrance into the promised land (Josh. 15:61). It is thought to be around Bethany near the Dead Sea, but the exact location is debated.

A place between Ramah and Gibeah where Saul inquired of Samuel and David (1 Sam. 19:22). Seku was known for its large well. Its location is debated.

Jesus will return or come again in power at the end of history to defeat his enemies and establish his kingdom (Heb. 9:28). Different terms are used to describe this event: “parousia” refers to his coming or presence, “revelation” to the disclosure of Christ in his glory, and “epiphany” to his manifestation or appearing. Christians remain divided on the relationship of the second coming to the tribulation: is it before the tribulation (pretribulation), in the midst of it (midtribulation), or after it (posttribulation)? Dispensationalists have distinguished two separate phases to Jesus’ return, a secret rapture for the church and a later, public second coming, whereas most others have seen a single unified event. These questions aside, Christ’s return remains the focus of Christian hope. See also Eschatology; Second Coming.

Jesus’ personal return to earth at the end of history. Three main Greek terms are used in the NT to describe this event: parousia, apokalypsis, and epiphaneia. The word parousia means “presence” or “arrival” and was used in ancient times to describe the arrival of a ruler or king (e.g., Matt. 24:3, 27, 37, 39; 1 Cor. 15:23; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:15; 5:23; 2 Thess. 2:1, 8; James 5:7–8; 2 Pet. 3:4, 12; 1 John 2:28). The term apokalypsis refers to an “unveiling” or “revealing” of Jesus Christ at the end of the age (Rom. 2:5; 1 Cor. 1:7; 2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7, 13; 4:13; cf. Rev. 1:1). The word epiphaneia speaks of an “appearing” or “manifestation” and refers to the visible, earthly appearance of Jesus (2 Thess. 2:8; 1 Tim. 6:14; 2 Tim. 4:1, 8; Titus 2:13).

Jesus clearly predicted his second coming in his Olivet Discourse: “Then will appear the sign of the Son of Man in heaven. And then all the peoples of the earth will mourn when they see the Son of Man coming on the clouds of heaven, with power and great glory” (Matt. 24:30). Jesus uses the word “come” in this discourse to speak about his return (Matt. 24:39, 42–44, 46; 25:19, 27, 31). Jesus’ return is also predicted by angels (e.g., Acts 1:11) and apostles (Phil. 3:20; Acts 3:20–21; 1 Cor. 11:26; Heb. 9:28).

The NT describes certain events that will precede Jesus’ coming. There will be wars, famines, earthquakes, and other cosmic disturbances (Matt. 24:6–8, 29). Believers will be persecuted and hated (Matt. 24:9–13, 21–22). Many erstwhile believers will turn away from the faith (Matt. 24:10–13; 1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Tim. 3:1–5; 2 Pet. 3:3–4). There will be false messiahs and false prophets who will deceive many through signs and wonders (Matt. 24:11, 23–26). The “man of lawlessness” (sometimes referred to as the antichrist) will be revealed (2 Thess. 2:1–12). In addition, the gospel will be preached to all nations (Matt. 24:14).

Although Jesus’ coming is certain, its exact time is uncertain in the sense that it cannot be predicted. Jesus himself said, “But about that day or hour no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father” (Matt. 24:36 [cf. Acts 1:7; 3:21; 2 Pet. 3:4, 8–9]).

When Jesus comes again, his return will be visible to all, like “lightning that comes from the east is visible even in the west” (Matt. 24:27). The last trumpet will announce his coming in awesome power and great glory with his holy angels (Matt. 16:27; 24:30–31; 25:31; 1 Cor. 15:52; 1 Thess. 3:13; 4:16; 2 Thess. 1:7; 2:8; Jude 14). His coming will also be sudden and unexpected, “like a thief in the night” (1 Thess. 5:1–2; see also Matt. 24:37–39, 43–44; 2 Pet. 3:10; Rev. 16:15).

Jesus will come again for several reasons. He will raise the dead (John 5:28–29; 1 Cor. 15:22–23, 52; 1 Thess. 4:16) and separate the wicked from the righteous (Matt. 24:40–41; 25:31–32). He will transform the bodies of believers into glorious resurrection bodies (1 Cor. 15:51–53; Phil. 3:20–21), gather his followers to himself (1 Thess. 4:17; 2 Thess. 2:1), and reward them for their faithfulness (Matt. 16:27; 24:46–47; 1 Thess. 2:19; 2 Tim. 4:8; 1 Pet. 5:4; Rev. 22:12). The believer’s suffering will be replaced with the Lord’s praise (2 Thess. 1:7; 1 Pet. 1:7; 4:13) and the full experience of salvation (Heb. 9:28). By contrast, Jesus’ second advent means wrath for the wicked (Matt. 24:51; Rom. 2:5; 2 Thess. 1:8–9; Jude 15; Rev. 20:11–15) and destruction for God’s enemies (1 Cor. 15:25–26; 2 Thess. 2:8; Rev. 19:11–21; 20:7–10).

Since his coming is imminent but its timing uncertain, believers should eagerly expect his return (1 Cor. 1:7; 11:26; 16:22; Phil. 3:20; James 5:7–8; Rev. 22:20). Remaining watchful and ready consists of being faithfully engaged in doing what Jesus instructed (Matt. 24:46; 25:14–30; 1 John 2:28), even if this means suffering (Matt. 24:13; 1 Pet. 1:6–7). Believers are called to live holy and blameless lives in anticipation of meeting Jesus face-to-face (1 Thess. 3:13; 5:23; 1 Tim. 6:14; 1 Pet. 1:13; 2 Pet. 3:11–14; 1 John 2:28–29; 3:2–3). The promise of Jesus’ return is a motivation for mission (2 Tim. 4:1–2; 2 Pet. 3:12) and obedience (Rev. 22:7, 12, 17). It is, in short, the “blessed hope” of the believer (Titus 2:13).

A name for the eternal punishment of unbelievers in hell. In Rev. 20:14 the lake of fire is described as the second death. According to 21:8, “the cowardly, the unbelieving, the vile, the murderers, the sexually immoral, those who practice magic arts, the idolaters and all liars—they will be consigned to the fiery lake of burning sulfur. This is the second death.” Believers have the glorious promise that they will not be hurt by the second death (2:11) because “the second death has no power over them” (20:6). See also Hell.

The northern section of Jerusalem, also referred to as the Second District (HCSB) or Second Quarter (ESV, NRSV, NASB) (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chron. 34:22; cf. Zeph. 1:10).

Second John is a follow-up letter to 1 John, sent to one of the churches involved to warn it about the heretics who were trying to deceive people. The elder exhorts the church to have nothing to do with the false teachers and to continue to walk in the truth and to follow God’s command to love one another (vv. 4–6).

Genre, Literary Features, and Authorship

Unlike 1 John, 2 John bears the marks of a traditional Greco-Roman letter. It identifies both author and audience (v. 1), conveys an introductory Christian greeting (v. 3) similar to Paul’s letters, and has a concluding greeting (v. 13). Second John is the shortest NT writing.

Second John shares many literary features with 1 John. The elder deals with the same historical situation as that reflected in 1 John. He warns his readers of those who “do not acknowledge Jesus Christ as coming in the flesh,” who have “gone out into the world” (v. 7) and do not continue in the teachings of Christ (v. 9). He brands these false teachers as “antichrists” (v. 7). He reiterates the great love command, which the church has heard from the beginning (vv. 5–6). The elder has joy because he finds Christians “walking in the truth” (v. 4). Finally, he encourages his readers that they in fact “know the truth” (v. 1) despite the deceivers’ efforts to confuse them.

The author identifies himself simply as “the elder” (v. 1). This has led some scholars to suggest that “John the elder” rather than “John the apostle” was the author. But, again, there is no indisputable proof that there ever was a John the elder separate and apart from John the apostle, much less that he wrote anything. John the apostle was probably also an elder like Peter (1 Pet. 5:1). Nevertheless, he refers to himself as “the elder” because his audience already knows his identity.

Audience, Life Setting, and Date

The audience is “the chosen lady [NIV: “lady chosen by God”] and her children,” probably a metaphor for a local church (v. 1 NASB). The elder’s primary purpose in writing was to warn his readers about the deceivers and of the dire consequences of welcoming them and accepting their teaching: the readers would lose the reward for which they worked, and they would be participating in the deceivers’ wicked work (vv. 8, 11). Second John was written probably around the same time as 1 John (AD 85–95).

Main Themes

Second John continues the main themes of 1 John: love, obeying God’s commands, walking in the truth, and Christians as “children.” One additional theme is hospitality. The readers are warned not to let these deceivers teach in their house church (vv. 10–11). Fellowship and hospitality are extended only to those who acknowledge that Jesus Christ has come in the flesh.

Outline

I. Greetings (vv. 1–3)

II. Commendation (vv. 4–6)

III. Exhortation and Warning (vv. 7–11)

IV. Conclusion (vv. 12–13)

Second Peter is a model of the Christian approach to those who are tempted to follow another gospel.

Outline

I. Greetings (1:1–2)

II. Put God’s Grace to Work (1:3–11)

III. Remember the Basis for Your Faith (1:12–21)

IV. Reject False Teachers (2:1–22)

V. On This Basis, Look to the Future (3:1–18)

Authorship and Date

The author is identified as “Simeon” Peter, using the Hebrew spelling of the name (1:1 ESV, NRSV; cf. Acts 15:14). He is “a servant and apostle of Jesus Christ” (1:1; cf. Rom. 1:1; Titus 1:1; James 1:1; Jude 1) and an eyewitness of his transfiguration (1:16–18; cf. Mark 9:2). He speaks affectionately of Paul as a colleague (3:15). He bases his argument against false teachers on the Scriptures and his own testimony as well as that of the other eyewitnesses (1:16; cf. 1 Pet. 5:1) of Jesus’ work. He refers (3:1) to an earlier letter that he wrote to the same people, probably a reference to 1 Peter.

A number of second-century authorities report that Peter ministered in Rome, on and off, for up to twenty-five years prior to his execution by Nero in AD 65. Here he speaks of his own imminent execution, recalling Jesus’ words to him (1:14; cf. John 21:19). He speaks of having taken steps to ensure that his testimony will be available after his death, which may be an allusion to Mark’s Gospel, as later Christian writers tell us.

Toward the end of the second century some doubted the authenticity of 2 Peter. A number of works had appeared in the second century claiming to be by Peter. The early church was well aware of the use of forgeries written in the names of the apostles to spread false teaching (even during their lifetimes [cf. 2 Thess. 2:2]). It appears that 2 Peter was not as widely known or used as 1 Peter, but the early church affirmed and defended the authenticity of both letters.

Destination

The letter gives no indication of its destination other than the reference to a former letter in 3:1. If this former letter was 1 Peter, then 2 Peter would have been sent to the same communities (Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia [so 1 Pet. 1:1]). This possibility is supported by the similar use of traditions concerning Noah and Enoch in both letters. However, 1 Peter gives no indication that Peter had any personal acquaintance with his addressees, whereas 2 Peter does (1:16). Given the extensive allusions to Jewish traditions not found in the OT, we can conclude that Peter was writing to Jewish Christians to whom these traditions had a strong appeal.

Relationship to the Epistle of Jude

Second Peter 2 and Jude 4–21 are extraordinarily similar not only in content and wording but also in their order. Scholars have speculated as to which author used the work of the other or whether both used a common source. We have no evidence that would settle the question. What we do know is that both letters interact heavily with the traditions associated with 1 Enoch.

These Enochic traditions differ from the teachings of the Pharisees and the Sadducees. They were accepted as authentic and authoritative at least by the Qumran community/Essenes (cf. CD-A 6:1–6; Jub. 1.1–9; 4.17–19). Whereas Jude (14–15) cites 1 En. 1.9 directly, 2 Peter only speaks about these stories.

According to the Enochic traditions, salvation was for ethnically pure Israel, observing rigorously the specifications for worship and lifestyle laid down in these pseudepigraphical revelations. While this tradition expected a day of judgment similar to that set forth in the Scriptures, it differed with the Christian gospel in its understanding of the origins of sin and evil (people are initially victims, not perpetrators) and of the way of salvation (rigorously keeping the Enochic rules). The Son of Man (of Dan. 7:13–14) is Enoch (1 En. 71), not Jesus. There is no place here for a crucified Messiah whose death would atone for sin, for the abandonment of OT food laws and sacrifices, or the acceptance of uncircumcised Gentiles into the assembly.

Second Peter and Jude deal in the strongest terms with false teachers who profess to base their teaching on fraudulent revelations (2 Pet. 1:16; Jude 1:8) and who deny Jesus as Lord. This tradition focused heavily on the Zadokite priesthood and the need to restore a pure temple. Peter and Jude’s polemic makes extensive connections between false teaching and all manner of corruption and uncleanness that would disqualify such a priesthood (2 Pet. 2:2, 10, 13, 15, 19, 22; cf. 1 Pet. 2:1–10; Jude 8, 11–13, 16).

The similarities between the two letters probably are the result of the two authors conferring together in some way. We know that Peter and his family traveled on missionary work, as did the brothers of Jesus (1 Cor. 9:5). We do not know where Jude was when either of these letters was written. The urgency that provoked Jude’s letter is also reflected in 2 Peter. The church was facing physical persecution in Rome as well as these false teachers who sought to lead Jewish believers away from Jesus. Meanwhile, Roman control of Judea was crumbling.

Main Themes

Second Peter focuses first on the work of God in Christ, which saves those who believe in Jesus (1:3). This faith is based on the knowledge of God and of Jesus (1:2) and is a response to the gospel call. God has given to the believer everything needed to live in a godly way, to endure, and to discern truth from error so as to die assured of not having been deceived (1:4).

Peter grounds that assurance in the Scriptures (1:19–21), in the testimony of the eyewitnesses of Jesus (1:12–16), including himself, and in the writings of the apostle Paul, to whom Jesus had given wisdom for this purpose (3:15–16). One develops certainty in the faith not only by referring to these sources but also by putting the faith into practice (1:5, 10, 15). The faith then is rooted in history, not in “cleverly invented stories” (1:16). Consequently, Peter expresses his passion to see that his eyewitness account will be accessible to the next generation (1:14–15).

He speaks plainly of “Scripture” as an identifiable body of texts written at the instigation of the Holy Spirit (1:20–21) and places the writings of Paul on the same level (3:16). By this, Peter implies that his letter is to be received as carrying the same authority and usefulness.

False teachers are a permanent challenge to God’s people. Doctrine and behavior are products of each other (2:1–3).

Peter is particularly concerned that his readers not think that Jesus’ delay in appearing is proof that the apostolic witnesses were wrong (3:3–4). Jesus has not returned because were he to do so, it would end all opportunity for unbelievers to hear the gospel and be saved (3:9). God is gracious and long-suffering and is calling his people to reflect his character by giving people the opportunity to be saved. His patience is salvation (3:15). The gospel mission, then, provides the second motivation for the believer to practice the faith (3:11–16) and not waver.

Second Peter ends by challenging believers to constantly grow in the knowledge and grace of Christ (3:17–18).

Part of the Corinthian correspondence, along with 1 Corinthians. These two letters are part of a larger body of correspondence written by the apostle Paul to the Corinthian church. Paul visited Corinth on his second missionary journey (Acts 18:1–18) for a year and a half before leaving for Syria. This period can be dated quite precisely, since Acts mentions a court hearing before Gallio, proconsul of Achaia, who served in AD 51–52. It was several years later, during Paul’s third missionary journey, that the Corinthian correspondence was written.

Context

While in Ephesus, Paul heard of immorality in the church at Corinth and responded with a letter (1 Cor. 5:9). This letter is lost but has been designated by scholars as “Corinthians A” to distinguish it from the two canonical letters. About this time, three men from Corinth brought a financial gift to Paul (1 Cor. 16:17) along with a list of questions, which Paul answers in another letter (see 1 Cor. 7:1). This letter, known to us as 1 Corinthians, is designated by scholars as “Corinthians B,” since it is actually the second letter written by Paul to the church. Some time later, Paul heard that his letter had not solved many of the problems at Corinth, so he made a visit. This went very poorly (see 2 Cor. 2:1), and Paul sent a sorrowful letter (2 Cor. 2:3–4, 9; 7:8, 12), designated by scholars as “Corinthians C.” This letter is also lost, though some think that it may be preserved in 2 Cor. 10–13. When Paul heard later that the Corinthian church had repented and wished to reconcile with him, he was overjoyed and wrote yet again. This letter, which scholars call “Corinthians D,” is known to us as 2 Corinthians. The sharp change in tone of chapters 10–13 perhaps represents a fifth letter (designated “Corinthians E”) reflecting ongoing friction with a strong minority faction within the church, or these chapters may reflect Paul addressing one unrepentant division in the course of the “D” letter.

Purpose

False teachers in the church at Corinth had attacked Paul’s teaching and authority. Their charges can be seen in 2 Corinthians: Paul was fickle (1:17, 18, 23), proud and boastful (3:1; 5:12), worldly (10:2), unimpressive in appearance and speech (10:10; 11:6), confused and foolish (5:13; 11:16–19), dishonest (12:16–19), and “not a true apostle” (11:5; 12:11–12). Paul writes to defend his ministry and authority.

Themes

Paul gives a wonderful description of his apostolic ministry. He is a captive in Christ’s triumphal procession, spreading the aroma of the gospel wherever he goes. This aroma is the smell of death to some, but life to others (2:16). He needs no letter of recommendation, as the church at Corinth is his letter, written on human hearts. The gospel is unlike the fading glory in Moses’ face (see Exod. 34:33); in fact, relationship with God during the old covenant was accomplished only through a veil, which still covers hearts when Moses is read. Rather, Christians bask in the unveiled glory of the Lord and are transformed into the Lord’s image with ever greater glory (3:18), carrying in their bodies the death of Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may be revealed in them (4:10).

The earthly consequence of this ministry is pain and suffering. Paul is constantly struggling, yet never defeated (4:8–9). But the spiritual reward is great: an eternal home with the Lord in heaven, with the Spirit given to him during this life as a deposit of what is to come (5:5).

Beginning with chapter 10, Paul’s tone changes sharply, becoming much more aggressive as he defends his apostolic authority. His gentle nature in person, which may have been mistaken by some of the Corinthians for weakness, is really Christlikeness in Paul. He fights not as the world does, but rather on the spiritual level, with weapons that can demolish all arguments (10:4). He hopes that he will not have to unleash his power when he comes to see them, though he will if necessary (10:6).

Paul’s opponents in Corinth have been exercising false authority beyond their rightful limits. They commend themselves and boast of their works. Paul promises to remain within the sphere assigned him by God, and he assures them that his sphere includes their church (10:13).

In chapter 11 Paul begins speaking “as a fool.” His opponents apparently have referred to him as a fool, so he allows himself some latitude to do this. If he were a fool, he would boast of his accomplishments as an apostle. His opponents boast about themselves; Paul has more to boast about. He also is a Hebrew, a descendant of Abraham, and a servant of Christ; in fact, he is more. He has worked harder; he has been imprisoned more, beaten more, stoned, and shipwrecked; he has gone without food and water; he has been cold and naked. He has had visions and revelations, and he has been caught up in heaven and heard things that he may not repeat. Yet he would rather boast of his weakness, for his worldly weakness allows him to be strong in Christ. Paul should have been commended by the Corinthians, yet he has been reduced to having to defend himself boastfully.

During Paul’s next visit, he will continue his habit of supporting himself, so as not to be a burden on the Corinthians (see Acts 18:3). He has not asked them to support him (though it was his right [see 1 Cor. 9]), yet they have accused him of trickery (12:16; see also 1:12). He hopes that he will not be forced to deal harshly with them, but they demand proof that Christ speaks through him (13:3). He would rather use the authority that God has given him to build them up, not tear them down (13:10).

Outline

I. Greeting (1:1–11)

II. Paul Defends His Ministry (1:12–7:16)

A. Paul explains his conduct (1:12–2:13)

B. Paul describes his ministry (2:14–7:1)

C. Reconciliation with the Corinthians (7:2–16)

III. The Collection for Jerusalem (8:1–9:15)

A. Generosity encouraged (8:1–15)

B. Titus’s credentials (8:16–9:5)

C. Results of giving generously (9:6–15)

IV. Paul Defends His Authority (10:1–13:10)

A. Paul gives them warning (10:1–18)

B. Paul speaks ironically as a “fool” (11:1–12:13)

C. Paul’s planned visit (12:14–13:10)

V. Conclusion (13:11–14)

Paul’s second letter to the Thessalonians addresses a church troubled by an overly realized eschatology. Whereas at the time of the first letter the Thessalonians were expecting the imminent return of Christ (1 Thess. 5:6), by the time of the second letter some believed that Christ had already come (2 Thess. 2:2). Because of this, some were being drawn from their work into idleness (2 Thess. 3:6). Paul’s purpose, then, was to correct their eschatology, restore them to their tasks, and rebuild their confidence in Christ. He does this both by emphasizing Jesus Christ as Lord (the letter is uniquely consistent in the NT in applying the title “Lord” [Gk. kyrios] to Jesus) and by describing two apocalyptic events that must happen before the coming of the Lord Jesus Christ: the great apostasy and the appearance of the man of lawlessness (2 Thess. 2:3). Scholars have noted that Paul most often refers to Jesus as Lord in hortatory and eschatological passages. Indeed, though brief, 2 Thessalonians emphasizes exhortation and eschatology.

Literary Considerations

Authorship and the question of pseudo-nymity. As early as AD 110, Polycarp of Smyrna alluded to 2 Thessalonians in his letter to the Philippians (Pol. Phil. 11:4), and both Marcion and the Muratorian Canon refer to the epistle. It was known to Ignatius, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and Tertullian. In the modern era, beginning at the end of the eighteenth century, the Pauline authorship of the epistle was questioned, first by J. E. C. Schmidt, then by F. C. Baur, and more fully by W. Wrede, who dated the letter to a little before the date implied in Polycarp’s letter.

Comparison of 1 and 2 Thessalonians. The case for pseudonymous authorship depends largely on a comparison between 1 Thessalonians and 2 Thessalonians. The letters share a number of similarities in language, style, and content, including similarly worded salutations (1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1–2), expressions of thanks (1 Thess. 1:2; 2:13; 3:9; 2 Thess. 1:3; 2:13), intercessory prayers (1 Thess. 3:11; 2 Thess. 2:16), references to the broad reputation of the Thessalonian church (1 Thess. 1:1–10; 2 Thess. 1:3–4), the persecution of the Thessalonian church (1 Thess. 2:14–16; 2 Thess. 1:5–10), divine election (1 Thess. 1:4; 2 Thess. 2:13), references to a personalized antagonist (“Satan” in 1 Thess. 2:18; “the evil one” in 2 Thess. 3:3), the exhortation to avoid idleness (1 Thess. 4:11–12; 5:14; 2 Thess. 3:7–13), a common concern for the parousia and its anticipation (1 Thess. 4:13–5:11; 2 Thess. 2:1–11), and a number of stylistic resemblances (cf. 1 Thess. 3:11 with 2 Thess. 2:16; 1 Thess. 4:1 with 2 Thess. 3:1; 1 Thess. 5:23 with 2 Thess. 3:16).

In addition to resemblances, advocates of pseudonymous authorship have perceived some deep discontinuities between the letters. The question, then, is to devise a theory to explain both types of features (see below). In 1 Thessalonians the parousia is depicted as an imminent event that could occur at any moment, “like a thief in the night” (1 Thess. 5:2), whereas in 2 Thessalonians the basic supposition is that the end will come not unexpectedly but only following the series of public events described in 2 Thess. 2:3–4. The imminent tone of 1 Thessalonians can be compared to that of 1 Corinthians (an undisputedly Pauline letter), while the attitude of 2 Thessalonians and its acceptance of an indefinite delay of the parousia find no obvious parallel in the other letters widely accepted as written by Paul, but have been described as best fitting a context in the last quarter of the first century, within the milieu of eschatological debate that gave rise to two other disputed Pauline letters, Ephesians and Colossians. Although we should not facilely harmonize the differences between the letters, neither should we overstate the imminence of eschatological expectation in 1 Thessalonians, where, as in 2 Thessalonians, Paul reminds his readers that in fact they will not be surprised by the parousia (1 Thess. 5:4)—although, admittedly, less apocalyptic detail is given than in 2 Thessalonians. Moreover, both letters give ample attention to life in the period of eschatological anticipation (2 Thess. 3:1–16), particularly to the temptation to idleness (1 Thess. 4:11–12; 5:14; 2 Thess. 3:7–13).

In 2 Thess. 2:2 the author warns against letters circulating in Paul’s name but falsely attributed to him. As proponents of the pseudonymous authorship of 2 Thessalonians have pointed out, this problem is unlikely to have arisen during the lifetime of Paul himself, as he would have been able to discredit such letters. Also, the handwritten signature at the end of the letter (2 Thess. 3:17 [the rest of the letter would have been dictated to a secretary, as in Rom. 16:22]) and the special emphasis placed on it (compared to 1 Cor. 16:21; Gal. 6:11; and in a disputed Pauline letter, Col. 4:18) have been taken as indicating an attempt to deceive, or at least as consistent with what a pseudonymous author would have deemed necessary to pass off the letter as the work of the famous apostle. Of course, this argument depends on the fact that Paul actually did sign some of his genuine letters in this way, though 2 Thess. 3:17 does admittedly go beyond the other examples listed as a plea for authenticity, even to the point of raising suspicion. On the other hand, if falsely attributed letters were being passed around in Paul’s lifetime, the extra emphasis on his personal mark would be called for.

Finally, some have described a shift in tone between the two letters, from joyfulness to somberness. Supposing that 2 Thessalonians was written some years after 1 Thessalonians and the death of Paul, this has been taken as a reflection of eschatological disappointment during the interim and a readjustment of expectations to the reality of a longer-than-anticipated delay in the parousia. However, the difference in tone, as well as the difference in theological emphasis noted above, might simply reflect differences in the sets of circumstances that occasioned the two letters, and the tone of both letters could be construed as coming from the mind of a single author.

Relationship between 1 and 2 Thessalonians. Considering similarities and differences together, the proponents of pseudonymous authorship judge the theological, linguistic, and stylistic differences to be substantive and real and to reflect both a significant lapse in time and the work of two distinct authors. In this view, the long list of resemblances indicates only that 2 Thessalonians is a rather studied imitation of 1 Thessalonians. If Paul wrote both letters, why would he have repeated so much of his earlier letter in the second and done so within a relatively short span of time? As alternatives to the theory of pseudonymous authorship, several proposals have been advanced to explain this unexpected behavior, including the notions that the letters were addressed to two groups within the city of Thessalonica (Jewish and Gentile); that each letter reflects the differing authorial contributions from the three senders of both letters (Paul, Silas, and Timothy [1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1]); that one of the letters was addressed privately to a restricted group within the community; that 2 Thessalonians was written not shortly after 1 Thessalonians but rather following a second visit to Thessalonica (see Acts 20:1–2), during which developments not recorded in Acts would have set the stage for the distinctive emphases of the second letter; or that reversing the chronological priority of the letters so that 2 Thessalonians preceded 1 Thessalonians provides a scenario in which the Pauline authorship of 2 Thessalonians can plausibly be maintained. At present, the authorship of 2 Thessalonians remains a matter of dispute among biblical scholars.

Theological considerations. Apart from the internal evidence discussed above, the theory of pseudonymous authorship raises theological questions. How does the possibility that Paul did not write the letter bear on the authority of this letter as Scripture? Is the intent to deceive as to the authorship of the letter consistent with the belief that the letter was divinely inspired by a holy God? In terms of its history of reception, 2 Thessalonians has the highest pedigree and, as noted above, was alluded to as early as the first part of the second century. The Pauline authorship of the book and its status in the canon do not seem to have been a matter of dispute in antiquity. Responding to critical assessments of the book’s authorship and date in the modern era (and more broadly to assessments of other “disputed Pauline letters”), some evangelical theologians and biblical scholars have argued that epistolary pseudepigraphy was not considered respectable in antiquity; that is, such a practice was considered tantamount to forgery and an intent to deceive. The early church would not have knowingly accepted into the canon any letter known to have been pseudepigraphically authored and promulgated. In light of this reconstruction of ancient attitudes, the proposal of pseudonymity in the case of 2 Thessalonians and other supposedly Pauline letters becomes a significant theological problem.

In addressing this issue, it should be noted that the concept of authorship was and is somewhat flexible. Paul did not likely write with his own hand any of the letters in the NT, apart from adding his signature at the end of 1 Corinthians, Galatians, and possibly 2 Thessalonians and Colossians. In each instance the degree to which the scribe or amanuensis contributed to the wording or content of each letter (see Rom. 16:22) is unclear. In the case of 2 Thessalonians and some other Pauline Epistles, the letter originated from a group of three associates: Paul, Silas, and Timothy. It is unclear to what extent Silas and Timothy should be considered as having made an authorial contribution to the letter. Admittedly, the theory of pseudonymous authorship of 2 Thessalonians goes far beyond any of these cases, since, as generally articulated, it involves dating the letter to the last quarter of the first century, at least ten years or so after the death of Paul. In terms of the theological problem described above, a letter authored in Paul’s name under such circumstances represents a qualitatively different scenario than one written by associates during his lifetime yet ultimately knowingly authorized and sent (and signed) by the apostle himself. Still, the range of meanings entailed in the concept of “authorship” should lead to circumspection in evaluating the theological implications of the theory of pseudonymous authorship. Reducing this theory to the possible element of deception may risk oversimplifying and even demonizing the motivations and aims of the pseudonymous author. (See also Pseudepigraphy, Pseudonymity.)

Date. As is obvious from the foregoing discussion of authorship, the date of 2 Thessalonians is bound up in the question of authorship. If Paul wrote 2 Thessalonians, it would have to have been prior to his death in the mid-60s. First Thessalonians was likely written around AD 50, and 2 Thessalonians may have been written shortly thereafter, if it was written prior to Paul’s second visit to the region of Macedonia (Acts 20:1–2), during his time in Corinth (18:1–5) or Ephesus. A second visit to the city is not mentioned in 2 Thessalonians, and in contrast to the evidence of Acts 18:5 regarding the second missionary journey of Paul, we cannot with certainty place the three authors of 2 Thessalonians (Paul, Timothy, and Silas) together at a later date. Advocates of pseu-don-y-mous authorship usually date the letter to the last quarter of the first century in order to allow some time for the supposed development in eschatological expectation between the two letters, and probably also for the collection of Paul’s letters in later years to provide the background for the reference in 2 Thess. 3:17 to “all my letters.” At any rate, it should be dated prior to the composition of Polycarp’s letter to the Philippians around AD 110.

If pseudonymous authorship is accepted, then two passages in the letter that refer to events after Paul’s death may bear on a more precise dating of the composition. First, the reference to “God’s temple” in 2 Thess. 2:4, if it refers to the temple in Jerusalem, would suggest a date prior to AD 70, when that edifice was destroyed. Second, some have argued that the reference to the revelation of the “man of lawlessness” in 2 Thess. 2:3 refers to an expectation that the emperor Nero was to come back from the dead. This would suggest a date after Nero’s death in AD 68. Both passages can be explained in other ways: the figure of God’s temple continued to be invoked symbolically after AD 70, and the “man of lawlessness” is obscure enough to inspire caution in too quickly identifying him with a historical person.

Outline

I. Introductory Greeting and Thanksgiving (1:1–12)

A. Greetings from Paul, Silas, and Timothy (1:1–2)

B. Thanksgiving (1:3–10)

C. Prayer (1:11–12)

II. The Coming of Christ (2:1–12)

A. Warnings against reports that Christ has come (2:1–2)

B. The man of lawlessness and the great apostasy must come first (2:3–7)

C. God will ensure the destruction of both through Christ (2:8–12)

III. Exhortations (2:13–3:15)

A. Thanksgiving and prayer (2:13–3:5)

B. Exhortation to avoid idleness in themselves and in others (3:6–15)

IV. Closing Prayer and Benediction (3:16–18)

Paul’s second letter to Timothy is one of his three Pastoral Epistles (together with 1 Timothy and Titus). In this letter the apostle reminds Timothy of his call to ministry, encourages him to endure suffering for the sake of the gospel, exhorts him to pursue personal godliness, warns him of false teachers and evil persons, and urges him to give himself completely to the ministry of the word. In short, Paul exhorts his protégé to fulfill his ministry. The overall message of the book can be summed up in Paul’s call for Timothy to be a “good soldier of Christ Jesus” (2:3) who fights the “good fight” of faith (4:7). In the benediction, Paul’s use of the plural “Grace be with you all” indicates that the apostle’s words are directed not only to Timothy but also to the whole church (4:22).

Recipient

See Timothy, First Letter to.

Authorship and Date

The book of Acts closes with Paul experiencing house arrest in Rome around AD 62/63. By the time he wrote his first letter to Timothy, he had already been freed from that imprisonment (cf. Acts 28:30–31; 1 Tim. 3:14). However, when he wrote 2 Timothy, he was again in prison, but this time he was bound in chains, facing prosecution, and aware of his impending execution (2 Tim. 1:8, 16; 2:9; 4:6, 16). The second letter to Timothy was written during this period of his second imprisonment in Rome, just prior to his execution in about AD 67. Paul identifies himself as an apostle and the author of 2 Timothy in the first verse of the letter. (On the disputed authorship of the Pastoral Epistles, see Timothy, First Letter to.)

Background and Occasion

At the time of writing, Paul was languishing in prison. In this second letter to Timothy, he notifies the church that the preliminary phase of his trial has already taken place, and that many colleagues who have been unwilling to stand by his side have deserted him. Others apparently left him for ministry purposes. Luke alone remained with Paul, who was facing what he thought to be his imminent execution (4:6–8, 10–16).

Paul wrote this letter for the following reasons:

1. He was lonely and wanted to see Timothy (1:4; 4:9, 21).

2. During the reign of the emperor Nero, persecutions had broken out. Paul wanted to encourage Timothy and the church to remain true to Christ and be prepared to suffer for the sake of the gospel (1:8; 2:3, 11–12).

3. Paul wanted to warn Timothy and the church about false teachers and evil persons (1:14; 2:14, 16–18, 23; 3:1–9, 13; 4:3–4).

4. Paul wanted to encourage Timothy to fulfill his ministry (1:6–8, 13–14; 2:1–3, 14–15, 22–24; 3:14; 4:5).

5. Paul wanted to instruct the church through this letter to Timothy. He employs the plural form of “you” in 4:22b, indicating that his words were addressed not only to Timothy but also to the whole church.

6. Paul wanted to communicate to Timothy and the church his impending execution (4:6–8).

Outline

I. Introduction (1:1–2)

II. The Exhortation to Persevere in Ministry in Spite of Persecution (1:3–2:13)

A. Thanksgiving for Timothy and encouragement to boldly employ his gift (1:3–7)

B. Encouragement for Timothy to suffer for the gospel without shame (1:8–12)

C. Paul’s exhortation for Timothy to be faithful in his ministry (1:13–14)

D. Examples of faithfulness and desertion (1:15–18)

E. An exhortation to perseverance and promise of reward (2:1–13)

III. The Behavior Expected from a Servant of God (2:14–26)

A. A call to accurately teach the word and to avoid worldly teachings (2:14–19)

B. Exhortation to personal purity in life and ministry (2:20–22)

C. Instruction to be gentle when correcting those in error (2:23–26)

IV. Warning about the Coming Apostasy (3:1–4:5)

A. Characteristics of people in the last days (3:1–9)

B. A reminder of Paul’s example and the value of the Scriptures (3:10–16)

C. Paul’s charge to be faithful in preaching in view of the coming apostasy (4:1–5)

V. Paul’s Personal Situation (4:6–18)

A. Paul’s impending execution, his faithfulness and reward (4:6–8)

B. The faithfulness of Paul’s friends and the unfaithfulness of his enemies (4:9–16)

C. The faithfulness of the Lord (4:17–18)

VI. Closing Greetings (4:19–22)

The northern section of Jerusalem, also referred to as the Second District (HCSB) or Second Quarter (ESV, NRSV, NASB) (2 Kings 22:14; 2 Chron. 34:22; cf. Zeph. 1:10).

A worker skilled and trained in handwriting who prepared records, copies, and letters. Ancient writers, including authors of biblical letters, used secretaries (Rom. 16:22), who worked from notes to create rough drafts, reworking the material until the author was satisfied. See also Amanuensis.

A group or faction with distinctive beliefs and practices. The author of Acts uses “sect” (Gk. hairesis) in reference to the Sadducees, the Pharisees, and Christians, without pejorative connotations (Acts 5:17; 15:5; 24:5, 14; NIV: “party” at 5:17; 15:5). Paul’s use of the term is more critical (e.g., Gal. 5:20).

A place between Ramah and Gibeah where Saul inquired of Samuel and David (1 Sam. 19:22). Seku was known for its large well. Its location is debated.

One of several travel companions of Paul on his third missionary campaign, mentioned only in Acts 20:4. Secundus (along with Aristarchus), from Thessalonica, may have been among the “representatives of the churches” accompanying the collected gifts for Jerusalem (2 Cor. 8:16–24; see also Acts 24:17; Rom. 15:25–26).

The safety and endurance of a Christian’s salvation. Theologians over the centuries have debated whether salvation can be lost, but several lines of argument taken from Scripture support the teaching that salvation by its very nature is eternal.

Election and Grace

Passages on divine election reveal that those who come to faith do so not merely out of personal choice, but ultimately because they have been chosen by God (Eph. 1:4). God draws those whom he chooses, and they respond to his call (John 6:37, 44, 65). If genuine believers could lose their salvation, it would imply that God’s purpose and plan in election had been ineffective, an idea that contradicts Scripture (John 6:39).

The apostle Paul maintains that salvation is bestowed by God as a gift of his grace (Rom. 3:24; 6:23; Eph. 1:7; 2:8–9). This free gift cannot be merited or earned. It is not granted or withheld on the basis of a person’s moral character, no matter how noble or wicked, and it is never merited or forfeited through anything a person does, no matter how good or evil. Rather, it is granted due to something that lies within the nature of God—his gracious character, his purpose, and his free choice. Salvation endures due to the same perfections in God that cannot change (Mal. 3:6; James 1:17). Although salvation is bestowed as a matter of God’s grace, faith is the means by which it is received (Rom. 3:21–25). Yet faith is not a work and is never said to earn God’s grace (Eph. 2:8). Good works are the evidence of a life that has experienced the grace of God.

Rebirth and Eternal Life

Scripture reveals that salvation is imparted through regeneration or rebirth. Jesus describes it as being “born again” (John 3:3, 7). Paul uses a related concept when he writes that we are saved “through the washing of rebirth” (Titus 3:5). Peter teaches essentially the same thing: “He has given us new birth” (1 Pet. 1:3). The life that is imparted is “eternal” (John 3:16; 10:28; 17:2; Rom. 6:23). Paul maintains that God’s gifts and call are irrevocable (Rom. 11:29). Thus, there is no notion in the Scriptures that a regenerated follower of Christ ever becomes unregenerate, nor does eternal life ever morph into something temporal. In praying to the Father, Jesus notes that believers are a gift from the Father to the Son, and that none of them would be lost (John 17:2, 12). Judas Iscariot’s perdition clearly was part of God’s sovereign plan (John 17:12; Acts 1:16).

Protection of the Believer

The Holy Spirit is said to seal or be the seal of believers. Paul writes, “When you believed, you were marked in him with a seal, the promised Holy Spirit” (Eph. 1:13). This refers to the divine ownership and protection granted to the believer, who has been given “the Spirit as a deposit,” guaranteeing that God will finish the work that he began (2 Cor. 5:5; Phil. 1:6). Jesus taught the same truth regarding the believer’s security: “No one will snatch them out of my hand. My Father, who has given them to me, is greater than all; no one can snatch them out of my Father’s hand” (John 10:28–29). Peter maintained this same confidence when he wrote that the believer is shielded through faith “by God’s power” (1 Pet. 1:5). One of the strongest arguments for the security of the believer is found in Rom. 8:38–39: “Neither death nor life, neither angels nor demons, neither the present nor the future, nor any powers, neither height nor depth, nor anything else in all creation, will be able to separate us from the love of God that is in Christ Jesus our Lord.” Something greater than God would be needed to wrestle salvation from those to whom he has granted it.

Not all Christians believe that the Bible teaches eternal security, citing passages that seem to imply that a saved individual can again become lost and suffer eternal judgment, most likely referring to the severe yet temporal discipline of God directed toward his erring children or toward those who depart from the faith because they were merely professing believers (Matt. 13:20–21, 24–30; John 15:6; 1 Cor. 11:30–32; 2 Cor. 11:13–15; 2 Tim. 4:10, 14; Heb. 6:4–9; 10:26–31; 2 Pet. 2:1, 22; 1 John 2:19; 5:16; 2 John 9; Rev. 2:5, 16). But those who defend the doctrine believe these passages do not contradict this teaching; they merely reveal that God purposes to accomplish this work with the cooperation of the believer (1 John 5:4; Rev. 2:7, 11, 17, 26; 3:5, 12, 21).

The writer to the Hebrews, who lays down some of the most severe warnings in the NT, nevertheless maintains that God is “able for all time to save,” and that his readers did not belong to those who “shrink back and so are lost” (Heb. 7:25; 10:39 NRSV). Jude asserts that God is able to present the believer “without fault” before his presence (Jude 24). Essentially, this is what Jesus says in John 10:28–29: “They shall never perish” (cf. 17:12). The loss of one sheep would impugn the power and character of God, who not only saves by grace but also keeps us by his grace and in his grace (Rom. 5:2).

Conduct or speech leading people to rebel against their established government. Hezekiah rebelled against the king of Assyria (2 Kings 18:7), and Zedekiah rebelled against the king of Babylon (2 Kings 24:20). After Cyrus decreed that the Jewish exiles should return to Jerusalem and rebuild their temple, the locals resisted by sending a malicious letter to the Persian government. This identified the Jews as a rebellious people who would pose a threat if they were allowed to persist (Ezra 4:15). When the Pharisees asked Jesus whether the Jews should pay taxes to Caesar, they were trying to trick him. His support for the tax would alienate the people, while his opposition to it would make him an instigator of sedition. Jesus outmaneuvered their political trap (Matt. 22:15–22).

Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughout the biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in the ancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination and magic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout the Mediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a wide range of magic-related practices, generally refers to various techniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such as gods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, or change something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaining information that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic and sorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree with divination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people, often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also to enhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic and sorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events through supernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlap and are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise, especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during the OT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers was quite fluid and not precise or restrictive.

The nonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancient Near East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundreds of references to various types of divination and magic. The most common divination techniques involved (1) watching birds and the patterns of their flight; (2) observing drops of oil spreading across the surface of water in a bucket; (3) astrology; and (4) removing and observing the entrails of animals, especially the liver. From observing these things, the skilled diviner supposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or other patron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting of spells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.

The book of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probably divination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confronts a sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous early nonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this same Simon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in various ways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey (Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power was fairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church was taking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesus responded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who had practiced sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,” indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.

In the OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magic and sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14 presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precise translation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There, divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing or determining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a wide range of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft are prohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). In contrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper way to engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophets chosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).

Likewise, in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spirit were proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even the most famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paul includes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probably includes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronounces judgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23; 21:8; 22:15).

(1) The youngest son of Hiel. His life, and that of his brother Abiram, were lost when Hiel rebuilt the foundations and gates of Jericho, fulfilling the curse pronounced by Joshua (1 Kings 16:34; Josh. 6:26). (2) The son of Hezron and the father of Jair (1 Chron. 2:21–22).

The rallying point for Israel after Ehud assassinated King Eglon of Moab (Judg. 3:26). It was from here that Ehud blew the horn to bring the tribes together to expel the foreign invaders. The exact location is unknown, but it is thought to be in the mountains of Ephraim, close to the borders of Benjamin.

The rallying point for Israel after Ehud assassinated King Eglon of Moab (Judg. 3:26). It was from here that Ehud blew the horn to bring the tribes together to expel the foreign invaders. The exact location is unknown, but it is thought to be in the mountains of Ephraim, close to the borders of Benjamin.

One of the six desert towns inherited by Judah upon the Israelites’ initial entrance into the promised land (Josh. 15:61). It is thought to be around Bethany near the Dead Sea, but the exact location is debated.

A place between Ramah and Gibeah where Saul inquired of Samuel and David (1 Sam. 19:22). Seku was known for its large well. Its location is debated.

The Hebrew word sela’ may designate any rocky height or cliff (see also Rock), but it is also used as a proper name, “Sela,” implying some sort of “rock fortress.” (1) A fortress city in Edom that King Amaziah captured and renamed “Joktheel” (2 Kings 14:7). It is near Buseirah (biblical Bozrah) in modern-day Jordan. (2) A site in Amorite territory (Judg. 1:36) of unknown location. (3) A city in Moabite territory (Isa. 16:1), perhaps the same place as in Judg. 1:36. (4) Sela Hammahlekoth, in the Desert of Maon, is the place where Saul left his pursuit of David and went to meet the Philistines (1 Sam. 23:24–28). (See Sela Hammahlekoth.) (5) Sela of Rimmon (NIV: “rock of Rimmon [pomegranate]”), in the wilderness of the territory of Benjamin, east of Geba; perhaps the large cave 1.2 miles east of Geba. Six hundred Benjamites fled here to escape the Israelites (Judg. 20:45–47; 21:13). (6) “Sela” occurs also in Isa. 42:11, but it is difficult to know whether it indicates only a craggy dwelling place (cf. Jer. 48:28) or perhaps refers to the site in 2 Kings 14:7 or Isa. 16:1.

A gorge or ravine in the wilderness of Maon, south of Hebron and Ziph in Judah, where Saul pursued David until he was informed of a Philistine invasion by a messenger (1 Sam. 23:28). The name means “rock of divisions” (also “rock of parting” [NIV mg.] or “Rock of Escape” [NRSV]) and is currently known as Wadi Malaky. The surrounding landscape is in the mountainous region, with the gorge cutting through it.

The port city of Antioch in northern Syria, founded by Seleucus Nicator in 301 BC. In 64 BC Pompey made it a free city. Paul and Barnabas embarked upon their first missionary journey from Seleucia (Acts 13:4). Although the city is not named directly, Paul sailed to or from Seleucia on other occasions (14:26; 15:39).

Self-control involves the willingness to submit to the boundaries of nature, society, and family that God places in the world to bring about order and harmony in relationships. The self-restraint of an individual’s thoughts, words, and actions reflects the ordered discipline of God’s creation (Gen. 1–3; 8:22; Prov. 6:6–8). Discipline of the self is essential to live a productive life in community (Prov. 25:28).

“Self-control” is one of the terms that Luke uses to summarize Paul’s message to Felix (Acts 24:25). God’s people must exercise self-control (1 Thess. 5:6; 2 Tim. 1:7; 2 Pet. 1:6). Ultimately, self-control is a gift, a fruit that comes from being in submission to God’s Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23).

The modern concept of “self-esteem” may have roots in individualism, but Scripture conceives of it in relation to God and community. Creation grounds positive self-regard in dignity, blessing, and authority bestowed by God (Gen. 1:26–28; Pss. 8; 139:13–16), hence the concern that God preserve one from oppression, illness, and shame (Ps. 71). Self-esteem is not absolute, unlimited self-regard, but rather a healthy valuing of oneself and others as beloved, gifted by, and responsible to God (Rom. 12:3–8; contrast Ps. 14).

Self-esteem draws strength from the community’s defining story. The people of Israel are commanded to teach their children their narrative of promise, oppression, and deliverance (Deut. 6), and prophetic words of divine assurance help restore the exiles’ corporate identity, preparing them for return to the land (e.g., Isa. 54). Similarly, Jesus pledges the Father’s care for the disciples as persons, forming them as a community and freeing them for lives of trust and contentment as God’s beloved children (Luke 12:32–34; Phil. 4:10–20).

This term is used twice in the KJV, both times denoting a sense in which the individuals are full of their own gain or importance (Titus 1:7; 2 Pet. 2:10; cf. Gen. 49:6). The NIV translates the Greek word (authadēs) differently in each occurrence (“overbearing” and “arrogant”). Most important, an overseer is not to have this character quality (Titus 1:7), but it is the character quality of the false teachers (2 Pet. 2:10).

A band on either edge of a bolt of fabric, woven so as to prevent the edge from fraying. In Exod. 26:4; 36:11 the KJV translates the Hebrew word qatsah as “selvedge,” referring to the edge of the end curtain of the tabernacle.

The eldest son of Noah (Gen. 9:24; 10:21) and the brother of Ham and Japheth. He and his wife were among the eight survivors of the flood (6:6–9). He was the father of the Semites, ancestor of the Hebrews (Gen. 11:10–14), and in the lineage of the Messiah (Luke 3:36).

One of the sons of Shemaiah, he is listed along with Elihu as among the capable men of the Korahite gatekeepers (1 Chron. 26:7).

One of the sons of Shemaiah, he is listed along with Elihu as among the capable men of the Korahite gatekeepers (1 Chron. 26:7).

An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:26 as the son of Josek and the father of Mattathias.

An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:26 as the son of Josek and the father of Mattathias.

Leviticus 15:1–33 provides regulations concerning bodily discharges causing ritual impurity, including emissions of semen, menstruation, and other discharges of blood or fluids (on childbirth, see Lev. 12:7). Such discharges contaminated not only the person with the discharge but also any object that such a person touched, including beds, clothing, seats, and clay and wooden vessels. The impurity could be reversed by waiting for a specified period, washing, and offering a small sacrifice of birds. Impurity could spread to anyone who contacted the impure persons or objects. Discharges disqualified men from serving as priests (Lev. 22:4). Jesus healed a woman who had been bleeding for twelve years, which had made her impure under the law of Lev. 15:25 (Mark 5:25–29 pars.).

The term “Semite” does not appear in the biblical text, but reflects the name used for the descendants of Noah’s son Shem, “Shemites,” later modified to “Semites” (see Gen. 10:21–31). The term is used now to refer to those peoples speaking one of the Semitic languages, today mainly the Jews and the Arabs, but in ancient times the Akkadians, the Amorites, the Babylonians, the Phoenicians, and the Canaanites as well. Scholars agree that the inclusion of peoples in Gen. 10 under the rubric “Semites” is not justified by the linguistic criterion. The common features of the languages of Assyrians, Arameans, and Hebrews, which mark them as members of one family, set them apart from the “Semitic” Lydians (Lud) and Elamites, whose languages are totally unrelated. The grounds for the inclusion of Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Canaanites—these are considered Hamitic (Gen. 10:10, 15–19)—among the Semites are chiefly linguistic, although political and cultural affinities are also considered.

The common features of the Semitic languages include the Proto-Semitic phonetic inventory from which all Semitic languages developed their phonetic systems: a triliteral root, the absence of a neuter noun, aspectual verbal system, enclitic use of pronouns, the verb-first syntax (the verb-first order of Akkadian is undoubtedly the result of Sumerian influence), and so on. Based on the form of the perfective verb, the Semitic languages are divided into East Semitic (Akkadian and Eblaite) and West Semitic, which includes the Northwest Semitic subfamily, which in turn includes Hebrew and other Canaanite languages.

The family name, otherwise unknown, of a large group of exiles who returned with Zerubbabel to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:35; Neh. 7:38).

The Jewish ruling body in Jerusalem that played a part in Jesus’ execution and the persecution of the early church. The Greek word for this body, synedrion, often is translated as “council,” and in ancient sources other than the Bible the word does not denote one specific ruling authority but rather is used for many different city or regional councils. However, in the NT the word refers to the council in Jerusalem headed by the high priest that was charged by the Roman authorities with maintaining order among the Jewish people. According to Jewish tradition, Moses instituted the Sanhedrin at God’s prompting, so that its members might lead the nation as God’s anointed elders (see Num. 11:16–17). Further tradition says that Ezra called the Sanhedrin together again following the exile.

In the first century AD, the Sanhedrin functioned as the highest judicial authority of the nation of Israel (which sheds light on Matt. 5:22). The Sanhedrin contained members from the Sadducees and the Pharisees, along with other prominent members of the Jewish establishment. In the Gospel of Mark it is described as being made up of “the high priest, and all the chief priests, the elders and the teachers of the law” (Mark 14:53). As the highest authority representing the religious establishment of Israel, the Sanhedrin under the high priest Caiaphas played a prominent role in the final conflict that led to Jesus’ crucifixion. John indicates that the Sanhedrin, and Caiaphas in particular, plotted to kill Jesus just after the raising of Lazarus from the dead (John 11:45–53). Caiaphas expressed the fear that the Sanhedrin’s authority would be usurped if Jesus continued to gain popularity through his miracles, and also that a messiah would trigger a backlash of oppression from the Roman rulers.

After Jesus was taken from the garden of Gethsemane, the Sanhedrin tried him on a charge of blasphemy using false testimony, and some of the Gospels also have the accusers claim that Jesus promised to destroy the temple and raise it in three days, taking his words as a literal threat against the temple (Matt. 26:58–68; Mark 14:53–65; Luke 22:63–71; see also John 18:13–27). The Sanhedrin was unable to carry out a sentence of death that the charge of blasphemy called for, however, and so they were forced to bring Jesus to the Roman authorities to achieve their desired result. When Jesus was brought before Pilate, they portrayed his crime as proclaiming himself to be the “King of the Jews,” thereby tailoring the charge to make him look like a revolutionary rather than a religious teacher with whom the Sanhedrin disagreed (Matt. 27:11–14; Mark 15:2–5; Luke 23:2–7; John 18:29–38). The man who arranged for the burial of Jesus, Joseph of Arimathea, is said to be a member of “the Council” (Mark 15:43), but Luke is quick to mention that Joseph had “not consented to their decision or action” regarding Jesus’ fate (Luke 23:51).

Following the death and resurrection of Jesus, the Sanhedrin attempted to suppress the budding Christian movement by arresting Peter and John and having them beaten for preaching about Jesus (Acts 4:1–21). The Sanhedrin also ordered the apostles “not to speak in the name of Jesus” (5:40). Paul, after being arrested, was brought before the Sanhedrin so that they might determine his crime, and he cleverly used the disagreement between the Sadducees and the Pharisees regarding the resurrection of the dead to disrupt the assembly (23:1–9). They then plotted to kill him (23:12–22).

The southern cliff in the valley in front of Mikmash (Wadi es-Suweinit) that Jonathan passed on his way to the Philistine garrison there. It was located between the Philistine garrison at Mikmash and Saul’s camp at Gibeah. The cliff opposite Seneh was called “Bozez” (1 Sam. 14:4).

The Amorite name for Mount Hermon (Deut. 3:9 [KJV: “Shenir”]). It most likely designates the most prominent of the three central summits on Mount Hermon. It was also known as Sirion by the Sidonians. Mount Hermon itself was known for many sanctuaries of Baal worship.

A king of Assyria (r. 705–681 BC), he came to the throne upon the death of his powerful father, Sargon II, who had solidified Assyria’s empire, including incorporating the northern kingdom of Israel (722 BC). Many vassal states chose this moment of transition to rebel against Assyria, including Hezekiah of Judah, who stopped paying tribute. Sennacherib responded by moving his army to Judah in 701 BC, a moment of crisis recorded in 2 Kings 18:13–19:37; 2 Chron. 32:1–23; Isa. 35:1–37:38.

At first, Sennacherib had success against Judah, even taking Lachish and Azekah, cities that guarded the entrance to Jerusalem. The defeat of the former is pictured on reliefs that have been discovered from the remains of the Assyrian palace. When Sennacherib moved on Jerusalem, however, the prophet Isaiah encouraged Hezekiah to remain resolute and not surrender. The Bible records that God prevented an Assyrian victory. After hearing rumors of an approaching Egyptian army, the Assyrians withdrew and then experienced what seems to be a plague that killed 185,000 soldiers. Sennacherib then withdrew from the field. His life ended some time later when he was assassinated by two of his sons.

The word “sensual” pertains to what is experienced through the senses, virtuously (Prov. 24:13; Song 2:3) or nonvirtuously (Col. 2:23; 1 Tim. 5:11). God made a sensuous creation, pleasing to the eye and taste (Gen. 2:9; 3:6). Honesty is likened to a kiss (Prov. 24:26), yet the same kiss can deceive (Gen. 27:26) and betray (Luke 22:48). God’s creation is radiant (Job 31:26), and his angels cast their splendor abroad (Rev. 18:1).

A watchman or guard (Acts 12:6 NIV).

Two individuals are identified as being sons of fathers named Hassenuah (1 Chron. 9:7; Neh. 11:9). “Hassenaah” (Neh. 3:3) seems to be a variant spelling and may refer to the same family.

The head of David’s fourth unit of priests (1 Chron. 24:8).

Separation pertains either to a period of ritual uncleanliness during menstruation (Lev. 12:2, 5; 15:20, 25–26) or to voluntary separation from otherwise acceptable behavior, as in the Nazirite vow (Num. 6). The latter is a personal consecration of the individual for a set amount of time; the person reenters daily life only after a ritual sacrifice.

The idea that the church and state should remain independent entities in order to preserve religious and civil freedom. While this idea has taken most of its shape from discussions in the United States, the Bible often speaks about the attitudes of God’s people toward their government.

After Israel was freed from Egypt, God made it a “holy nation” (Exod. 19:5–6). All ancient Near Eastern nations were theocracies, and Israel was no different. As a theocracy, “church and state” were united under God’s rule, but this union was imperfect. Prophets frequently challenged wicked leaders (1 Sam. 2:27–36; 1 Kings 18:2). Then Israel was divided (1 Kings 12). Finally the exile obliterated any “church-state” unity that Israelite society had left. Daniel and his friends had to experience the difficulty of living faithfully in foreign societies.

But the exiles helped Israel to understand that God’s kingdom was eternal (Dan. 2:44–45). In the face of Roman rule, Jesus announced its appearing (Mark 1:15), but he did not advocate military revolt as did the Zealots of his day (John 18:36). Following Jesus, Paul taught of a citizenship in heaven (Phil. 3:20) while affirming some loyalty to Rome (Rom. 13:1–7; 1 Tim. 2:1–2). Peter concurred (1 Pet. 2:11–17), though he also emphasized the theme of God’s judgment (2 Pet. 3:7), a theme continued against imperial Rome in Revelation. In sum, the church finds itself as a kingdom among kingdoms. While warfare occurs in the spiritual realm (Eph. 6:12), God’s people are to conduct themselves as peaceful pilgrims as they look for a better country (Heb. 11:16).

A town used as a demarcation for the descendants of Joktan (Gen. 10:30). Most scholars have argued that it is the town known to us as Zafar (or Zaphar) along the coast of the Indian Ocean.

The sole biblical occurrence of the place name “Sepharad” is in Obad. 1:20, in a passage in which the prophet promises the restoration of various exiled Israelite entities. Among them, “the exiles from Jerusalem who are in Sepharad shall possess the towns of the Negev.” This location is otherwise obscure, though inscriptions attest Persian satrapies (provinces) in Asia Minor (Sardis) and Media with similar names. Postbiblical tradition identifies Sepharad with Spain, so that the Jewish communities of the Iberian Peninsula have been traditionally described as “Sephardim,” or Sephardic Jews.

A demarcation for two cities, both called Sippar, on opposite sides of the Euphrates. The residents of the cities are referred to as Sepharvites (2 Kings 17:31). Sippar of Shamash and Sippar of Anunit hosted large temples for the Babylonian sun god Shamash and the goddesses Ishtar and Anunit. Exiles from these two towns were brought to resettle Samaria after the Assyrians conquered the northern tribes of Israel (2 Kings 17:24, 31; 18:34; 19:13). The Assyrian army later taunted the inhabitants of Jerusalem with their exploits over these cities (Isa. 36:19; 37:13). The current archaeological site is ’Abu-Habbah, which has produced many finds.

A demarcation for two cities, both called Sippar, on opposite sides of the Euphrates. The residents of the cities are referred to as Sepharvites (2 Kings 17:31). Sippar of Shamash and Sippar of Anunit hosted large temples for the Babylonian sun god Shamash and the goddesses Ishtar and Anunit. Exiles from these two towns were brought to resettle Samaria after the Assyrians conquered the northern tribes of Israel (2 Kings 17:24, 31; 18:34; 19:13). The Assyrian army later taunted the inhabitants of Jerusalem with their exploits over these cities (Isa. 36:19; 37:13). The current archaeological site is ’Abu-Habbah, which has produced many finds.

The KJV translation of the Hebrew and Greek words referring to a tomb. Tombs are found throughout both Testaments. The first recorded sepulchre is the cave in which Abraham buried his wife, Sarah (Gen. 23:20). The most notable is the one in which Jesus was buried, given by Joseph of Arimathea (Matt. 27:59–60). These burial sites could take different forms: natural caves, chambers carved into rock, or piles of stones.

The daughter of Asher and a granddaughter of Jacob (Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:46; 1 Chron. 7:30).

(1) A royal secretary in the court of David (2 Sam. 8:17; he is called “Sheva” in 2 Sam. 20:25, “Shavsha” in 1 Chron. 18:16, and “Shisha” in 1 Kings 4:3). (2) The son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite, he was one of the Judean army officers who joined the Babylonian-appointed governor Gedaliah at Mizpah (2 Kings 25:23; Jer. 40:8). (3) The second son of Kenaz and the brother of Othniel, his son was Joab, “the father of Ge Harashim” (1 Chron. 4:13–14). See Ge Harashim. (4) A Simeonite, the son of Asiel and the grandfather of Jehu (1 Chron. 4:35). (5) The son of Azariah and the father of Jozadak, a descendant of Aaron (1 Chron. 6:14). A high priest executed at Riblah by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 25:18–21; Jer. 52:24–27). (6) An ancestor of Ezra the scribe (Ezra 7:1). (7) One of the returnees to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2). (8) One of the priests who sealed the postexilic covenant renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:2). (9) A priest and a descendant of Hilkiah, he was a supervisor in the house of God (Neh. 11:11). (10) One of the twenty-two “leaders of the priests” (Neh. 12:7) who accompanied Zerubbabel and Jeshua out of exile (Neh. 12:1). (11) The son of Azriel, he was one of the officers of King Jehoiakim sent to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch (Jer. 36:26). (12) The son of Neriah and the brother of Baruch (cf. Jer. 32:12), he was an official who went with King Zedekiah into exile in Babylon. Jeremiah gave him a scroll containing his prophecy of destruction upon Babylon and commanded him to read it aloud and then sink it with a stone in the Euphrates, symbolizing the fall of Babylon (Jer. 51:59–64).

Seraphim appear in Isa. 6:2, 6. The prophet sees God on his throne, and over him fly the seraphim. They have six wings: with two they cover their faces, with two they cover their feet, and with two they fly. The Hebrew word sarap means “to burn”; thus, the serapim are “burning ones” (cf. sarap in Num. 21:6, 8; Deut. 8:15; Isa. 14:29; 30:6 in reference to venomous serpents). They are living bolts of lightning, and their cries of “Holy, Holy, Holy,” are peals of thunder, which shake the heavenly temple and fill it with smoke.

The first of Zebulun’s three sons (Gen. 46:14; Num. 26:26).

One of the three clans of the descendants of Zebulun, counted at the second wilderness census (Num. 26:26).

A Roman proconsul on the island of Cyprus at the time of Paul’s first missionary journey (Acts 13:7). Described as an intelligent man and interested in the Christian faith, he summoned Paul and Barnabas in order to hear their message. One of his attendants, Elymas, tried to dissuade him from believing and was subsequently cursed by Paul and blinded by God as punishment (13:8–11). This highly placed Roman official became the first recorded convert from Paul’s first missionary journey when he saw the miracle of judgment. Luke, however, stresses the role of the apostles’ teaching in his conversion (13:12).

In Acts 16:35, 38 the KJV translates the Greek word rabdouchos as “serjeant,” referring to the (police) officers sent to release Paul and Silas from prison.

The Sermon on the Mount is the inaugural sermon of Jesus in Matthew’s Gospel (5:1–7:29), which sets out Jesus’ kingdom program for the people of God. Whether this was a single sermon delivered on one occasion or Matthew’s compilation of Jesus’ teaching is uncertain. Luke’s Gospel has a similar sermon (6:17–49), which may or may not be the same event (sometimes called the “Sermon on the Plain” because of v. 17, although this may simply be a “level place” on the same hill that Matthew describes).

Luke’s account is similar to Matthew’s on several points: same beatitudes regarding the poor, the hungry, and the persecuted; same teaching of loving enemies, turning the other cheek, not judging, the Golden Rule; same illustrations of removing a speck from the eye, good trees producing good fruit, wise man building a house on the rock. Of course, there are many differences in Luke’s version: woes pronounced upon the rich, the satiated, and the honored; the importance of giving; warning the blind who lead the blind; how students become teachers. In Luke, Jesus delivers his sermon to the twelve disciples just chosen as well as directly to a larger crowd (Luke 6:12–20), “Blessed are you . . .” In Matthew, Jesus addresses the crowd (including the disciples) gathered around him because of the miracles he has performed (Matt. 4:24–5:1)—note the third person, “Blessed are the poor in spirit . . .” Finally, Matthew’s account has more unique material than Luke’s: beatitudes regarding the pure in heart, peacemakers, and mourners; questions about the righteousness of scribes and Pharisees; the importance of obeying the Law and the Prophets; teachings regarding murder, adultery, divorce, revenge, swearing oaths, giving alms, prayer, fasting, worry; illustrations of salt and light, dogs and pigs, fish and stones, narrow and wide gates, wolves in sheep’s clothing. That Matthew begins the story of Jesus’ earthly ministry with this sermon is significant: he wants his readers to see Jesus as the rabbi who knows more about the kingdom of heaven than any scribe or Pharisee.

The Beatitudes

With the first words of the sermon, commonly known as the Beatitudes, Jesus challenges the conventional wisdom that the poor, the hungry, and the meek are cursed. Instead, Jesus claims that his hearers are blessed (these poor, hungry, and meek Galileans) because the kingdom of heaven comes to those who need God. Not surprisingly, these subversive ideas are couched in paradoxes: the poor are kingdom rich; the hungry are satisfied with righteousness; the meek inherit the land of promise; the bereaved are comforted; the persecuted find joy in their tribulations. They are pure-hearted; they are peacemakers. These are the kind of people Jesus calls “the salt of the earth” (Matt. 5:13). They are “the light of the world” (v. 14) because they reveal the glorious work of God in their lives. They are what the kingdom of heaven looks like on earth.

All of this may sound like the opposite of what was taught in the Torah, where it was said that material blessings are a sign of divine favor for the obedient, and sickness and death come to those who disobey God (Deut. 30:1–20). But Jesus claims that he is not ignoring the Law and the Prophets. Instead, he intends to keep the Law and the Prophets better than anyone, especially the scribes and the Pharisees, whom Jesus accuses of abrogating the law because they have missed the heart of the commandments (Matt. 5:17–20; cf. 23:23–24).

Love God and Neighbor

The Sermon on the Mount appears to be an exposition of two great commandments emphasized by Jesus: love God (6:1–34; Deut. 6:5) and love your neighbor (5:21–48; Lev. 19:18). In particular, Jesus challenges the experts of the law—the scribes and the Pharisees—in regard to their righteousness.

Do the experts keep the law when it comes to loving your neighbor? They say, “You shall not murder” (quoting the Decalogue) and “Anyone who murders will be subject to judgment” (quoting their tradition). But according to Jesus, they break the commandment and their tradition when they call someone a “fool.” Their indignation is not righteous; in fact, it condemns them to hell and prevents them from worshiping God (5:21–26). They say, “You shall not commit adultery” (again quoting the Decalogue) and “Whoever divorces his wife, let him give her a certificate of dismissal” (quoting Deut. 24). But Jesus believes that the commandment is broken when a man lusts for a woman; so he advises men to take drastic measures in dealing with eyes and hands, the instruments of lust (5:27–30). He even accuses husbands of practicing and promoting serial adultery when they abuse women by treating them as objects, trying to justify their selfish behavior by appealing to the provision of divorce in the law of Moses (5:31–32). The scribes and Pharisees also swear oaths to cover false vows (5:33–37). They hate their neighbors when they seek revenge against their enemies, desiring only to help their friends (5:38–47). Instead, Jesus teaches that when it comes to the kingdom of heaven, children of God must replicate the qualities of their heavenly Father (5:48): defying injustice (unrighteousness) through love, self-sacrifice, and mercy (turning the other cheek, giving away clothing, helping enemies, praying for persecutors). When it comes to loving your neighbor, this righteousness is picture perfect.

Certainly the scribes and the Pharisees cannot be accused of not loving God, for their standards of holiness are considered the highest of all. Yet according to Jesus, their acts of holiness are not for God’s benefit but for their own (6:1). When they give to the poor, it is an ostentatious display designed for social approval (6:2–4). When they pray, it is for human eyes, not God’s ears (6:5). When they fast, they want everyone to know about it (6:16). Jesus, on the other hand, believes that acts of holiness are for God’s eyes only. Give in secret; pray in private; fast in disguise (6:3–4, 6–13, 17–18). In this way, a person is storing up treasures in heaven. Those who seek human approval get their rewards on earth, where treasures are temporal (6:1–2, 5, 16, 19–21). Indeed, slaves of mammon worry about things that do not last (money, food, clothing). Those who seek the kingdom of heaven, on the other hand, are anxious for nothing. They serve the master who feeds sparrows and clothes fields of grass with flowers (6:24–34). God knows what kingdom seekers need before they ask, which is why they pray for the kingdom to come, for the will of God to be done on earth as it is in heaven (6:8–13). Rather than judging others, kingdom seekers forgive their debtors (7:1–5). They are delivered from the evil one because they make requests to a Father who gives only good gifts (7:7–11). Kingdom seekers treat others as they themselves want to be treated because they know that the Law and the Prophets are summed up in these two commandments: love God and love your neighbor (7:12).

The Narrow Gate

The sermon ends with an invitation. Two gates stand before Jesus’ listeners. One is wide, and many enter this way—a broad path that leads to destruction. It is the way of the Pharisees and the scribes. The other gate is narrow, and few enter this way, even though it leads to life—the way of righteousness, according to Jesus (7:13–14). There are two kinds of prophets, two kinds of trees, two kinds of builders (7:15–27). False prophets make bad trees; those who listen to them are fools. True prophets produce good fruit; those who listen to them are wise persons who build their lives on the rock of Jesus’ words—a Sermon on the Mount.

The serpent (nakhash) initially appears in Gen. 3:1, endowed with wisdom and the capacity to speak. In addressing Eve, it intentionally changes God’s positive command to eat from all trees of the garden, with one exception, to a comprehensive prohibition and then goes on to contradict God and promise that eating will make Adam and Eve “like God, knowing good and evil” (3:5). While an explicit identity for the serpent is not given at this point, the curse pronounced against the creature (Gen. 3:14–15) has transcendent implications (cf. Rom. 16:20). By the first centuries BC and AD, the serpent became linked with the malevolent figure of Satan, the devil, the great dragon. This connection is most comprehensively articulated for the Christian community in Rev. 12:9–15; 20:2. Eve acknowledged its deceptive wiles (Gen. 3:13), a point that both Jesus (John 8:44) and Paul (2 Cor. 11:3) reinforce.

Deadly snakes were recognized and feared denizens of the great and terrible wilderness (Deut. 8:15) as the Israelites made their way toward the promised land. When the people spoke against God and Moses, God sent burning serpents that bit the people (Num. 21:6–9). Moses’ action in elevating a bronze serpent on the pole served as the paradigm for Jesus’ reference to lifting up the Son of Man (John 3:14) and the necessity of belief in the unlikely prospect of a crucified Messiah. Later, this bronze snake became an object of worship, and Hezekiah destroyed it (2 Kings 18:4). Because serpents were so dangerous, their venom was a figure for utterly destructive evil (Ps. 140:3).

Isaiah 27:1 moves the sphere of activities from barren wilderness to tumultuous water: “In that day, the Lord will punish with his sword—his fierce, great and powerful sword—Leviathan the gliding serpent, Leviathan the coiling serpent; he will slay the monster of the sea.” The same motif is evident in Ps. 74:13–14, which declares that God broke the “heads” of the sea monsters and smashed the “heads” of Leviathan (cf. Gen. 3:15). The “fleeing serpent” of Isaiah also appears in Job 26:12–13, which describes God cutting Rahab in pieces and piercing the “gliding serpent.” Around the central figure of the serpent, a land creature, are watery glimpses of the mythic and shadowy Leviathan, a sea monster, and Rahab, all of which represent a creature opposed by God. It is likely that this malevolent cosmic figure is lurking below the surface of the crocodile-infested waters of Job 41, a subtle but powerful closure to the contest with which the book commenced; although Job could not restrain Leviathan, God does.

The motifs that recur in these passages were also part of the mythologies of cultures surrounding ancient Israel. The Enuma Elish (a Babylonian creation story) depicts the violent battle between the goddess Tiamat and the god Marduk that involved monster-serpents and roaring dragons. Closer to Israelite culture, in the Canaanite myth of Baal and Anat, we read that Anat claimed to crush the crooked serpent with seven heads. Just as serpents and related figures in the biblical text occasionally crossed the flexible boundaries between good and evil, in the wider cultural context of the ancient Near East the serpent served as a metaphor for a vast complex that included life, fertility, and wisdom, as well as chaos and death.

For the Christian community receiving the Revelation of John, “the great dragon, that ancient serpent” (20:2), presented a powerful metaphor. Wise, shrewd, quick, beguiling, and terrifying, it had been in opposition to God in the age-old conflict between good and evil, the reality of which was expressed across cultural boundaries and a part of which was enveloping the church in the Roman Empire of late antiquity. Even its defeat was not instantaneous; the “head” of the serpent, struck by the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, would bear one final blow; the cosmic evil would be ultimately and completely defeated to accomplish the purposes of God. See also Venomous Serpent.

While the English word “charm” is derived from a Latin word for “incantation,” the Hebrew word often translated as “charm” (lakhash) refers to a whisper, like that of a snake charmer. In fact, the word frequently conjured up the image of enchanted serpents. For example, Eccles. 10:11 draws upon the image of a snake-bitten charmer whose skill, consequently, has been rendered futile. Further, in Jer. 8:17 God threatens to send out serpents that cannot be enchanted. Moreover, in Ps. 58:5 the psalmist likens wicked people to a cobra that refuses to be tamed. A progression of thought that associated serpents with demons eventually led people to seek magical charms, such as wearing amulets, to protect them from evil. However, Isaiah insists that such charms stand impotent before the evil about to destroy Babylon (Isa. 47:11); likewise, he warns that Israel’s religious experts in charms and even their women adorned with amulets will be taken away in judgment (Isa. 3:3, 20). In Prov. 31:30 most English versions translate “graceful appearance” (khen) metaphorically as “charm” in order to contrast a woman who has seemingly magical power over a man with a woman who fears God; so also, many translators take license with the precious stone (’eben-khen) in Prov. 17:8 to imply that a bribe can “work like a charm.” However, any original connotation of actual enchantment in these proverbs is doubtful. See also Magic Charm.

An early, tangible reminder of the goodness of God in rescuing his people from their sins (NIV: “bronze snake”). During the wilderness wanderings, the land of Edom lay in the path of the Israelites. The Israelites requested permission to pass through Edom, which the Edomites strongly denied (Num. 20:14–21). Forced to circle around Edom and head far out of their way, the Israelites began to complain yet again (Num. 21:4–5; see also Exod. 15:22–24; 16:1–3; 17:1–7). God responded by sending venomous snakes that killed many people (Num. 21:6). When the people admitted their sin and asked Moses to pray to God on their behalf, God commanded Moses to do a strange thing: he was to make a snake and put it on a pole. “Then when anyone was bitten by a snake and looked at the bronze snake, they lived” (21:9).

This seemingly insignificant and bizarre episode in Israelite history resurfaces twice in the Bible. The good king Hezekiah destroyed the bronze serpent during his purification of the land of Judah from idolatrous worship. The writer of Kings explains that the serpent, which had come to be called “Nehushtan,” had itself become an idol, as the Israelites had been burning incense to it (2 Kings 18:4). Jesus also makes mention of the bronze serpent in his famous dialogue with Nicodemus. In speak­ing of his impending death, Jesus explains to Nicodemus that he, the Son of Man, must be lifted up from the earth, “just as Moses lifted up the snake in the desert” (John 3:14). Those who believe in Jesus will have eternal life because of his being lifted up—that is, crucified (see John 12:32–34). Jesus’ reference to the bronze serpent emphasizes the simplicity of salvation through Christ. Just as the Israelites needed only to look to the bronze serpent, trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from physical death, so also those who are dying in their sins need only look to the perfect sacrifice of Jesus Christ, trusting in God’s provision for their salvation from spiritual death.

A great-grandfather of Abraham, he was the son of Reu, the father of Nahor, and an ancestor of Jesus (Gen. 11:20–23; 1 Chron. 1:26; Luke 3:35). As with other names in Abraham’s ancestry, forms of personal and place names similar to this occur in ancient extrabiblical Semitic texts.

Slavery and servanthood were part of everyday life in the ancient world. There were many different kinds of circumstances through which a person might become a slave. Some were coerced into servitude after being captured in war; others were born into slavery; others served as slaves as a sentence for a crime; still others served by personal choice as an apprentice. Slavery was not based on race. Furthermore, there was an enormous range of social and economic classes among slaves, from the brutal life of a galley slave to that of a wealthy servant of a king who might likewise own property and slaves.

In some cases, manumission, or the freeing of slaves, was possible during Roman times. This could be accomplished if the master died or if the master’s will allowed for their freedom, and in some cases slaves could even purchase their own freedom. In the first century AD, there were many such manumitted slaves. Acts 6:9 speaks of a Synagogue of the Freedmen, which probably means that it was made up of former slaves.

Old Testament

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2 Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1 Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:1–11; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Year of Jubilee, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Some slaves chose freely to stay with their owner. Deuteronomy 15:16–17 speaks of a slave who might say to a master, “I do not want to leave you,” out of love for the master and his family. This commitment was sealed by piercing the earlobe of the slave with an awl. This symbolized a lifelong commitment to the master.

New Testament

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1 Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1 Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1 Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1 Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

The imagery of slavery is also used metaphorically in the NT in both a negative and a positive manner. In Rom. 6 the apostle Paul discusses how slavery and obedience to former and latter masters is an essential part of the changed Christian life. Prior to knowing Christ, we were “slaves to sin” and obeyed its power (Rom. 6:16–17); after following Christ, we were freed from the power of sin and death and became “slaves to righteousness” (Rom. 6:18) and “slaves of God” (Rom. 6:22).

One of the most important themes in Isaiah is the messianic promise of a Davidic king. Yet intertwined throughout Isa. 42–53 are several passages that also identify the coming messianic personage as a servant, or more specifically, the Servant of the Lord. Often called the “Servant Songs,” four passages in Isaiah focus particularly on the coming Servant of the Lord (42:1–7; 49:1–6; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). These texts present several important aspects of the coming Servant. First, God declares that he delights in his Servant and that he will put his Spirit on him. Furthermore, the Servant will establish justice and righteousness, two dominating themes of the prophetic literature associated with the coming Messiah. The Servant will regather the people of Israel, but he will also be a light and a covenant to the nations/Gentiles and thus will provide life for all of God’s people. Ironically, however, and in contrast to the Davidic kingly images of the Messiah, Isaiah declares that the Servant will come quietly and humbly. Shockingly, the Servant of the Lord will be mocked and rejected by his people, even though he bears their sin and suffers for their iniquities. In fact, Isaiah declares, it is through the suffering of the Servant that righteousness is to be found (thus, the Servant is often referred to as the Suffering Servant). Even though the Servant will suffer greatly and be humiliated, ultimately he will be lifted up and exalted.

Throughout history there has been much discussion as to the identity of the Servant of the Lord. Some scholars understand the Servant to represent the nation Israel in a collective sense. Others see the Servant as a historical person during the OT era. Still others suggest a “corporate view” in which the Servant is an individual who nonetheless represents the group that he leads. Note that in several texts Isaiah seems to refer to the Servant as an individual, whereas Isa. 49:3 appears to use “Servant” to refer to the nation Israel.

This discussion is similar to the puzzlement that the Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:32–34 expresses to Philip regarding the identity of the Servant in the fourth Servant Song (Isa. 52:13–53:12). Regarding this text, the Ethiopian asks Philip, “Who is the prophet talking about, himself or someone else?” Philip, however, is not confused about the identity of the Servant, and beginning with that particular passage, Philip explains to the Ethiopian that Jesus Christ is the Servant, the coming Messiah.

Likewise, throughout the Gospels there are quotes from and allusions to the Servant Songs, especially Isa. 53, thus establishing clearly that Jesus is the promised Servant of the Lord. Paul makes numerous allusions to Isa. 53 as he discusses the redemptive work of Christ, and Peter includes the Servant theme as part of his foundational understanding of Jesus’ work and mission.

Yet, although the NT bears strong testimony that Isaiah’s prophecies concerning the Servant of the Lord are fulfilled by the Messiah, Jesus Christ, there is still a sense in which Jesus also represents the ideal Israel. Unlike Israel, however, Jesus (the true Israel) is completely obedient, thus fulfilling many of the things that the nation itself had failed to complete. In this sense, as we find in Isaiah, the nation Israel can be called “the Servant.” On the other hand, only Jesus Christ, as the perfect and ideal Servant of the Lord, fulfills all that Isaiah prophesies of the coming one in the Servant Songs.

The Bible speaks of service in both general and spiritual senses. Humans often are portrayed as serving other humans, such as a slave serving the master, a worker serving the employer, a courtier serving the king, or one nation serving another. In Genesis, when God places the man in the garden “to work” the ground, the Hebrew word is ’abad, which also means “to serve” (2:15). When used of the spiritual realm, service indicates the worship of God, the gods, idols, or created things. Israel was specifically called out of Egypt to serve Yahweh—that is, to worship him. Throughout their history, the Israelites were regularly exhorted to choose between serving Yahweh or other gods (e.g., Josh. 24:15).

When used of God, service often includes the performance of specific rituals. In OT times this included offering sacrifices, performing duties such as caring for the tabernacle, singing and praising God, and celebrating the appointed festivals. The NT portrays people serving God by preaching the gospel, fasting and praying, and meeting the needs of others. Jesus sets the example by coming not to be served but rather to serve and to give his life for others. NT authors, although firmly believing that God alone should be worshiped, affirmed Jesus’ deity by continually encouraging people to serve him. Service of God includes what we do when gathered as a community of faith, what we do privately, and what we do in public as long as we do it unto the Lord.

Defeated people could be placed in servitude, or slavery. Impoverished persons could sell themselves into servitude in order to provide for their families. The OT mandated that such indentured slaves be released after six years or in the Year of Jubilee (Exod. 21:1–11; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18).

The third son of Adam and Eve, Seth was viewed as a God-given replacement for the murdered Abel (Gen. 4:25–26). His name (Heb. shet) is a wordplay on “God has granted [shat] me another child,” suggesting that he will be a new foundation for humanity.

One of the twelve Israelites sent “to explore the land of Caanan” (Num. 13:2). Sethur was the delegate from the tribe of Asher (Num. 13:13).

The following are the seven last sayings of Jesus, spoken while he was on the cross.

1. “Father, forgive them, for they do not know what they are doing” (Luke 23:34). This prayer that the Father forgive his enemies and executioners was actually answered by his own death, which made forgiveness possible.

2. “Truly I tell you, today you will be with me in paradise” (Luke 23:43). This promise offered paradise—a place of life, rest, peace, and fellowship with God—to the repentant criminal being crucified beside Jesus.

3. “ ‘Woman, here is your son.’ . . . ‘Here is your mother’ ” (John 19:26–27). Since by this time, presumably, Joseph had died, Jesus, as the oldest son, was now responsible to care for his mother. He does so by entrusting her to “the disciple whom he loved.”

4. “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?” (Matt. 27:46; Mark 15:34). Jesus quoted Ps. 22:1, a prayer of King David, who was suffering unjustly. As the ultimate righteous sufferer, Jesus also confessed his feelings of abandonment by God.

5. “I am thirsty” (John 19:28). Jesus likely requested a drink in order to speak the final few words as well as to fulfill Scripture. Here he alludes to Pss. 22:14–15; 69:21.

6. “It is finished” (John 19:30). “It” refers to his redemptive work, “finished” means to be “paid in full,” and the verb tense of the Greek verb indicates an action that has been completed but has ongoing results. The Son’s work stands accomplished—now and forever.

7. “Father, into your hands I commit my spirit” (Luke 23:46). The backdrop is Ps. 31:4–5. Jesus anticipated restored fellowship with the Father and entrusted himself to the Father’s care.

The reference to seventy “weeks” (or “sevens”) in Dan. 9:24–27 is one of the most puzzling of biblical prophecies to decipher. The “weeks” here almost certainly are weeks of years rather than days, and so they refer to seventy units of seven years, or 490 years. The critical issue involves the nature and fulfillment of the prophecy. One approach sees the prophecy covering from 445 BC (Artaxerxes’ decree to rebuild Jerusalem) to AD 33 (Christ’s death), with the remaining one week of seven years referring to the future great tribulation. Another approach to Dan. 9:24–27 sees the prophecy stretching from 605 BC (Jeremiah’s oracle against Jerusalem) to 164 BC (Judas Maccabeus’s restoration of the Jerusalem temple). Neither interpretation, however, is without problems. The first seems artificial (should leap years be counted?). The second does not actually add up to 490 years. Thus, another interpretation believes that the number is not referring to a literal number of years but rather is symbolic.

Seventy years represent completeness or perfection (being a multiple of seven and ten, both of which represent completeness). The number is a figurative way of describing the fulfillment of a divine decree, such as the duration of judgment on Tyre (Isa. 23:15–17).

Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC, and Cyrus’s decree to allow the exiles to return home dates to 539 BC. Thus, the period of exile was about forty-seven years. The prophet Jeremiah, however, predicts the period of exile with the figure of “seventy years” (Jer. 25:11–12; 29:10). In the book of Daniel, Daniel seems not to have understood what this prophecy meant (Dan. 9:2), and it is revealed to him that its fulfillment would require seven times that number, or 490 years (9:20–24). The original prophecy of two figurative values is therefore multiplied again by another figurative seven, which apparently defines the apocalyptic timetable all the way up to the end of the world.

Another way of regarding Jeremiah’s “seventy years” is found in 2 Chron. 36:21. There, as in Daniel, the number relates to 490 years. Unlike Daniel, however, this 490-year figure is from the past, not the future. The Chronicler’s argument is that the law of Moses required the land to lie fallow once every seven years (see Exod. 23:10–11). Since Israel had not obeyed this command in its entire sojourn, the land had accumulated seventy years of Sabbaths, which God then imposed by removing his people for seventy years.

When God creates humans, he pronounces them “very good/beautiful” (Gen. 1:31). They are designed to be magnificent visual displays of God’s character (1:26–27). Human sexuality originally is set in a context of overwhelming beauty. God’s first command is to reproduce and extend this paradise throughout the earth (1:28). Human sexuality is not simply a mechanism for reproduction. From the outset it has been about completion, without which there is loneliness (2:18).

Although the Bible does not define the distinctives of masculinity and femininity in any detail, it does defend that there are distinctions between the genders. Behaviors that confuse the genders are explicitly condemned (Deut. 22:5; 1 Cor. 6:9; 11:4–16).

Homosexual intercourse (Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Rom. 1:24–27; 1 Cor. 6:9; 1 Tim. 1:10) and intercourse with an animal (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 18:23; 20:15–16; Deut. 27:21) are violations of God’s created order.

Nakedness

“Nakedness” is confined to the genitals and buttocks (Exod. 20:26; Isa. 20:2–4; Ezek. 23:18, 29; Nah. 3:5) and, after the fall, is synonymous with shame (Gen. 3:7–10; 1 Sam. 20:30; Isa. 47:3; Jer. 13:26; Mic. 1:11; Nah. 3:5; Rev. 3:18; cf. Rom. 1:23–24; 1 Cor. 12:23–24). A woman’s breasts are recognized as erotic (Prov. 5:19; Ezek. 23:3, 21) but not shameful. God slaughters an animal in order to cover nakedness (Gen. 3:21). Ultimately, when sin and death are removed and the body raised, the redeemed will have no shame and will be clothed only in their righteousness (Rev. 19:5–9).

Exposing nakedness is an action used to humiliate enemies (2 Sam. 10:4–5; 1 Chron. 10:9; Isa. 47:3). Jesus is stripped naked (Matt. 27:28, 35–36). Violating another’s nakedness includes touching or seeing (Deut. 25:11) and produces extreme personal disgrace (Lev. 18:6–19 NASB; Hab. 2:15–16). It is an act of grace to cover another’s nakedness (Isa. 58:7; Ezek. 18:7, 16). To even talk or laugh about inappropriate exposure brings dishonor (Gen. 9:21–23). The overarching principle is purity (Lev. 18:24).

Marriage and Adultery

Although damaged by sin, marriage continues to be the ultimate human relationship involving intimacy, privacy, and liberty. Marriage is defined by a covenant—a contract witnessed and enforceable, not just a promise made in private. The couple separate from their parents to become “one flesh” (Gen. 2:24).

Once the marriage contract is agreed upon, the couple are married. They cannot consummate the marriage until the economic commitments of the contract have been delivered (Matt. 1:18; 25:1–13). This is celebrated with a feast. Jesus uses this custom as an analogy for his departure and return (John 14:1–3).

Paul commands husbands to love their wives (Eph. 5:25–33; cf. Gen. 24:67; 29:20; 1 Sam. 1:5; Eccles. 9:9; Song 8:6–7). Nowhere in the Bible is a wife commanded to love her husband, though older women should teach younger women to do so (Titus 2:3–4). Love is the husband’s responsibility. Love is a command that can be obeyed, not just a pleasurable feeling over which one has no control. The model of husbandly love is Jesus laying down his life for his people.

The ecstasy of making love is celebrated in the erotic Song of Songs, which holds out the hope of such marital delight even now. The axiom of marriage is a righteous jealousy (cf. Exod. 20:5; 34:14; Num. 5:14, 30; Prov. 6:34).

The first year of marriage is especially important and is protected by exemption from military service (Deut. 20:7; 24:5).

When a man dies without a male heir, his widow’s possession of that part of the family estate can result in her marrying a man from another family and so alienating that land. This can be resolved either by the injustice of eviction or by the device of levirate marriage. The nearest male relative of the deceased husband marries the widow, and their son then inherits the deceased husband’s name and title to the land (Deut. 25:5–10; cf. Gen. 38; Ruth).

Concubines are wives from poor families, slaves, or captives, and their marriages are protected (Exod. 21:7–9; Deut. 21:11–14).

Rape of a married woman constitutes adultery by the rapist, not the victim. Consensual sex with a married woman is adultery by both parties. Rape of a single woman is treated as fornication, with no blame attached to the woman. Her father has the option of letting her marry the man or receiving significant financial compensation (Exod. 22:16–17; Deut. 22:23–27). Her father has the right to take the money and refuse the marriage. To falsely accuse a woman of adultery is a crime (Deut. 22:13–21).

Prostitution is an extreme form of adultery or fornication and totally forbidden (Lev. 19:29; Deut. 23:17). Under the new covenant, this warning is heightened by the reality of the gift of the Holy Spirit transforming each believer into the temple of the Lord (1 Cor. 6:15–20).

Originally, marriage between siblings is implied (Gen. 4:17, 26; 5:4). Abram married his half sister, Sarai (Gen. 20:12; cf. Gen. 11:29; Num. 26:59). The Mosaic covenant at Sinai bans marriage to blood relationships closer than first cousins and to in-laws (Lev. 18:6–30; cf. 2 Sam. 13; 1 Cor. 5:1).

Polygamy occurs soon after the fall (Gen. 4:19–24). It is never explicitly forbidden in the Bible, but it is managed by OT law so as to restrain further injustice and damage. It is always seen as less than satisfactory (cf. Gen. 29–30; 1 Sam. 1:6; 2 Sam. 13; 1 Kings 1–2; 11). In the NT, monogamy is mandatory for those who would lead the church (1 Tim. 3:2, 12; Titus 1:6). (See also Premarital and Extramarital Sex.)

Self-Control and Purity

The violation of sexual purity is a decision of the heart (Ezek. 23:11; Matt. 5:28). The biblical concept of lust entails more than just physical arousal. It involves a strong desire for/coveting of (cf. James 1:14–15) something that one has no right to acquire. This establishes both the need for self-control (Titus 2:5–6) and the availability of appropriate options (1 Cor. 7:2, 5, 9). Masturbation is nowhere mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 38:9 is about failure to fulfill the levirate). The critical issue is lust.

Sexual misconduct is never the responsibility of the victim (Deut. 22:25). Nevertheless, for reasons of personal safety as well as out of concern for one another, the family of Christ must practice modesty in dress (1 Tim. 2:9) and consider how to build one another up rather than put stumbling blocks in each other’s way.

God always provides the believer with what is necessary to resist temptation and make the right choices (1 Cor. 10:13). Consequently, a significant aspect of every parent’s role is to teach godly sexual wisdom to children before they face such challenges (cf. Prov. 1–9).

The gospel requires us to view sexuality from a wider perspective. Reproduction also occurs through the preaching of the gospel, calling forth new birth and a new people (Matt. 28:18–20). This gospel call will divide families (Luke 12:53). Singleness is no barrier to one’s ability to fulfill the command to multiply and fill the earth (Isa. 56:3–8). In times of distress it may be better to remain single (1 Cor. 7, esp. v. 26). This is also a gift of God (1 Cor. 7:7), given to equip one for the fulfillment of the gospel commission.

When God creates humans, he pronounces them “very good/beautiful” (Gen. 1:31). They are designed to be magnificent visual displays of God’s character (1:26–27). Human sexuality originally is set in a context of overwhelming beauty. God’s first command is to reproduce and extend this paradise throughout the earth (1:28). Human sexuality is not simply a mechanism for reproduction. From the outset it has been about completion, without which there is loneliness (2:18).

Although the Bible does not define the distinctives of masculinity and femininity in any detail, it does defend that there are distinctions between the genders. Behaviors that confuse the genders are explicitly condemned (Deut. 22:5; 1 Cor. 6:9; 11:4–16).

Homosexual intercourse (Lev. 18:22; 20:13; Rom. 1:24–27; 1 Cor. 6:9; 1 Tim. 1:10) and intercourse with an animal (Exod. 22:19; Lev. 18:23; 20:15–16; Deut. 27:21) are violations of God’s created order.

Nakedness

“Nakedness” is confined to the genitals and buttocks (Exod. 20:26; Isa. 20:2–4; Ezek. 23:18, 29; Nah. 3:5) and, after the fall, is synonymous with shame (Gen. 3:7–10; 1 Sam. 20:30; Isa. 47:3; Jer. 13:26; Mic. 1:11; Nah. 3:5; Rev. 3:18; cf. Rom. 1:23–24; 1 Cor. 12:23–24). A woman’s breasts are recognized as erotic (Prov. 5:19; Ezek. 23:3, 21) but not shameful. God slaughters an animal in order to cover nakedness (Gen. 3:21). Ultimately, when sin and death are removed and the body raised, the redeemed will have no shame and will be clothed only in their righteousness (Rev. 19:5–9).

Exposing nakedness is an action used to humiliate enemies (2 Sam. 10:4–5; 1 Chron. 10:9; Isa. 47:3). Jesus is stripped naked (Matt. 27:28, 35–36). Violating another’s nakedness includes touching or seeing (Deut. 25:11) and produces extreme personal disgrace (Lev. 18:6–19 NASB; Hab. 2:15–16). It is an act of grace to cover another’s nakedness (Isa. 58:7; Ezek. 18:7, 16). To even talk or laugh about inappropriate exposure brings dishonor (Gen. 9:21–23). The overarching principle is purity (Lev. 18:24).

Marriage and Adultery

Although damaged by sin, marriage continues to be the ultimate human relationship involving intimacy, privacy, and liberty. Marriage is defined by a covenant—a contract witnessed and enforceable, not just a promise made in private. The couple separate from their parents to become “one flesh” (Gen. 2:24).

Once the marriage contract is agreed upon, the couple are married. They cannot consummate the marriage until the economic commitments of the contract have been delivered (Matt. 1:18; 25:1–13). This is celebrated with a feast. Jesus uses this custom as an analogy for his departure and return (John 14:1–3).

Paul commands husbands to love their wives (Eph. 5:25–33; cf. Gen. 24:67; 29:20; 1 Sam. 1:5; Eccles. 9:9; Song 8:6–7). Nowhere in the Bible is a wife commanded to love her husband, though older women should teach younger women to do so (Titus 2:3–4). Love is the husband’s responsibility. Love is a command that can be obeyed, not just a pleasurable feeling over which one has no control. The model of husbandly love is Jesus laying down his life for his people.

The ecstasy of making love is celebrated in the erotic Song of Songs, which holds out the hope of such marital delight even now. The axiom of marriage is a righteous jealousy (cf. Exod. 20:5; 34:14; Num. 5:14, 30; Prov. 6:34).

The first year of marriage is especially important and is protected by exemption from military service (Deut. 20:7; 24:5).

When a man dies without a male heir, his widow’s possession of that part of the family estate can result in her marrying a man from another family and so alienating that land. This can be resolved either by the injustice of eviction or by the device of levirate marriage. The nearest male relative of the deceased husband marries the widow, and their son then inherits the deceased husband’s name and title to the land (Deut. 25:5–10; cf. Gen. 38; Ruth).

Concubines are wives from poor families, slaves, or captives, and their marriages are protected (Exod. 21:7–9; Deut. 21:11–14).

Rape of a married woman constitutes adultery by the rapist, not the victim. Consensual sex with a married woman is adultery by both parties. Rape of a single woman is treated as fornication, with no blame attached to the woman. Her father has the option of letting her marry the man or receiving significant financial compensation (Exod. 22:16–17; Deut. 22:23–27). Her father has the right to take the money and refuse the marriage. To falsely accuse a woman of adultery is a crime (Deut. 22:13–21).

Prostitution is an extreme form of adultery or fornication and totally forbidden (Lev. 19:29; Deut. 23:17). Under the new covenant, this warning is heightened by the reality of the gift of the Holy Spirit transforming each believer into the temple of the Lord (1 Cor. 6:15–20).

Originally, marriage between siblings is implied (Gen. 4:17, 26; 5:4). Abram married his half sister, Sarai (Gen. 20:12; cf. Gen. 11:29; Num. 26:59). The Mosaic covenant at Sinai bans marriage to blood relationships closer than first cousins and to in-laws (Lev. 18:6–30; cf. 2 Sam. 13; 1 Cor. 5:1).

Polygamy occurs soon after the fall (Gen. 4:19–24). It is never explicitly forbidden in the Bible, but it is managed by OT law so as to restrain further injustice and damage. It is always seen as less than satisfactory (cf. Gen. 29–30; 1 Sam. 1:6; 2 Sam. 13; 1 Kings 1–2; 11). In the NT, monogamy is mandatory for those who would lead the church (1 Tim. 3:2, 12; Titus 1:6). (See also Premarital and Extramarital Sex.)

Self-Control and Purity

The violation of sexual purity is a decision of the heart (Ezek. 23:11; Matt. 5:28). The biblical concept of lust entails more than just physical arousal. It involves a strong desire for/coveting of (cf. James 1:14–15) something that one has no right to acquire. This establishes both the need for self-control (Titus 2:5–6) and the availability of appropriate options (1 Cor. 7:2, 5, 9). Masturbation is nowhere mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 38:9 is about failure to fulfill the levirate). The critical issue is lust.

Sexual misconduct is never the responsibility of the victim (Deut. 22:25). Nevertheless, for reasons of personal safety as well as out of concern for one another, the family of Christ must practice modesty in dress (1 Tim. 2:9) and consider how to build one another up rather than put stumbling blocks in each other’s way.

God always provides the believer with what is necessary to resist temptation and make the right choices (1 Cor. 10:13). Consequently, a significant aspect of every parent’s role is to teach godly sexual wisdom to children before they face such challenges (cf. Prov. 1–9).

The gospel requires us to view sexuality from a wider perspective. Reproduction also occurs through the preaching of the gospel, calling forth new birth and a new people (Matt. 28:18–20). This gospel call will divide families (Luke 12:53). Singleness is no barrier to one’s ability to fulfill the command to multiply and fill the earth (Isa. 56:3–8). In times of distress it may be better to remain single (1 Cor. 7, esp. v. 26). This is also a gift of God (1 Cor. 7:7), given to equip one for the fulfillment of the gospel commission.

One of the towns allocated to the tribe of Dan under Joshua (Josh. 19:42). It is probably the same town as Shaalbim (Judg. 1:35; 1 Kings 4:9), modern Selbit, located about fifteen miles northeast of Jerusalem.

A city mentioned in Judg. 1:35 as one of three places where the Amorites held out against the tribe of Dan. The Amorites kept the Danites from moving into the plain from the hill country. The Amorites were never removed from Shaalbim, but later they were pressed into forced labor. It was also one of four cities under the authority of Ben-Deker, a district governor of Solomon. Solomon had twelve district governors responsible for supplying provisions to the royal household from their assigned territories. It may also be the same as Shaalbon, the hometown of David’s mighty man Eliahba.

The hometown of Eliahba, one of David’s mighty warriors (2 Sam. 23:32; 1 Chron. 11:33). It probably is the same town as Shaalbim and Shaalabbin.

The hometown of Eliahba, one of David’s mighty warriors (2 Sam. 23:32; 1 Chron. 11:33). It probably is the same town as Shaalbim and Shaalabbin.

A region in the territory of Ephraim where Saul searched for his father’s lost donkeys (1 Sam. 9:4). The name is likely to be identified with Shaalabbin (Josh. 19:42) or Shaalbim (Judg. 1:35; 1 Kings 4:9).

(1) A descendant of Judah through Jahdai (1 Chron. 2:47). (2) A descendant of Judah through Caleb and his concubine Maakah. He was the “father” (founder) of the town of Madmannah (1 Chron. 2:49; cf. Josh. 15:31).

(1) A town strategically located in the Shephelah on the main road from Philistia to Jerusalem (Josh. 15:36). Not all agree, but scholars have recently identified it with Khirbet Qeiyafa, atop a hill bordering the Elah Valley twenty miles southwest of Jerusalem (1 Sam. 17:52). Excavators have recently uncovered two gates here, a feature corresponding to the town’s Hebrew name. (2) A town belonging to Simeon in the Negev (1 Chron. 4:31). It possibly is to be identified with Sharuhen (Josh. 19:6) and Shilhim (Josh. 15:32), occurring in parallel lists.

King Ahasuerus’s eunuch in charge of the concubines in the second harem. This harem was designated for those who had already spent a night with the king as opposed to the virgins who were waiting their turn (Esther 2:14).

A Levite in the postexilic period involved in Ezra’s decree against having foreign wives (Ezra 10:15). The significance of the verse is disputed, but it appears that Shabbethai and others named in the verse represent a dissenting party. They are likely opposing not the divorce but rather the laxity of the suggested plan to carry it out. He is also likely the same person who supported Ezra’s policy (Neh. 8:7; 11:16).

A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the sixth of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:10).

A bond typically represents a close relationship in Scripture. It can carry positive or negative connotations, as do related words such as “bondage.” In the sense of “chains,” bonds literally hold a slave to the master or a prisoner to the jail. God’s exiled people are likewise said to be held in bonds, from which he will rescue them (Jer. 30:8). Spiritually speaking, “bond” may describe the firm covenant relationship between God and his people (Jer. 2:20; 5:5; Ezek. 20:37). In the new covenant, believers are freed from bondage to sin and become Christ’s bondspeople (Rom. 6:16–22). This relationship with Christ in turn joins Christians to one another; in Ephesians this unity is called “the bond of peace” (4:3).

A transliteration of part of the Hebrew expression ’el shadday (Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Exod. 6:3; Ezek. 10:5), translated as “God Almighty,” following the Vulgate translation. There is no scholarly consensus on the translation or its precise meaning.

Spirits of the dead. In modern Bible translations, “shades” is most often used in poetry, especially in parallel to “the dead” (e.g., Ps. 88:10; Isa. 26:14 NRSV; cf. Prov. 2:18; Isa. 14:9). See also Sheol.

A shadow may refer to shade generally, darkness, or to a specific shadow cast by something; “shadow” and “shade” also have other uses by extension. Perhaps because shade is a protection from the heat of the sun, shade and shadow are metaphors for protection (Pss. 91:1; 121:5; Isa. 49:2), as in the phrase “shadow of [God’s] wings” (Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 63:7). Since shadows change through the day and pass away, shadow becomes a metaphor for brevity, particularly the brevity of life (1 Chron. 29:15; Job 8:9; 14:2; Pss. 102:11; 109:23; 144:4), and for change (James 1:17 [though this text has other interpretations]). As darkness, shadow sometimes refers to a place to hide (Job 34:22) or to gloom or danger (Pss. 44:19; 107:10, 14; Isa. 9:2; Jer. 2:6). The “land of darkness and deep shadow” appears to be a reference to death (Job 10:21 ESV, NASB). And since a shadow’s shape resembles the outline of what casts the shadow, shadow may refer to that similarity as a copy, however imperfect (Col. 2:17; Heb. 8:5; 10:1).

Two miracles involved shadows. God gave Hezekiah a miraculous sign by moving the shadow on the steps backward (2 Kings 20:9–11). As people believed the apostles’ message, they brought the sick to Solomon’s Colonnade, where they were healed when Peter’s shadow fell on them (Acts 5:12–16).

The Hebrew word for “deep darkness,” tsalmawet, was seen as two words by LXX translators and rendered as “shadow of death” (skia thanatou). This wording came into the NT as a quotation or allusion (Matt. 4:16; Luke 1:79). Texts discovered from around the time of the judges in Ugaritic, a language closely related to Hebrew, have shown that tsalmawet is one word, meaning “deep darkness” or “gloom.” Modern translations have tended to change the rendering of this word, but some may leave “shadow of death” in Ps. 23:4 because of the popularity of this traditional wording.

The Babylonian name given to Hananiah (“Yahweh is gracious to me”) by Nebuchadnezzar’s chief official, Ashpenaz, as part of an attempt to turn him into a Babylonian official (Dan. 1:7). He is one of Daniel’s Judahite companions, along with Abednego and Meshach. The three later are appointed as administrators over the province of Babylon (2:49). After being accused of failing to worship one of Nebuchad-nez-zar’s gods, the men are cast into the fiery furnace. They are kept safe by a fourth “man,” who looks like a “son of the gods” (3:25). Afterward, all three are promoted (3:8–30). “Shadrach” likely means “command of Aku” (moon god).

The father of Jonathan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:34). He was from Harar, a place of unknown location. In the parallel list he is called “Shammah” (2 Sam. 23:33).

The father of Jonathan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:34). He was from Harar, a place of unknown location. In the parallel list he is called “Shammah” (2 Sam. 23:33).

A Hebrew word meaning “dawn” that appears in the name of the town Zereth Shahar (NASB, ESV: “Zereth-shahar”; KJV: “Zarethshahar”), which was part of the allotment to the tribe of Reuben under Joshua (Josh. 13:19).

A descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:8). The biblical text names nine of his sons, seven of whom were born to his wife Hodesh after he had divorced Hushim and Baara.

A town on the border of the tribal allotment to Issachar (Josh. 19:22 [KJV: “Shahazimah”]). Some scholars believe that the Hebrew word may actually represent both a town name and a topographical designation. The town’s location is uncertain.

A town on the border of the tribal allotment to Issachar (Josh. 19:22 [KJV: “Shahazimah”]). Some scholars believe that the Hebrew word may actually represent both a town name and a topographical designation. The town’s location is uncertain.

In Gen. 33:18 the KJV transliterates the Hebrew word shalem as a place name, “Shalem.” More-recent versions understand the word as an adverb meaning “safely.” Thus, for example, the NIV has “arrived safely” versus the KJV’s “came to Shalem.”

A region in the territory of Ephraim where Saul searched for his father’s lost donkeys (1 Sam. 9:4). The name is likely to be identified with Shaalabbin (Josh. 19:42) or Shaalbim (Judg. 1:35; 1 Kings 4:9).

The land of Shalisha was one of the areas in which Saul searched for his father’s lost donkeys (1 Sam. 9:4). The location of the area is uncertain, though the land of Shalisha may be connected with Baal Shalishah (2 Kings 4:42). See also Baal Shalishah.

The land of Shalisha was one of the areas in which Saul searched for his father’s lost donkeys (1 Sam. 9:4). The location of the area is uncertain, though the land of Shalisha may be connected with Baal Shalishah (2 Kings 4:42). See also Baal Shalishah.

A gate in Jerusalem assigned to the families of Shuppim and Hosah to guard (1 Chron. 26:16). The gate was “on the upper road,” leading from outside the Shalleketh Gate to the West Gate of the temple.

A gate in Jerusalem assigned to the families of Shuppim and Hosah to guard (1 Chron. 26:16). The gate was “on the upper road,” leading from outside the Shalleketh Gate to the West Gate of the temple.

(1) A descendant of Judah through Sismai (1 Chron. 2:40–41). (2) A descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:25). (3) A descendant of Levi through Zadok (1 Chron. 6:12–13). He is the ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:2). (4) A son of Naphtali (1 Chron. 7:13 [in some MT and LXX manuscripts “Shillem,” as rendered in the NIV]). (5) A Korahite, the chief gatekeeper under David (1 Chron. 9:17–19, 31). After the Babylonian exile, his descendants continued in the role of gatekeeper (Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45). (6) The son of Jabesh, he conspired against King Zechariah, last of the line of Jehu, and assassinated him, fulfilling prophecy. Shallum took the throne and ruled over Israel for one month (2 Kings 15:10–15).

(7) The husband of the prophetess Huldah, he was keeper of the temple vestments (2 Kings 22:14–20). (8) A son of King Josiah (1 Chron. 3:15), he ruled by the name “Jehoahaz” for three months until deposed by Pharaoh Necho (2 Kings 23:31–34). Jeremiah prophesied that Shallum would die in exile because he failed to uphold the cause of the needy and to continue his father’s reforms (Jer. 22:11–17). (9) An uncle of Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. 32:7). (10) A gatekeeper known by Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. 35:4). (11) A gatekeeper who married a foreign wife and pledged to put her away when confronted by Ezra (Ezra 10:24).

(12) A descendant of Binnui who married a foreign wife and pledged to put her away when confronted by Ezra (Ezra 10:42). (13) The father of Jehizkiah, a leader in Ephraim (2 Chron. 28:12). (14) The son of Hallohesh, he was the ruler of a half-district of Jerusalem who, with assistance from his daughters, helped to rebuild the Jerusalem wall after the return from exile (Neh. 3:12). (15) The son of Kol-Hozeh, he was the “ruler of the district of Mizpah” and helped to rebuild the Jerusalem wall after the return from exile (Neh. 3:15 [most manuscripts have “Shallun,” as rendered in the NIV]).

The son of Kol-Hozeh and “ruler of the district of Mizpah.” He carried out construction on the Fountain Gate and the wall of the Pool of Siloam during the wall-rebuilding efforts led by Nehemiah (Neh. 3:15). A few manuscripts read “Shallum.”

One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:46; Neh. 7:48). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites. The name is “Shamlai” in some versions, the difference being due to variant readings in the Hebrew text.

A leader whose forces “devastated Beth Arbel on the day of battle” (Hos. 10:14). Shalman’s conquest of this unknown place stands in Hosea’s prophecy as an example of the forthcoming judgment on the northern kingdom. Some suggest that “Shalman” is a shortened form of “Shalmaneser,” the name of several Assyrian kings. Others identify Shalman with Salmanu, a king of Moab known from an ancient inscription.

The name of a number of Assyrian kings, only two of whom seem to have direct biblical significance. Shalmaneser III fought against a coalition of Syrian kings who supposedly were backed by Ahab of Israel, at the battle of Qarqar in 853 BC. Shalmaneser III later exacted tribute from Jehu, an Israelite king, around 841 BC. Jehu’s submission to Assyria is recorded in Shalmaneser III’s Black Obelisk inscription. Shalmaneser V was a son of the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III. In 721 BC, Shalmaneser V conquered Samaria, the capital of Israel’s northern kingdom, because Hoshea failed to pay tribute to Assyria (2 Kings 17:3–6). Shalmaneser V’s reign was likely brought to an end in a violent coup led by Sargon II.

One of David’s mighty warriors, along with his brother, Jeiel (1 Chron. 11:44). They were sons of Hotham the Aroerite.

(1) One of David’s mighty warriors who joined him at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:5). (2) The son of Rehoboam and Abihail (2 Chron. 11:19 [KJV: “Shamariah”]). (3, 4) Two men who married foreign women during Ezra’s time and pledged to divorce them (Ezra 10:32, 41).

In the ancient world, shame and honor are two binary opposites used to depict one’s status or behavior, which a culture approves or disapproves. The system of honor and shame serves as a primary means of social control. Thus, knowing how to act to conform to the code of social behavior expected by one’s group is essential to the maintenance of that community.

In the Bible, the noun “honor” is represented by kabod (from the verb “to be heavy”) in the OT, and by timē (from the verb “to honor”) in the NT. The reverse of honor is shame, which is represented by a variety of Hebrew and Greek terms, such as boshet in the OT, and aischynē in the NT.

In Israel, the Holiness Code (Lev. 17–26; cf. Num. 5:2–3; 8:6–7, 14–15) is comparable to the code of honor and shame. As a covenant community, Israel has the obligation to abide by the sanction imposed by God to attain honor (Deut. 4:6–8; 26:18–19; Pss. 34:5, 8–9; 37:18–19; 127:5; cf. 2 Chron. 26:18; Pss. 8:5; 62:7; 84:11; Rom. 2:7–11). Israel is honored (Exod. 32:11–12; Deut. 32:26–27) before the nations when God’s honor is upheld (Exod. 7:5; 10:1–2; 14:4, 17–18). Violation of covenantal stipulations—for example, deceptions in trading (Deut. 25:16), acts of “abomination” (Lev. 18:17, 22–23, 26–29), idolatry (Deut. 31:20; 32:15–17), and failure to perform duties prescribed in the law (Deut. 25:7–10)—results in disgrace before others (Exod. 32:25) and God (Deut. 28:25–26, 37).

The status of honor can be ascribed to an individual. A person is more honorable who is the firstborn (Gen. 49:3), comes from an esteemed family (Ps. 45:9), or is married into a dignified family (Gen. 41:45; Ruth 4:5). This worth will last a lifetime unless the reputation of the family is compromised, either because of economics (Ruth 1:1–21) or violation of the codes of conduct, such as adultery and incest (Exod. 20:14; Lev. 18:20; 20:10–21; Deut. 5:18; 22:22; Prov. 6:32–33), though not necessarily divorce (Deut. 24:1–4). Certain groups of people are honored because of special privilege granted to them (Prov. 8:15–16; Dan. 2:21; Rom. 13:1–5)—for example, priests (Exod. 28:2, 40; Ps. 110:4; Heb. 7:21), kings (Ps. 2:7), sages (Prov. 3:35), Israel (Exod. 19:6; Deut. 7:6; 8:11–9:7; 26:16–19), and the church (1 Pet. 2:9).

Wealth symbolizes one’s status and claims respect for its owners (Gen. 12:10–20; 14:21–24; 1 Kings 3:13; Prov. 3:16; 8:18; 22:4; Ps. 49:16; Isa. 61:6, 12) but does not equate the state of being poor with shame (cf. Ps. 12:5) unless it is a result of moral lassitude (Prov. 13:18). Parts of the human body symbolize worth and value. Certain parts of the body are less honorable than others, and to expose them is to invite disgrace (2 Sam. 10:4–5; 1 Chron. 19:4; Isa. 20:4; 1 Cor. 12:23–24).

The status of honor can also be achieved by an individual’s merits (cf. Rom. 2:7–11). Certain types of behavior are honorable—for example, humility (Prov. 15:33; 18:12; 29:23), taking care of one’s master (Prov. 27:18), honoring parents (Exod. 20:12; 21:15; 22:28; Prov. 19:26; Mal. 1:6; Matt. 15:4; Eph. 6:2), good service (Gen. 45:13), military exploits (2 Sam. 23:19–23; cf. 2 Chron. 32:21), almsgiving and justice (Prov. 21:21). One important aspect of achieving honor is the pursuit of wisdom. The ways of wisdom are honorable (Prov. 3:16–17; 4:8; 8:18), preserving a person from dishonor (Prov. 3:16–17, 31–33, 35; 24:14), but the ways of folly, such as injustice (Prov. 1:22; 14:31) and dishonoring parents (Prov. 30:17; cf. Exod. 20:12; 21:15; Lev. 20:9; Deut. 27:16), are a disgrace (Prov. 20:3; 26:1). The failure to perform one’s duty (Gen. 40:1–3) or a defeat in battle (Isa. 23:9; Lam. 1:8; Nah. 3:10) results in shame and, accordingly, loss of social status (Isa. 16:14; 23:9; Jer. 46:12; Lam. 1:6, 8; Hos. 4:7). An ultimate form of disgrace is to be hanged for public viewing (Deut. 21:22–23; Esther 5:14; 7:7–10; Matt. 27:32–44; Mark 15:22–32; Luke 23:33–43; John 19:17–24; 1 Cor. 1:18–25). In a patriarchal society, the status of women is obtained through their sexual exclusiveness. Their chastity (Gen. 38:24; Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:13–21; cf. 2 Sam. 13:13; Song 8:8–9) and fertility (Gen. 16:2; 30:2; 1 Sam. 1:3–8) become indicators of family and social worth.

A descendant of Benjamin through Elpaal (1 Chron. 8:12). He “built Ono and Lod with its surrounding villages.” These cities lay about five miles apart on the Mediterranean coastal plain. Some ancient manuscripts spell the name as “Shemer.”

(1) The man who sold a hill in north central Israel to King Omri. The hill, located seven miles northwest of Shechem, became Israel’s new capital. Omri named the city “Samaria” after the seller (1 Kings 16:24), perhaps as a condition of sale. (2) A Levite and a descendant of Merari (1 Chron. 6:46). (3) A descendant of Asher (1 Chron. 7:34), also called “Shomer” (7:32).

A judge of Israel (Judg. 3:31; 5:6), apparently a foreigner (cf. Jael [Judg. 4:17; 5:6]). His name is perhaps Hurrian and occurs in texts from Nuzi. His appellation “son of Anath” may either indicate his hometown (Beth Anath in Galilee [Josh. 19:38]) or be a title connected to the Canaanite deity Anath, perhaps with military connotations. The Philistines whom Shamgar slew with an oxgoad (a long metal-tipped pole) perhaps were not Philistines proper, but rather another of the Sea Peoples.

The commander of the fifth division of King David’s army (1 Chron. 27:8). He may be the same person as Shammah the Harodite (2 Sam. 23:25) and Shammoth the Harorite (1 Chron. 11:27), making him one of David’s mighty warriors. His designation as an Izrahite is unclear.

(1) The first-named town within the hill country in the tribal allotment to Judah (Josh. 15:48). Its location is uncertain, though some have suggested sites approximately fifteen miles southwest of Hebron. The next two towns in the list, Jattir and Sokoh, are known to have been in this general vicinity. (2) A town in the hill country of Ephraim (Judg. 10:1–2). It was the hometown and burial place of the judge Tola, who was a descendant of Issachar. Some scholars place the town at the site of Samaria, but this identification is uncertain. (3) A descendant of Levi through Micah (1 Chron. 24:24).

One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:46; Neh. 7:48). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites. The name is “Shamlai” in some versions, the difference being due to variant readings in the Hebrew text.

A descendant of Asher through Zophah (1 Chron. 7:37), he was one of several “heads of families, choice men, brave warriors, and outstanding leaders” (7:40) from his tribe.

(1) One of four chiefs in Edom who were sons of Reuel and grandsons of Esau through his wife Basemath (Gen. 36:13, 17; 1 Chron. 1:37). (2) The third son of Jesse, David’s father (1 Sam. 16:9; 17:13). He is also called “Shimeah” (2 Sam. 13:3, 32) and “Shimea” (1 Chron. 2:13 [KJV: “Shimma”]; 20:7). (3) The son of Agee the Hararite, he was one of “the Three,” among David’s mighty warriors. He courageously defended a field against the Philistines (2 Sam. 23:11–12). He probably also is the father of Jonathan, one of “the Thirty,” among David’s mighty warriors (2 Sam. 23:32–33). (4) One of “the Thirty” among David’s mighty warriors, he hailed from Harod (2 Sam. 23:25). He is also called “Shammoth” (1 Chron. 11:27) and “Shamhuth” (1 Chron. 27:8).

(1) The first son of Onam and the father of Nadab and Abishur, in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:28). (2) The son of Rekem and the father of Maon, in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:44–45). (3) A son of Mered and Pharaoh’s daughter Bithiah, and the brother of Miriam and Ishbah (1 Chron. 4:17–18).

A Harorite, he was one of “the Thirty” among David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:27). He is also called “Shammah the Harodite” (2 Sam. 23:25) and “Shamuth” (1 Chron. 27:8).

(1) The representative of the tribe of Reuben among the twelve spies sent by Moses to scout the promised land (Num. 13:4). (2) The first of eleven children born to David while he reigned in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chron. 3:5 [“Shimea” NIV mg.]; 14:4). (3) The father of Abda, a Levite who resettled in Jerusalem in the postexilic period (Neh. 11:17). (4) The head of a priestly family during the time of Ezra (Neh. 12:18).

A descendant of Benjamin through Jeroham (1 Chron. 8:26). He was one of several “heads of families, chiefs as listed in their genealogy” (1 Chron. 8:28), who lived in Jerusalem.

The second-highest-ranking leader of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:12), possibly during the time of Jotham and Jeroboam II (1 Chron. 5:17).

(1) The son of Azaliah, he was secretary to King Josiah. Shaphan’s reading of the Book of the Law, which Hilkiah the high priest had recently found, to King Josiah ultimately led to sweeping religious reform in Judah (2 Kings 22:3–20; 2 Chron. 34:8–28). Shaphan’s sons Ahikam (2 Kings 22:12; Jer. 26:24), Elasah (Jer. 29:3), and Gemariah (Jer. 36:10–12), as well as his grandson through Ahikam, Gedaliah (Jer. 39:14; 40:11; 41:2), appear prominently in the book of Jeremiah. (2) The father of Jaazaniah, a leader of Israel who was guilty of abominations against the Lord (Ezek. 8:11).

(1) The delegate from the tribe of Simeon among the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore Canaan (Num. 13:5). (2) The father of the prophet Elisha (1 Kings 19:16, 19; 2 Kings 3:11; 6:31). (3) A descendant of David through Shemaiah (1 Chron. 3:22). (4) A leader of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:12). (5) King David’s official over “the herds in the valleys” (1 Chron. 27:29).

A mountain at which the Israelites encamped during their wilderness wanderings (Num. 33:23–24 [KJV: “Shapher”]). It appears between Kehelathah and Haradah in the list of sites visited, but its location is unknown.

One of the towns included in Micah’s lament (Mic. 1:11). Micah says that its residents will be led into captivity in shameful nakedness. Its location is unknown.

A descendant of Binnui who was among those guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezra 10:40).

(1) A town strategically located in the Shephelah on the main road from Philistia to Jerusalem (Josh. 15:36). Not all agree, but scholars have recently identified it with Khirbet Qeiyafa, atop a hill bordering the Elah Valley twenty miles southwest of Jerusalem (1 Sam. 17:52). Excavators have recently uncovered two gates here, a feature corresponding to the town’s Hebrew name. (2) A town belonging to Simeon in the Negev (1 Chron. 4:31). It possibly is to be identified with Sharuhen (Josh. 19:6) and Shilhim (Josh. 15:32), occurring in parallel lists.

(1) The Hararite father of Ahiam, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:35). He is named as “Sharar” in 2 Sam. 23:33. (2) One of the eight sons of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4).

A broken piece of pottery, usually clay, also known as a potsherd. Shards were little better than garbage (Isa. 45:9), though larger pieces were sometimes used for writing brief notes. See also Potsherd.

(1) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria. He and his brother Adrammelek murdered their father “while he was worshiping in the temple of his god Nisrok” several years after he withdrew from his siege of Jerusalem. Sharezer and Adrammelek escaped to Ararat, and Esar-had-don took the Assyrian throne (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38). Ancient records confirm that Sennacherib was murdered by a son, but they mention only one assailant. (2) A man whom the people of Bethel sent, along with Regem-Melek, during the time of Zechariah to inquire of God about worship practices (Zech. 7:2). Alternative interpretations of the Hebrew text would make Sharezer one who sent to inquire of God rather than one who was sent.

“Sharon” refers to the Sharon Plain (e.g., Acts 9:35). The coastal plain, one of the north-south sections into which Palestine can be divided north of the Negev, is the westernmost geographical feature of these strips. The Mediterranean Sea is to the west of the coastal plain and the foothills of the Shephelah to the east. The coastal plain is called the Sharon Plain once it extends north of the Yarkon River. The Sharon Plain is divided by two kurkar (local sandstone) ridges running north to south. North, toward the Carmel Mountains, the plain narrows and virtually disappears at the promontory at Haifa. It widens farther north past Akko and into Lebanon. The Sharon Plain held forests of oaks and terebinth trees during antiquity, but it was deforested during the Ottoman Empire. New forests have been replanted since modern Israel’s statehood.

One who hails from Sharon. In the Bible only Shitrai, one of David’s leaders, bears this designation (1 Chron. 27:29).

A Simeonite city within the tribal territory of Judah, since Simeon did not get a separate tribal allotment (Josh. 19:6). In parallel passages the site is called “Shilhim” (assigned to Judah in Josh. 15:32) and “Shaaraim” (1 Chron. 4:31). Egyptian texts mention Sharuhen as the first stronghold of the Hyksos after their expulsion from Egypt in the sixteenth century BC. Sharuhen has been identified with Tell el-Far’ah (south) and Tell Abu Hureirah/Tel Haror, but the former is too small for the three-year siege described in Egyptian texts, and the latter is now securely identified with Gerar. A more viable recent suggestion is to identify Sharuhen with the large site of Tell el-’Ajjul.

A descendant of Binnui who was among those guilty of marrying foreign women (Ezra 10:40).

A descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:14) through either Beriah (NIV, KJV) or Elpaal (RSV, ESV). He had eleven sons (1 Chron. 8:14).

(1) From “Rehoboth on the river,” he succeeded Samlah as king over Edom and preceded Baal-Hanan (Gen. 36:37–38; 1 Chron. 1:48–49). (2) A son of Simeon by a Canaanite woman (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; Num. 26:13) who was the ancestor of the Shaulite clan (Num. 26:13) and the father of Shallum (1 Chron. 4:24–25). (3) A descendant of Levi through Uzziah (1 Chron. 6:24).

A descendant of Shaul son of Simeon. The Shaulite clan was one of five clans of Simeon (Num. 26:12–14).

This term means “plain” and is employed in Gen. 14:17 to designate the place where Abram met with the kings of Salem and Sodom (“the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’s Valley”). Since the King’s Valley is also mentioned in 2 Sam. 18:18 (where Absalom erected a monument), it seems likely that the “Valley of Shaveh” refers to a place at the confluence of the Hinnom, Tyropoeon, and Kidron valleys, just south of Jerusalem. See also Shaveh Kiriathaim.

This Transjordanian location, mentioned only in Gen. 14:5, most likely refers to a plain near the city of Kiriathaim, which is mentioned in the inscription of the Moabite Stone (line 10) and may be identified with Khirbet el-Qureiyeh, located six miles west of Medeba on the bank of Wadi ’Uyun edh-Dhib. See also Kiriathaim.

Many examples of metal razors with sharp cutting blades for the removal of hair have survived from ancient Israel. Because of the sharpness of the blade, the razor was an appropriate metaphor for the destructive power of the tongue (Ps. 52:2).

Razors are most commonly referred to in the Bible in the terms of the Nazirite vow (Num. 6:5), which separated a person as holy to God. One way in which that holiness was symbolized was the refusal to allow a razor to come near the hair of one’s head. Following the completion of the vow, the head could once again be shaved (Num. 6:18). Samson was born under a Nazirite vow (Judg. 13:5) and enjoyed great strength as long as he kept the vow. When Delilah caused Samson’s head to be shaved, the vow was broken, and God’s presence left him (Judg. 16:19–20).

In other circumstances, shaving was a necessary part of the cleanliness rituals of the Israelite community (Lev. 14:8–9), although priests were required not to shave (21:5). The Assyrian king and his army are described as a razor that will shave the people of Israel (Isa. 7:20). The image indicates the cleansing of the people through the experience of defeat and exile.

The secretary of David, also known as Seraiah (2 Sam. 8:17), Sheva (2 Sam. 20:25), and Shavsha (1 Chron. 18:16). In 1 Kings 4:3 two sons of Shisha (Elihoreph and Ahijah) are identified as “secretaries” (Heb. soperim) among the officials in Solomon’s court. Their inclusion in a list of only thirteen officials (including high functionaries of the temple and the army) suggests that these scribes/secretaries had greater responsibilities than simply reading and writing for the king. The fact that they were brothers suggests that their office was hereditary. Shisha himself may have been a scribe before them, paralleling the later scribal family of Shaphan, which appears prominently in several accounts of the seventh and sixth centuries BC.

A bundle of grain. In the OT, the Israelites are commanded to refrain from retrieving a forgotten sheaf of grain from the field (Deut. 24:19), but rather to leave it as provision, along with other agricultural leftovers (Deut. 24:20–22; Lev. 19:10), for the dispossessed from the fringes of society. Ruth benefits from such provision (Ruth 2:1–23), and Job complains of those who withhold such offerings (Job 24:10). Sheaves also figure in one of Joseph’s dreams (Gen. 37:7).

A descendant of Bani, Sheal was an Israelite who returned to Jerusalem with Ezra and was found guilty of marrying a foreign wife when Ezra wanted to purge Israel of foreign influence (Ezra 10:29).

Listed as a descendant of King Jehoiachin of Judah in 597 BC before the king was carried off into Babylonian exile (1 Chron. 3:17). Most often he is remembered as the father of Zerubabbel, an important Jewish leader in the early postexilic period (Ezra 3:2, 8; Hag. 1:1). In 1 Chron. 3:17–19 he appears as Zerubabbel’s uncle, suggesting a levirate marriage (Deut. 25:5–10). Shealtiel is listed in the genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1:12; Luke 3:27).

The son of Isaiah, whom God commanded the prophet to take with him to meet King Ahaz (Isa. 7:3). “Shear-Jashub” is a sign-name and message to the fearful king. It means “[only] a remnant will return.” There is ambiguity in “return,” which could indicate either a physical return or repentance. The name is an assurance to Ahaz that he has nothing to fear from the foreign alliance: only a remnant of the armies of Aram and Israel will return home. Or it could mean that only a remnant will turn to God in faith.

A descendant of Benjamin and Saul. Sheariah was one of six sons of Azel (1 Chron. 8:38; 9:44).

In 2 Kings 10:12, 14 the KJV translates the Hebrew phrase bet-’eked (“house of binding”) as “shearing house.” More-recent versions understand the phrase as part of a place name, “Beth Eked of the Shepherds” (NIV). See also Beth Eked.

(1) A descendant of Ham, a son of Raamah (Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9). (2) A descendant of Shem, a son of Joktan (Gen. 10:28; 1 Chron. 1:22). (3) A descendant of Abraham through Keturah, the patriarch’s wife in his old age (Gen. 25:3; 1 Chron. 1:32). (4) A town or village given to the Simeonites within the tribal allotment of Judah (may be an alternate name for Beersheba; Josh. 19:2). (5) A Benjamite, son of Bikri, who led a revolt against David (2 Sam. 20) in the aftermath of Absalom’s rebellion. Joab pursued Sheba to the city of Abel Beth Maakah, where he was killed by the inhabitants, and thus the city was spared a siege. (6) The region made famous by the queen who visited Solomon in order to test his wisdom (1 Kings 10:1–13; 2 Chron. 9:1–12; see also Job 6:19; Ps. 72:10, 15; Isa. 60:6; Jer. 6:20; Ezek. 27:22, 23; 38:13); the region is located in southwestern Arabia (modern Yemen). (7) A Gadite from the time of Jotham king of Judah and Jeroboam king of Israel (1 Chron. 5:13).

A well dug by Isaac’s servants (Gen. 26:33). Its name (“oath” or “seven”) and that of its town, Beersheba (“well of the oath” or “well of the seven”), commemorated an oath (cf. Gen. 21:31; 26:26–33).

A town in the Transjordan given to the tribes of Reuben and Gad by Moses (Num. 32:3; “Sibmah” in Josh. 13:19). The reference to “Sibmah” in Num. 32:38 is likely to the same town, rebuilt by the Gadites, and “Sebam” may actually be a later alteration to the original name “Sibmah.” It had become a Moabite town by the time of Jeremiah and Isaiah and apparently was known for its lush vines and summer fruits (Isa. 16:8; Jer. 48:32). See also Sibmah.

(1) One of several priestly musicians appointed by David to blow trumpets in the procession of the ark of the covenant (1 Chron. 15:24). (2) A Levite who led public worship during Ezra’s reforms (Neh. 9:4–5). (3, 4) Two Levites named in Neh. 10:10, 12. (5) A priest who signed the covenant in Neh. 10:4, possibly named “Shekaniah” in Neh. 12:3.

A site named in the battle of Ai (Josh. 7:5). Literally meaning “broken places,” the name may refer to some broken terrain a few miles southeast of Ai. Most translations simply transliterate the Hebrew word as this place name, but the NIV translates it as “stone quarries.”

The eleventh month of the year according to the Babylonian calendar (roughly February/March). See Zech. 1:7.

A descendant of Judah through Caleb (1 Chron. 2:48). Sheber and three brothers were born to Caleb’s concubine Maakah.

Shebna (or “Shebnah,” a variant Hebrew spelling) served as a royal officer of King Hezekiah and as one of his intermediaries (2 Kings 18:18; 19:2; Isa. 36:3; 37:2). He was criticized by Isaiah (Isa. 22:15–25).

(1) A descendant of Levi and Gershom (1 Chron. 23:16; 26:24). He is the same person as Shubael in 1 Chron. 24:20; thus, Shubael was not Gershom’s son, but rather a later descendant. (2) A son of Heman (1 Chron. 25:4; see also 25:20).

(1) A descendant of David and Hananiah (1 Chron. 3:21–22). (2) A priest whose family was assigned temple service during the time of David (1 Chron. 24:11). (3) One of the priests who distributed freewill offerings during the time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:15). (4) The ancestor of a family group that returned from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8:3). (5) The family head of a group that returned from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8:5). (6) The son of Jehiel, he suggested that he and the other men guilty of marrying foreign wives make a covenant to send them away (Ezra 10:2). (7) The father of Shemaiah, one of the men who helped in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:29). (8) The father-in-law of Tobiah, a man who opposed Nehemiah (Neh. 6:18). (9) One of the priests who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:3).

(1) A descendant of David and Hananiah (1 Chron. 3:21–22). (2) A priest whose family was assigned temple service during the time of David (1 Chron. 24:11). (3) One of the priests who distributed freewill offerings during the time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:15). (4) The ancestor of a family group that returned from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8:3). (5) The family head of a group that returned from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8:5). (6) The son of Jehiel, he suggested that he and the other men guilty of marrying foreign wives make a covenant to send them away (Ezra 10:2). (7) The father of Shemaiah, one of the men who helped in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:29). (8) The father-in-law of Tobiah, a man who opposed Nehemiah (Neh. 6:18). (9) One of the priests who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:3).

(1) A descendant of Manasseh and patriarch of a family (Num. 26:31; Josh. 17:2). (2) The second of the four sons of She-mida, from the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:19). (3) The son of Hamor the Hivite, who was the head of the town and environs of Shechem (Gen. 34:2; cf. Josh. 24:32; Judg. 9:28). He raped Jacob and Leah’s daughter Dinah, whose brothers killed him, Hamor, and the men of their town and plundered it in revenge.

(4) A crucial town in the hill country on the border of the tribal allotment of Ephraim (Josh. 20:7). The site has been identified with Tell Balata in a valley between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. Shechem is the first Canaanite town to be mentioned in the book of Genesis (12:6). Abraham camped at the site near the oak tree of Moreh, and God revealed himself to Abraham there, giving the first indication of the importance of the place. In response to God’s revelation, Abraham built an altar at Shechem. Later, Jacob settled in the region of Shechem and purchased land from Hamor the Hivite (33:18–19). When Hamor’s son Shechem raped Jacob’s daughter Dinah, her brothers Simeon and Levi killed the men of the region, and Jacob’s other sons pillaged the town of Shechem. Jacob buried his foreign gods at Shechem under the aforementioned oak tree in response to the revelation of God (35:1–4). It was in the general region of Shechem that Joseph later would seek his brothers and their flocks (Gen. 37). Israel would bury the bones of Joseph there in accordance with his wishes (50:25; Josh. 24:32).

Due to the revelation of God and its significance to the patriarchs, Joshua gathered the Israelites to Shechem after the conquest of Canaan and just prior to his death in order to renew the covenant (Josh. 8:30–35; 24). After the conquest the town was allotted to the Kohathite Levites and was one of the cities of refuge (Josh. 20:7; 21:21; 1 Chron. 6:67). However, in the period of the judges Shechem apparently was still under the cultural and religious influence of the Canaanites, as evidenced by the presence of the temple of Baal-Berith (Judg. 9:4). Abimelek, whose mother was a Shechemite, convinced the people of the town to make him their king. After three years, the Shechemites rejected Abimelek, and he killed many of them and destroyed the town (Judg. 9). It was at Shechem that the ten northern tribes made the decision to reject Solomon’s son Rehoboam and make Jeroboam their king. Jeroboam subsequently made Shechem his capital for a period (1 Kings 12).

Archaeological evidence indicates that Shechem suffered major damage during the Assyrian invasion in 724–721 BC. Yet the town continued to be occupied, and the inhabitants brought offerings to the temple in Jerusalem up until its destruction in 586 BC. Shechem became the religious and civic center for the Samaritans. This put Shechem in competition with Jerusalem and is the motivation for the Samaritan woman’s question in John 4:5 (where Shechem is called “Sychar”).

(1) A descendant of Manasseh and patriarch of a family (Num. 26:31; Josh. 17:2). (2) The second of the four sons of She-mida, from the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:19). (3) The son of Hamor the Hivite, who was the head of the town and environs of Shechem (Gen. 34:2; cf. Josh. 24:32; Judg. 9:28). He raped Jacob and Leah’s daughter Dinah, whose brothers killed him, Hamor, and the men of their town and plundered it in revenge.

(4) A crucial town in the hill country on the border of the tribal allotment of Ephraim (Josh. 20:7). The site has been identified with Tell Balata in a valley between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. Shechem is the first Canaanite town to be mentioned in the book of Genesis (12:6). Abraham camped at the site near the oak tree of Moreh, and God revealed himself to Abraham there, giving the first indication of the importance of the place. In response to God’s revelation, Abraham built an altar at Shechem. Later, Jacob settled in the region of Shechem and purchased land from Hamor the Hivite (33:18–19). When Hamor’s son Shechem raped Jacob’s daughter Dinah, her brothers Simeon and Levi killed the men of the region, and Jacob’s other sons pillaged the town of Shechem. Jacob buried his foreign gods at Shechem under the aforementioned oak tree in response to the revelation of God (35:1–4). It was in the general region of Shechem that Joseph later would seek his brothers and their flocks (Gen. 37). Israel would bury the bones of Joseph there in accordance with his wishes (50:25; Josh. 24:32).

Due to the revelation of God and its significance to the patriarchs, Joshua gathered the Israelites to Shechem after the conquest of Canaan and just prior to his death in order to renew the covenant (Josh. 8:30–35; 24). After the conquest the town was allotted to the Kohathite Levites and was one of the cities of refuge (Josh. 20:7; 21:21; 1 Chron. 6:67). However, in the period of the judges Shechem apparently was still under the cultural and religious influence of the Canaanites, as evidenced by the presence of the temple of Baal-Berith (Judg. 9:4). Abimelek, whose mother was a Shechemite, convinced the people of the town to make him their king. After three years, the Shechemites rejected Abimelek, and he killed many of them and destroyed the town (Judg. 9). It was at Shechem that the ten northern tribes made the decision to reject Solomon’s son Rehoboam and make Jeroboam their king. Jeroboam subsequently made Shechem his capital for a period (1 Kings 12).

Archaeological evidence indicates that Shechem suffered major damage during the Assyrian invasion in 724–721 BC. Yet the town continued to be occupied, and the inhabitants brought offerings to the temple in Jerusalem up until its destruction in 586 BC. Shechem became the religious and civic center for the Samaritans. This put Shechem in competition with Jerusalem and is the motivation for the Samaritan woman’s question in John 4:5 (where Shechem is called “Sychar”).

The father of Elizur, who was the tribal leader of Reuben during the wilderness wanderings (Num. 1:5; 2:10; 7:30, 35; 10:18).

A cultically clean, domesticated animal representing the wealth and livelihood of many in biblical times. Mentioned more than any other animal in the Bible, sheep were critical to ancient Israel’s rural economy, with both the animal itself and the wool it produced serving as one of the measurements of a person’s prosperity (1 Sam. 25:2; Ezek. 27:18). Sheep were useful throughout Israel’s history, especially during the patriarchal period (Gen. 46:32), providing milk to drink (Deut. 32:14), wool and hide for clothing (Job 31:20; Heb. 11:37) and tent coverings (Exod. 26:14), and meat to eat (Deut. 14:4). Usually, male lambs from eight days old (Lev. 22:27) and year-old sheep served as various sacrifice offerings to God: the Passover celebration (Exod. 12:5), burnt offerings (Lev. 1:10), sin offerings (Lev. 5:6), guilt offerings (Lev. 5:15), and fellowship offerings (Lev. 3:6), though the firstborn of the flock belonged to God (Exod. 13:12). Their fat tails were the prized portion of the sheep offered as burnt offerings (Lev. 3:9).

Naturally gentle and submissive (Jer. 11:19), sheep are predisposed to becoming easily lost or led astray (Isa. 53:6; Matt. 9:36). Because sheep are social animals that gather in clusters, a shepherd can easily lead a large flock. The animal’s defenselessness against those who would steal its coat or demand its life is pictured in Isa. 53:7. In order to protect sheep against predators, a shepherd provided a protective area, or fold, which might be a cave or an enclosure of rough stones. A unique relationship existed between shepherd and sheep: the shepherd knew each animal by name, and the sheep could recognize the shepherd’s voice (John 10:1–11). Sheep therefore serve as a fitting metaphor for God’s people (Ps. 100:3), suggesting that God’s people are naive and utterly dependent on their shepherd for divine guidance and protection (Matt. 12:11; Luke 15:4). Jesus promises that not a single one of his sheep can be snatched from his Father’s hand (John 10:29). Even though God’s sheep wander, “the Shepherd and Overseer of your souls” restores (1 Pet. 2:25).

In a charade, false prophets are described as donning “sheep’s clothing,” a symbol of innocence, and appearing to be members of God’s flock (Matt. 7:15). By contrast, the true disciples who are to go to the sheep—the lost people of Israel (9:36; 10:6)—are now sent out as sheep among wolves (10:16–19), but they are aptly protected.

Jesus is represented as the Lamb of God (John 1:29; Rev. 5:6; cf. Isa. 53:7), provided by God for the sins of the world, the ultimate fulfillment of the yearly Passover lamb (Exod. 12; 1 Cor. 5:7). Jesus is the good shepherd of all sheep, and he most profoundly demonstrates his commitment and love for the sheep: “The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep” (John 10:11).

A gate of Jerusalem restored by Nehemiah (Neh. 3:1, 32; 12:39). It was located on the northeast side of the city. In NT times a large pool, named “Bethesda,” was built near the Sheep Gate, where Jesus healed a lame man on the Sabbath (John 5:1–9). Today, this gate has the modern sheep market, possibly a tradition from earlier times. In John 10, Jesus identifies himself as the gate for the sheep; those who enter through him are true sheep, but all others are thieves and robbers.

A gate of Jerusalem restored by Nehemiah (Neh. 3:1, 32; 12:39). It was located on the northeast side of the city. In NT times a large pool, named “Bethesda,” was built near the Sheep Gate, where Jesus healed a lame man on the Sabbath (John 5:1–9). Today, this gate has the modern sheep market, possibly a tradition from earlier times. In John 10, Jesus identifies himself as the gate for the sheep; those who enter through him are true sheep, but all others are thieves and robbers.

In the KJV, a pasture or perhaps a sheepfold (1 Sam. 24:3; 2 Sam. 7:8; 1 Chron. 17:7). See also Sheepfold.

A sheepfold is an enclosure used to confine livestock, either near inhabited areas (Num. 32:16) or in the open country (1 Sam. 24:3). Several Greek and Hebrew words describe such enclosures and may be translated as “sheepfold.” Depending on context, these words can also be translated “wall,” “pasture,” “courtyard,” or simply “habitation.” The use of the English word “sheepfold” is therefore a matter of context rather than of specific terminology in the original biblical languages.

Referring to the protective function of sheepfolds, Jesus refers to himself as the gate of a sheepfold (John 10:1, 9, 16), who keeps his flock from bandits. Shepherds may have used sheepfolds particularly at night. On several occasions, the OT prophets speak of Israel as a flock, and of the land of Israel as its “fold” or “pasture,” so that the gathering of exiled Israelites is likened to the shepherd’s ingathering of animals into their pen (see Jer. 23:3; Mic. 2:12).

A time for fleecing wool from sheep. It usually was a festive time that brought family and friends together (Gen. 38:13; 1 Sam. 25:4, 36; 2 Sam. 13:23–25). The occasion sometimes was exploited for selfish ends (Gen. 31:19; 2 Sam. 13:26–29). Typically, the sheep being fleeced remained silent during shearing. Isaiah used this imagery to characterize the attitude of the Suffering Servant before his oppressors (Isa. 53:7). Philip applied this Scripture to Jesus in his witness to the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:32–35).

The daughter of Beriah and a descendant of Ephraim, she built Lower and Upper Beth Horon as well as Uzzen Sheerah (1 Chron. 7:24).

The description of the object let down from heaven before Peter upon which were the unclean animals (Acts 10:11, 16; 11:5). It is also the description of an object covering the nations that God will remove, sometimes described as a veil (Isa. 25:7).

One of the six sons of Jeroham, he was a descendant of Benjamin and a chief and head of the family. He lived in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 8:26).

(1) A descendant of David and Hananiah (1 Chron. 3:21–22). (2) A priest whose family was assigned temple service during the time of David (1 Chron. 24:11). (3) One of the priests who distributed freewill offerings during the time of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:15). (4) The ancestor of a family group that returned from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8:3). (5) The family head of a group that returned from exile with Ezra (Ezra 8:5). (6) The son of Jehiel, he suggested that he and the other men guilty of marrying foreign wives make a covenant to send them away (Ezra 10:2). (7) The father of Shemaiah, one of the men who helped in Nehemiah’s rebuilding of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:29). (8) The father-in-law of Tobiah, a man who opposed Nehemiah (Neh. 6:18). (9) One of the priests who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:3).

Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.

Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.

When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.

New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.

For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.

After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.

It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.

Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).

Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).

The Hebrew word shekinah refers to a continuing localized presence of God in the world, as this is portrayed in the Bible. Although the word shekinah does not occur in the Bible, it is related to the biblical Hebrew verb shakan, usually translated as “dwell,” and the biblical Hebrew noun mishkan, usually translated as “tabernacle, dwelling, tent.” Only the biblical usage of these Hebrew terms is discussed below.

The Bible presents God as acting in the world that he made. God sometimes speaks to people, as when he speaks to the prophet Moses from the burning bush (Exod. 3:1–6). God accompanies the nation of Israel in its journey out of Egypt, with his presence represented by pillars of cloud and fire (13:21–22; 14:19–24). From a cloud covering Mount Sinai, God speaks to the nation of Israel, giving the Ten Commandments (19:9–20:22). The Bible conceives of such entry into the world not as a denial of God’s transcendence and rule over the world but instead as affirming God’s power (Ps. 115:5–8). Those who deny God’s willingness or power to act in this way will naturally discredit the possibility of such events. However, that kind of denial is a philosophical and theological judgment, not a historical judgment. (For additional discussion of God’s action in the world, see Theophany.)

At Mount Sinai, God tells Moses to make a sanctuary, where God will dwell continually among his people, Israel (Exod. 25:8). The sanctuary is called a “tabernacle,” and it is a tent structure. The sanctuary or tabernacle is built, the cloud of God’s presence covers it, and God’s glory fills it (40:34–35). The term shekinah refers to God’s presence, as found, for example, in this tabernacle. The cloud of God’s presence rises up whenever the tabernacle is to be moved for another day’s journey through the desert and drops back down afterward (Exod. 40:36–38; Num. 9:15–23).

Centuries later, Solomon builds a temple in Jerusalem to replace the portable tabernacle as God’s sanctuary. The cloud of God’s glory fills the temple (1 Kings 8:10–13). Centuries after this, the prophet Ezekiel has a vision in which he sees the cloud of God’s glory leaving the temple because of the sin of the nation of Israel and envisions the impending destruction of the temple (Ezek. 10–11). The temple is destroyed, later rebuilt, and ultimately destroyed again in AD 70.

In the NT, the presence of God in the tabernacle is compared to the presence of God in Jesus Christ. John’s Gospel begins with literary references to Gen. 1, where God creates the world by merely speaking. John says that God’s Word of creation both was “with God” and “was God,” since God’s Word is distinct from God, even while God himself is present in his Word (John 1:1–3). John goes on to say that this divine Word became flesh and dwelled among us (1:14). The Greek word for “dwell” is skēnoō, which often has the meaning of dwelling in a tent (skēnē). The idea is that just as God had previously come to dwell in the tabernacle, the divine Word has now come to dwell in human flesh. This interpretation is confirmed in the following words, that the disciples had seen “his glory.” This is an allusion to God’s glory, which had typically rested on the tabernacle, and which John says was revealed in Jesus’ miracles (e.g., 2:11).

(1) A son of Arphaxad and the father of Eber (Gen. 10:24; 11:12–15; 1 Chron. 1:18, 24), whom Luke (following the LXX) calls “Sala” (KJV) and lists as the grandson of Arphaxad, son of Cainan, and father of Eber in Jesus’ genealogy (Luke 3:35). (2) The third son of Judah and a Canaanite woman (Gen. 38:2–5; 46:12; 1 Chron. 2:3; 4:21) and namesake of the Shelanite clan (Num. 26:20). (3) The name of the pool in Jerusalem better known as Siloam (Neh. 3:15 NRSV, NIV mg.; cf. John 9:7).

A clan descended from Shelah counted at the second wilderness census (Num. 26:20; cf. 1 Chron. 9:5 NIV). See also Shilonite.

(1) A Levite of the Korahite clan who was chosen by lot to guard the East Gate of the sanctuary during David’s reign (1 Chron. 26:14). He is also called “Meshelemiah” (1 Chron. 26:1–2). (2, 3) Two descendants of Binnui who vowed to divorce their foreign wives during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:39–41). (4) A priest and one of three men whom Nehemiah appointed to oversee the temple storerooms and the distribution of tithes among the priests (Neh. 13:13). (5) The son of Abdeel and one of three men commanded by King Jehoiakim of Judah to arrest Baruch and Jeremiah (Jer. 36:26). (6) The father of Hananiah, who performed repairs to a segment of Jerusalem’s wall (Neh. 3:30). (7) The son of Cushi, the father of Nethaniah, and an ancestor of Jehudi (Jer. 36:14). (8) The father of Jehukal (or Jucal) (Jer. 37:3; 38:1). (9) The son of Hananiah and the father of Irijah, the captain of the guard who arrested Jeremiah (Jer. 37:13).

The second of the thirteen sons of Joktan, a descendant of Shem (Gen. 10:26; 1 Chron. 1:20).

The third of the four sons of Helem, of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. 7:35).

The father of Ahihud, who was the representative of the tribe of Asher among those enlisted by Moses to assign grants of land in Canaan (Num. 34:27).

(1) The wife of an Egyptian whose son was stoned for blasphemy in the Israelite camp after an argument (Lev. 24:11). (2) The daughter of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. 3:19). (3) The first son of Izhar of the Kohathite family (1 Chron. 23:18). He is also referred to as “Shelomoth” (1 Chron. 24:22), which appears to be a family name. (4) The son of Zikri, he, along with his family, was responsible for a portion of the temple treasuries during David’s time (1 Chron. 26:25–26, 28). (5) The fourth of four sons born to Rehoboam and Maakah (2 Chron. 11:20). (6) The head of a family that returned with Ezra after the Babylonian exile (Ezra 8:10).

(1) The first son of three sons of Shimei, he was a Levite who was the head of a family in the Gershonite clan (1 Chron. 23:9). (2) The first son of Izhar of the Kohathite family (1 Chron. 24:22). He is called “Shelomith” in 1 Chron. 23:18.

A hut made with branches from a tree. Jacob lived in a booth (NIV: “shelter”) on his journey to Sukkoth, a place named after booths (Heb. sukkot [Gen. 33:17]). The Feast of Booths, or Festival of Tabernacles (Lev. 23:33–43; Deut. 16:13–17)—known in Hebrew as Sukkoth—takes place on the fifteenth of Tishri (late September to late October) and is one of the three pilgrimage festivals. It commemorates the Israelites’ living in temporary shelters in the wilderness following their exodus from Egypt (Lev. 23:43).

The son of Zurishaddai, he was the leader of the tribe of Simeon during the wilderness wanderings. He helped Moses in taking the military registration (Num. 1:6). He is mentioned in the description of the layout of the camp (2:12). He is the one who presented Simeon’s offering for the sanctuary (7:36, 41) and is mentioned as the leader of Simeon when the tribe departed from Sinai along with the rest of Israel (10:19).

The eldest son of Noah (Gen. 9:24; 10:21) and the brother of Ham and Japheth. He and his wife were among the eight survivors of the flood (6:6–9). He was the father of the Semites, ancestor of the Hebrews (Gen. 11:10–14), and in the lineage of the Messiah (Luke 3:36).

(1) A town in the territory of Judah (Josh. 15:26). Some have argued that it is the same as the town of Sheba, depending upon the translation (Josh. 19:2). (2) An individual in the tribe of Judah, of the clan of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:43–44). (3) A Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:8). (4) A Benjamite who was the head of a family in the city of Aijalon and is known for driving away the men of Gath (1 Chron. 8:13). He is later referenced as “Shimei” (1 Chron. 8:21). (5) One of those who stood to Ezra’s right side as he read the law to the Israelites (Neh. 8:4).

A Gibeathite, the father of Ahiezer and Joash of Benjamin, warriors who joined David at Ziklag when he was banished from the presence of Saul (1 Chron. 12:3).

(1) A prophet who delivered God’s word to King Rehoboam regarding Jeroboam (1 Kings 12:22–24; 2 Chron. 11:2–4) and the cause of the invasion by King Shishak of Egypt (2 Chron. 12:5, 7). He also recorded the events of Rehoboam’s reign (2 Chron. 12:15). (2) A Judean and a descendant of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. 3:22). (3) An individual who assisted in the postexilic repair of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:29), possibly the same person as #2. (4) A Simeonite chief, the father of Shimri (1 Chron. 4:37). (5) A Reubenite chief, the son of Joel (1 Chron. 5:4). (6) A Merarite Levite in Nehemiah’s time, the son of Hasshub (1 Chron. 9:14; Neh. 11:15).

(7) A Levite, a descendant of Jeduthun, and the father of Obadiah (1 Chron. 9:16). (8) A Kohathite Levite in David’s time, chief of the sons of Elizaphan (1 Chron. 15:8, 11–15). (9) A Levite and scribe in David’s time, the son of Nethanel (1 Chron. 24:6). (10) A Korahite Levite, the firstborn son of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4, 6–7). (11) One of the Levites sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach God’s word to the people (2 Chron. 17:8). (12) A Levite who helped cleanse the temple in Hezekiah’s time, a descendant of Jeduthun (2 Chron. 29:14). (13) One of six Levites who assisted in the distribution of the freewill offerings in Hezekiah’s time (2 Chron. 31:15). (14) One of the Levite leaders who gave generous Passover offerings in Josiah’s time (2 Chron. 35:9).

(15) A descendant of Adonikam who returned to Judah with Ezra (Ezra 8:13). (16) One of the leaders sent by Ezra to recruit the Levites (Ezra 8:16). (17) A descendant of Harim, he was a priest who had married a foreign wife and pledged to divorce her (Ezra 10:21). (18) A descendant of Harim, he was an Israelite who had married a foreign wife and pledged to divorce her (Ezra 10:31). (19) A false prophet hired by Tobiah and Sanballat to discredit Nehemiah (Neh. 6:10). (20) One of the priests who sealed the covenant with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:8) and returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:6).

(21) A leader present at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:34). (22) A musician present at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:36). (23) A Levite musician present at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:42). (24) A descendant of Asaph, he was a grandfather of the priest Zechariah (Neh. 12:35). (25) The father of Uriah the prophet (Jer. 26:20). (26) A Nehelamite false prophet against whom Jeremiah prophesies God’s punishment (Jer. 29:31). (27) The father of Delaiah, an official of King Jehoiakim and a contemporary of Jeremiah (Jer. 36:12).

(1) One of David’s mighty warriors who joined him at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:5). (2) The son of Rehoboam and Abihail (2 Chron. 11:19 [KJV: “Shamariah”]). (3, 4) Two men who married foreign women during Ezra’s time and pledged to divorce them (Ezra 10:32, 41).

The king of Zeboyim during the time of Abraham (Gen. 14:2). He was one of five Canaanite kings who formed an alliance against a coalition of four Near Eastern kings. Besides taking plunder, the coalition kidnapped people, including Lot, Abraham’s nephew. Abraham successfully recaptured the plunder and the people.

A descendant of Benjamin through Elpaal (1 Chron. 8:12). He “built Ono and Lod with its surrounding villages.” These cities lay about five miles apart on the Mediterranean coastal plain. Some ancient manuscripts spell the name as “Shemer.”

(1) The man who sold a hill in north central Israel to King Omri. The hill, located seven miles northwest of Shechem, became Israel’s new capital. Omri named the city “Samaria” after the seller (1 Kings 16:24), perhaps as a condition of sale. (2) A Levite and a descendant of Merari (1 Chron. 6:46). (3) A descendant of Asher (1 Chron. 7:34), also called “Shomer” (7:32).

A descendant of Gilead from the tribe of Manasseh and the ancestor of the Shemidaites (Num. 26:32; Josh. 17:2; 1 Chron. 7:19).

A clan descended from She-mida, a Gileadite from the tribe of Manasseh counted at the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:32).

A musical term whose meaning is debated (1 Chron. 15:21; Pss. 6:1; 12:1). Some have argued that it refers to the bass tones of a male voice in contrast to the soprano tones of a female voice, referenced by the term “alamoth.” Others have argued that it refers to the musical scale or possibly to an eight-stringed instrument. This term was translated in earlier times as “for the eighth,” supporting neither argument decisively.

(1) One of the Levites during the time of David appointed to play the harp (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) One of the Levites appointed by Jehoshaphat to teach the law in the cities of Judah (2 Chron. 17:8).

The more phonetic rendering of the Hebrew name usually translated as “Samuel” (following the LXX), meaning “God heard.” Like the NIV, many versions use this transcription for Ammihud’s son Shemuel, who was the representative of the tribe of Simeon among those enlisted by Moses to assign grants of land in Canaan (Num. 34:20).

Samuel set up a remembrance stone to God between Shen and Mizpah and named it “Ebenezer” (1 Sam. 7:12). This is the only place Shen is mentioned, most likely in reference to a rocky outcropping resembling “teeth,” as the name implies.

Listed as a descendant of King Jehoiachin of Judah, before the king was carried off into Babylonian exile in 597 BC (1 Chron. 3:18). Attempts to identify him with Sheshbazzar, later governor of Judah (Ezra 1:8, 11; 5:14, 16), are mistaken. See also Sheshbazzar.

Listed as a descendant of King Jehoiachin of Judah, before the king was carried off into Babylonian exile in 597 BC (1 Chron. 3:18). Attempts to identify him with Sheshbazzar, later governor of Judah (Ezra 1:8, 11; 5:14, 16), are mistaken. See also Sheshbazzar.

The Amorite name for Mount Hermon (Deut. 3:9 [KJV: “Shenir”]). It most likely designates the most prominent of the three central summits on Mount Hermon. It was also known as Sirion by the Sidonians. Mount Hermon itself was known for many sanctuaries of Baal worship.

In the OT, an underworld place to which all were destined after death. The Hebrew word she’ol is generally translated as “the grave” in modern versions of the Bible, including the NIV. Sheol appears in the OT most frequently in songs and prayers (David’s song [2 Sam. 22:6]; Hannah’s prayer [1 Sam. 2:6]; many references in Psalms), as well as in the wisdom books of Job and Proverbs. The ancient Israelites visualized the cosmos as comprised of three distinct realms: heaven, the realm of the divine; earth, the realm of humanity and God’s creation; and Sheol, a place underneath the earth and the seas, the realm of the dead (Job 11:8; 26:5–7).

The Realm of the Dead

In the OT, Sheol is not a place of judgment or of God’s wrath, but rather a realm that harbored those who had died. Sheol was the great equalizer in the OT, as it was thought to be inhabited not only by the masses, but also by the rich and powerful (Job 3:19; Isa. 5:14; 14:9, 11), the bravest of warriors (Ezek. 32:21), the righteous (Gen. 37:35; Isa. 38:10; Ps. 30:3, 9), the wicked (Num. 16:30, 33), indeed everyone (Ps. 89:48; Eccles. 9:10). Although Sheol itself is not a place of judgment, it is connected to God’s wrath in the OT. The consequence of God’s wrathful judgment is frequently an early descent into Sheol (Num. 16:30; 1 Kings 2:6; Job 24:19; Ps. 31:17; Isa. 38:10; Ezek. 31:17). Premature death is the result of God’s wrath and judgment in the OT, not the descent into Sheol, which itself is inevitable.

Descriptions of Sheol do not occur in third-person narratives or in legal material, but are found only in first-person speeches throughout the OT. Moreover, Sheol is never described in full detail but is referred to only occasionally. Similar to depictions in other ancient Near Eastern cultures, descriptions of Sheol in biblical texts locate it in the farthest depths beneath the earth (Job 11:8; 26:6–13; Ps. 139:8) and the seas (Ezek. 31:15; Jon. 2:4), as contrasted with the heavens above. Sheol is portrayed as a watery underworld (Ps. 69:1–2, 13–15; Jon. 2:6), a place of darkness (Job 17:13; Ps. 88:3, 6, 12), of silence (Pss. 6:5; 31:17; Isa. 38:18), with gates at its entrance (Isa. 38:10; Jon. 2:7). By contrast, Sheol is also portrayed as a place of peace (1 Kings 2:6; Job 21:13), a place where greetings and conversations might take place (Isa. 14:9), where one would be reunited with a loved one who had already died (Gen. 37:35).

Sheol is a place where the fullness of joy in life no longer abides, for one cannot praise God in Sheol (Ps. 6:5; Isa. 38:18–19). Indeed, the book of Ecclesiastes encourages readers, “Eat your food with gladness. . . . Enjoy life with your wife, whom you love. . . . For in the realm of the dead [Sheol] . . . there is neither working nor planning nor knowledge nor wisdom” (9:7–10). In a similar manner, the book of Sirach in the Apocrypha states that one must fully enjoy one’s earthly life, for no pleasures are to be found in Sheol (14:16). Job, however, views Sheol as a positive alternative to his tragedies, and he imagines Sheol to be a peaceful place where earthly struggles give way to rest, even for the wicked (Job 3:1–19).

Sheol often is personified along with the figure of Death, particularly in the prophetic literature and Proverbs. Portrayals of Sheol generally are synonymous with those of Death and match iconographic representations of the god Death (Motu) in the ancient Near East. Sheol is portrayed as a monster with formidably large jaws (Isa. 5:14) and clutching hands (Ps. 89:48; Hos. 13:14), employing plagues and scourges to slay its victims (Hos. 13:14), as well as snares and traps (2 Sam. 22:6; Ps. 116:3) to feed its insatiable appetite (Prov. 1:12; 27:20; 30:16; Song 8:6; Hab. 2:5).

Sheol is not, however, a place outside the authority and power of Yahweh. Indeed, it is a place that is open to God’s vision (Job 26:6) and within the reach of God’s hand (Amos 9:2). The realm of Sheol is under the purview of God’s authority, and those who dwell there are not separated from God’s presence: “If I go up to the heavens, you are there; if I make my bed in the depths [Sheol], you are there” (Ps. 139:8). Yet the OT maintains that one’s life of faith in God is altered in Sheol. According to Ps. 6:5, “Among the dead no one proclaims your name. Who praises you from the grave [Sheol]?” And, indeed, “those who go down to the pit cannot hope for your faithfulness” (Isa. 38:18). These texts imply that although Yahweh’s presence remains with those who dwell in Sheol, the dead are unable to respond to God in praise and trust as they did in life.

The Afterlife and Resurrection

Belief in the afterlife was common in the ancient Near East. Thus, it is remarkable that the OT is so restrained in the hope that it offers for life after death. Most OT texts affirm that no one returns from Sheol (Job 7:9; Isa. 38:10, 18; cf. Sir. 48:5). Yet the question remains open. God’s limitless sovereignty is acknowledged in the prayer of Hannah: “The Lord brings death and makes alive; he brings down to the grave [Sheol] and raises up” (1 Sam. 2:6). Thus, Yahweh has the power to raise people up from Sheol, but whether he will choose to do so is a question unanswered in the OT.

Hints of resurrection from the grave can be found in the metaphoric use of Sheol in the psalms and the prophetic literature to represent dire struggle and sin from which the psalmist or Israel receives healing and deliverance: “I will deliver this people from the power of the grave [Sheol]; I will redeem them from death. Where, O death, are your plagues? Where, O grave [Sheol], is your destruction?” (Hos. 13:14 [see also Job 14:13; Pss. 16:10–11; 30:2–3; 49:13–15; 86:13; Jon. 2:3]). However, it is unclear whether these texts portray salvation after descent into Sheol has already taken place or, rather, Yahweh’s deliverance experienced as a protection from descending into Sheol in the first place. Stronger hints at a bodily resurrection come from the narratives in which the prayers of Elijah and Elisha result in a resurrection from the dead (1 Kings 17:17–24; 2 Kings 4:17–37).

When the OT was translated into Greek for Hellenized Jewish readers, “Sheol” was translated as “Hades,” importing a similar Greek concept of the underworld into the biblical text. The NT uses the words “Hades” and “hell” interchangeably; however, the distinction between the grave and hell is maintained. The grave is simply a place to which all are destined, as was Sheol. Thus, it is not until the NT that firm conceptualizations of a place for eternal punishment, as well as a place of eternal reward, emerge. Jewish literature written between the OT and the NT demonstrates a stronger hope in the resurrection, yet these texts largely parallel the OT usage of Sheol as simply an underworld abode of the dead. It is not until the coming of Christ that the resurrection from the dead transforms from a glimmer of hope to a resplendent promise in the Bible.

A border town on the eastern side of the Promised Land (Num. 34:10). Its exact location is uncertain.

(1) The fifth of six sons born to David while he reigned from Hebron (2 Sam. 3:4; 1 Chron. 3:3). His mother was Abital. (2) A Benjamite who deserted from Saul to David in the period before David became king (1 Chron. 12:5). (3) The son of Maakah, he was a tribal officer representing Simeon during the time of David (1 Chron. 27:16). (4) One of the sons of King Jehoshaphat who received valuable gifts when their father died. It was their brother Jehoram, however, who inherited the kingship (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) The son of Mattan who, along with three others, conspired to throw Jeremiah into a cistern (Jer. 38:1). (6) The father of Meshullam, who returned to Jerusalem with Sheshbazzar after the exile (1 Chron. 9:8). (7) The head of a clan that was part of the early return to Judah from Babylonian captivity in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:4; Neh. 7:9). (8) An ancestor of a family that belonged to the “servants of Solomon” (Ezra 2:57; Neh. 7:59) and that returned with Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after. Little is known about this group except that they likely performed menial functions at the temple, since they are grouped with the “temple servants” (see Nethinim). The name of the group suggests that they were formed during the period of Solomon, although they could have been so named because Solomon had the first temple built. (9) An ancestor of Athaiah from Judah who resettled Jerusalem at the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 11:4).

The Hebrew word shepelah, translated “lowland” or “foothills,” generally refers to the low hills immediately west of the Judean hill country, although on two occasions it indicates similar topographical features in proximity to the hills of western Galilee (Josh. 11:2, 16). The region functioned as a buffer zone between the secure location in the hill country and the foreign powers on the coastal plain. The Shephelah of Judah is cut through by five east-west valleys that provide access into the interior. Four of these valleys, Aijalon, Sorek, Elah, and Lachish, figured prominently in significant confrontations in the history of Israel.

A mountain at which the Israelites encamped during their wilderness wanderings (Num. 33:23–24 [KJV: “Shapher”]). It appears between Kehelathah and Haradah in the list of sites visited, but its location is unknown.

Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats for meat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integral part of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected in biblical portrayals of Abel (Gen. 4:2), Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1 Sam. 16:11), and Jesus (Luke 2:8–20; John 10:11, 14).

A shepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gen. 30:37–43). Sons (Gen. 37:2), daughters (Gen. 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gen. 13:7; 1 Sam. 25:7; Luke 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculture developed and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized (note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended the sheep [1 Sam. 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gen. 46:34). Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to and from nearby arable land (Gen. 29:7–14). Once all the grazing land had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland far enough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live a seminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water were needed (Gen. 37:12; cf. Isa. 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshift enclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a cave and remained with the flock throughout the night (Gen. 31:40; Song 1:8; Luke 2:8).

A shepherd’s tools included a clublike rod used to guard the flock and fend off predators and thieves (Gen. 31:39; Isa. 31:4; Mic. 7:14) and as a tool for dividing the flock (Lev. 27:32; Jer. 33:13); a crook or staff to retrieve strays and injured (Ezek. 34:16; Zech. 11:7); a sling and some sort of pouch (1 Sam. 17:40); and even dogs (Job 30:1). A shepherd was held accountable for any losses in the flock and was required to pay restitution (Gen. 31:39; Exod. 22:10–13).

The vital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturally led to the metaphorical use of the term to refer to both civil authorities (Num. 27:17; 1 Kings 22:17; Isa. 44:28; Ezek. 34:1–19) and deity (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Pss. 23:1; 78:52), both in Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Exod. 15:13, 17; Ps. 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile (Ps. 44:11–23; Jer. 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayed in pastoral terms as Yahweh shepherding his people to safe pasture. In the NT, Jesus called himself the “good shepherd” (John 10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders who are to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection of God’s people (Acts 20:28; 1 Pet. 5:1–3).

The fourth of the five sons of Shobal, an early Edomite leader (Gen. 36:23). In some Bible versions (e.g., KJV, NASB, NRSV), he is called “Shephi” in 1 Chron. 1:40.

The fourth of the five sons of Shobal, an early Edomite leader (Gen. 36:23). In some Bible versions (e.g., KJV, NASB, NRSV), he is called “Shephi” in 1 Chron. 1:40.

A descendant of Benjamin and the ancestor of the Shuphamite clan (Num. 26:39). A few Hebrew manuscripts give his name as “Shupham” (so the NIV), which is followed by the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Latin Vulgate. See also Shupham, Shuphamites.

A descendant of Benjamin and the ancestor of the Shuphamite clan (Num. 26:39). A few Hebrew manuscripts give his name as “Shupham” (so the NIV), which is followed by the Samaritan Pentateuch and the Latin Vulgate. See also Shupham, Shuphamites.

The daughter of Beriah and a descendant of Ephraim, she built Lower and Upper Beth Horon as well as Uzzen Sheerah (1 Chron. 7:24).

A broken piece of pottery, usually clay, also known as a potsherd. Shards were little better than garbage (Isa. 45:9), though larger pieces were sometimes used for writing brief notes. See also Potsherd.

(1) A Levite sent to accompany Ezra (Ezra 8:18). Sherebiah was one of twelve men entrusted with carrying temple treasure to Jerusalem (8:24). This may be the same person listed in Neh. 10:12 and 12:24. The Sherebiah contemporary with Ezra who assisted with the interpretation of the law (Neh. 8:7) and with public worship (Neh. 9:4–5) is also likely the same person mentioned in Ezra 8:18. (2) A Le-vite who returned with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:8).

The son of Makir and Maakah and a grandson of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:16).

(1) A son of Sennacherib, king of Assyria. He and his brother Adrammelek murdered their father “while he was worshiping in the temple of his god Nisrok” several years after he withdrew from his siege of Jerusalem. Sharezer and Adrammelek escaped to Ararat, and Esar-had-don took the Assyrian throne (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38). Ancient records confirm that Sennacherib was murdered by a son, but they mention only one assailant. (2) A man whom the people of Bethel sent, along with Regem-Melek, during the time of Zechariah to inquire of God about worship practices (Zech. 7:2). Alternative interpretations of the Hebrew text would make Sharezer one who sent to inquire of God rather than one who was sent.

A coded name for Babylon occurring only in Jer. 25:26; 51:41. The word results from a simple substitution scheme, called atbash, whereby the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet is replaced by the last letter, the second letter with the next-to-last letter, and so forth.

One of three Anakite leaders (with Ahiman and Talmai), mentioned first in the account of the Israelite spies’ mission to the promised land in the region around the city of Hebron (Num. 13:22). One of the spies, Caleb, drove them out of the region (Josh. 15:14). However, they must have repossessed the area because they are also described as having been driven from the area by the men of Judah after the death of Joshua (Judg. 1:10).

A coded name for Babylon occurring only in Jer. 25:26; 51:41. The word results from a simple substitution scheme, called atbash, whereby the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet is replaced by the last letter, the second letter with the next-to-last letter, and so forth.

The son of Ishi and the father of Ahlai, his daughter (1 Chron. 2:34–35). He is listed in Judah’s genealogy (1 Chron. 2:31) among the descendants of Jerahmeel.

An early leader of the postexilic community who returned from Babylonian captivity to Jerusalem soon after Cyrus the Persian issued a decree that allowed them to go back (c. 539 BC). Though Jewish, he had a Persian name. He was commissioned by Cyrus to bring the temple vessels taken by Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 1:2) back to Jerusalem and to rebuild the temple (Ezra 1:8, 11). Upon his return, Shesh-baz-zar oversaw the construction of the foundation of the temple (Ezra 5:16), but then the building stopped for a period of time and the temple was not completely finished until 515 BC.

Ezra 1:8 refers to him as “prince of Judah,” a title that has led to much speculation. However, it is doubtful that he was of the Davidic line (attempts to connect him to Shenazzar of 1 Chron. 3:18 are incorrect). His more precise title was “governor” (Ezra 5:14), appointed by Cyrus over the province of Judah (Yehud).

A more phonetic English transcription of the Hebrew name otherwise written as “Seth” (based on its transliteration in the LXX). This form is used in Balaam’s speech, which mentions the “people of Sheth” as a poetic parallel to Moab (Num. 24:17; NRSV: “Shethites”).

One of seven top-level officials under King Xerxes (Ahasuerus), who advised him to put away Queen Vashti because of her refusal to obey the king’s command to appear before the banquet (Esther 1:14).

A Persian officer who attempted to hinder the rebuilding of the temple with Tattenai, the Persian governor of the lands east of the Euphrates (Ezra 5:3, 6; 6:6). Later he was mandated to help with the procurement of supplies for the rebuilding process due to Darius’s decree (Ezra 6:13).

A more phonetic English transcription of the Hebrew name otherwise written as “Seth” (based on its transliteration in the LXX). This form is used in Balaam’s speech, which mentions the “people of Sheth” as a poetic parallel to Moab (Num. 24:17; NRSV: “Shethites”).

(1) The secretary of David (2 Sam. 20:25), who is also known as Seraiah (2 Sam. 8:17), Shisha (1 Kings 4:3), and Shavsha (1 Chron. 18:16). (2) The father of Makbenah and Gibea and the son of Caleb through his concubine Maakah (1 Chron. 2:49).

Twelve loaves of unleavened bread that were to be on continuous display (replaced every Sabbath) in the holy place of the sanctuary (Exod. 25:30; Lev. 24:8). The loaves were to be placed in two rows of six on the table of pure gold constructed for the holy place. The bread symbolized the covenant between God and his people, with a specific emphasis probably being placed upon his provision and sustenance. The name “bread of the Presence” (lit., “bread of the face”) arises from the close proximity in which they were placed to God’s presence in the sanctuary. Because of their holy nature, only priests were allowed to consume them (Lev. 24:5–9; 1 Sam. 21:1–6; Matt. 12:4 pars.; Heb. 9:2).

A well dug by Isaac’s servants (Gen. 26:33). Its name (“oath” or “seven”) and that of its town, Beersheba (“well of the oath” or “well of the seven”), commemorated an oath (cf. Gen. 21:31; 26:26–33).

The Hebrew word used by Jephthah’s forces in Judg. 12:6 to identify escaping Ephraimite troops, who would pronounce it as “Sibboleth.” The meaning of the word is uncertain and probably irrelevant to the events recounted in Judg. 12, but it may mean “ear of corn” or “flowing water.”

One of the Transjordanian towns allotted by Moses to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:19), which built the town up along with a number of others (Num. 32:38) near Ammonite and Moabite territory. The town is depicted in the oracles of Isaiah and Jeremiah against Moab as being known for its vines, which would be destroyed because of Moab’s pride and insolence (Isa. 16:8–9; Jer. 48:32). Sibmah has been identified with modern Khirbet Uyun Musa, approximately twenty miles southwest of Amman. See also Sebam.

A boundary marker on the northern boundary of Judah toward its western edge (Josh. 15:11 [KJV: “Shicron”]). It existed between Ekron and Jabneel.

One of the classifications in the superscriptions of the psalms, appearing only in Ps. 7 (cf. Hab. 3:1). Its meaning is uncertain. The root meaning seems to relate to “wandering” or “ranging.” Musically, this could mean that the tune went up and down the scale. It has also been interpreted to mean “fervent,” suggesting a passionate lament. See also Shigionoth.

A word found in the heading to Habakkuk’s prayer (Hab. 3:1), in the place where a stylistic comment might occur in the title of a psalm. Its meaning is uncertain, but it seems to be a plural of “Shiggaion” (cf. Ps. 7 superscription). It perhaps indicates the literary genre of the prayer or a musical style to be used in singing it. See also Shiggaion.

A river that forms part of the boundary between the promised land and Egypt (Josh. 13:3; 1 Chron. 13:5). It is now connected with the Wadi el-’Arish, which forms the southern border of what was Canaan. In those cases where “Shihor” appears to be in reference to the Nile (Isa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18), it has been argued that the Wadi el-’Arish was once connected to the Nile and serves as the first sweet, freshwater that a traveler would come to en route to Egypt.

A river that marks a border for Asher (Josh. 19:26), which must be south of Carmel. “Shihor” is a designation for a river, and there is some speculation that it could indicate that there were crocodiles within the waters, much like the Nile. It is most commonly argued to be the current Nahr Zerka, which empties its waters into the Mediterranean.

A boundary marker on the northern boundary of Judah toward its western edge (Josh. 15:11 [KJV: “Shicron”]). It existed between Ekron and Jabneel.

The maternal grandfather of King Jehoshaphat (1 Kings 22:42).

A town in the southern part of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:32).

The fourth of Naphtali’s four sons (Gen. 46:24). In most Hebrew manuscripts of 1 Chron. 7:13 he is called “Shallum.”

A clan descended from Shillem and mentioned as counted in the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:49).

Protected in the hill country of Ephraim, Shiloh was a secure location for the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant in the early centuries of Israel’s presence in the land. Judges 21:19 gives a remarkably precise location for Shiloh. It was “north of Bethel, east of the road that goes from Bethel to Shechem, and south of Lebonah.” This means that it was centrally located in the hill country just off the internal north-south ridge route.

The Israelites established their worship center at Shiloh after the conquest of the land (Josh. 18:1), and it was there that the assembly gathered in order to apportion the rest of the tribal allotments after Judah’s apportionment (18:8–10). When the tribes west of the Jordan faced the possibility of war with the two and one-half tribes that had returned to Transjordan, Shiloh was the central meeting place (Josh. 22:9–12). The “house of God” continued to be at Shiloh during the period of the judges (Judg. 18:31), and annual festivities were celebrated there (21:19–21).

The apparatus of the cult was in place at Shiloh when Eli was the high priest. Elkanah brought his two wives, Hannah and Peninnah, to Shiloh to worship each year. When Samuel was born to Hannah, she dedicated him to God at Shiloh (1 Sam. 1). Because Eli’s sons abused their privileges as priests (1 Sam. 2:14), God told Samuel that he would remove the priesthood from Eli’s family. That word is affirmed in 1 Kings 2:27: “So Solomon removed Abiathar from the priesthood of the Lord, fulfilling the word the Lord had spoken at Shiloh about the house of Eli.” God “continued to appear at Shiloh, and there he revealed himself to Samuel through his word” (1 Sam. 3:21).

When the Philistines were encamped at Aphek on the coastal plain, the Israelites engaged them in battle and lost. Viewing the ark of God as a magic box, the Israelites took it from Shiloh out to the battle, abusing the sanctity of that symbol. The ark was captured, and a man of the tribe of Benjamin ran uphill from Aphek through the rugged Shiloh wadi system and arrived at Shiloh to announce the news (1 Sam. 4:12).

Although it is uncertain when the sanctuary at Shiloh was destroyed, it was likely by the Philistines as they later encroached well into Israelite territory (1 Sam. 13). Nevertheless, Shiloh remained a significant location. As the northern kingdom broke away from the south, Ahijah from Shiloh prophesied to Jeroboam son of Nebat (1 Kings 11:29–40) and later addressed Jeroboam’s wife (1 Kings 14:2–4). Jeremiah reminded the inhabitants of Jerusalem that God destroyed Shiloh, the first dwelling place for his name in the land, because of the wickedness of Israel and would do the same again to the temple in Jerusalem (Jer. 7:12–14; 26:6–9). Even the psalmist noted the tragedy: “He abandoned the tabernacle of Shiloh” (Ps. 78:60).

In Neh. 11:5 the KJV renders the Hebrew phrase ben-hashiloni as “son of Shiloni,” which likely refers, as in the NIV rendering, to the descendants of the patriarch Judah’s son Shelah (see Num. 26:20).

A person from or associated with Shiloh or the Shiloh shrine. Ahijah, the prophet who predicted Jeroboam’s removal of ten tribes from the monarchy and the death of Jeroboam’s son Abijah, was a Shilonite (1 Kings 12:15; 15:29; 2 Chron. 9:29; 10:15). In 1 Chron. 9:5, most English versions follow the Hebrew in listing Asaiah and his sons as Shilonites, although the NIV interprets this as “Shelanites” (cf. Num. 26:20).

The ninth of the eleven sons of Zophah, from the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. 7:37).

(1) The third son of Jesse and brother to David (1 Chron. 2:13). He fathered Jonadab (2 Sam. 13:3, 32) and Jonathan (1 Chron. 20:7). He is also called “Shimeah” (2 Sam. 21:21) and “Shammah” (1 Sam. 17:13). (2) A variant of the name for one of David’s sons, Shammua (1 Chron. 3:5; see NIV mg.). (3) A descendant of Merari the Levite (1 Chron. 6:30). (4) A grandfather of Asaph, a Levite temple musician appointed by David who served with Heman (1 Chron. 6:39).

(1) The third son of Jesse and brother to David (1 Chron. 2:13). He fathered Jonadab (2 Sam. 13:3, 32) and Jonathan (1 Chron. 20:7). He is also called “Shimeah” (2 Sam. 21:21) and “Shammah” (1 Sam. 17:13). (2) A variant of the name for one of David’s sons, Shammua (1 Chron. 3:5; see NIV mg.). (3) A descendant of Merari the Levite (1 Chron. 6:30). (4) A grandfather of Asaph, a Levite temple musician appointed by David who served with Heman (1 Chron. 6:39).

The son of Mikloth in the family line of Saul (1 Chron. 9:38). In 1 Chron. 8:32 he is called “Shimeah.”

The Ammonite mother of one of the assassins of King Joash (2 Kings 12:21; 2 Chron. 24:26). The name of this assassin appears as “Jozabad” in 2 Kings 12:21, but as “Zabad” in 2 Chron. 24:26.

Descendants of Salma, in the line of Caleb, mentioned only in 1 Chron. 2:55 and of unknown origins. Some scholars have suggested some sort of musical or cultic function behind the name.

(1) A Benjamite and the son of Gera, Shimei cursed David in the name of the Lord near Bahurim during David’s flight from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 16:5–14). David twice refused to have Shimei executed, first at the time of the curse and then later at David’s reinstallment as king (19:23). Although David had promised Shimei with an oath that he would live, in his final days David instructed Solomon to kill Shimei. King Solomon offered Shimei a life sentence in Jerusalem, with death the punishment for leaving. Shimei later left and was killed (1 Kings 2:36–46).

(2) A son of Gershon and the head of a Gershonite clan (Exod. 6:17; Num. 3:18). (3) The son of Ela, Solomon’s official in Benjamin (1 Kings 4:18). (4) The second son of Pedaiah (1 Chron. 3:19), he was a grandson of King Jehoiachin. (5) The third son of Mishma, a descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:26). (6) The third of the seven sons of Joel, a Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:4). (7) The third of the seven sons of Merari, a Le-vite (1 Chron. 6:29). (8) The son of Jahath, he was an ancestor of the temple musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:42). (9) The fourth of the six sons of Jeduthun, who served under him as musician-prophets (1 Chron. 25:3). (10) The Ramathite in charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chron. 27:27).

(11) He assisted his brother Konaniah, who was the supervisor of contributions, tithes, and gifts to the temple during the reign of Hez-e-kiah (2 Chron. 31:12). (12, 13, 14) Three returned exiles who had married foreign women and pledged to divorce them (Ezra 10:23, 33, 38). (15) The son of Kish and a grandfather of Mordecai (Esther 2:5).

A priestly clan descended from Shimei (Num. 3:21; Zech. 12:13).

A descendant of Harim, he is listed among the returning exilic priests who were guilty of intermarriage with foreigners and were required to divorce their wives (Ezra 10:31).

(1) A Benjamite and the son of Gera, Shimei cursed David in the name of the Lord near Bahurim during David’s flight from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 16:5–14). David twice refused to have Shimei executed, first at the time of the curse and then later at David’s reinstallment as king (19:23). Although David had promised Shimei with an oath that he would live, in his final days David instructed Solomon to kill Shimei. King Solomon offered Shimei a life sentence in Jerusalem, with death the punishment for leaving. Shimei later left and was killed (1 Kings 2:36–46).

(2) A son of Gershon and the head of a Gershonite clan (Exod. 6:17; Num. 3:18). (3) The son of Ela, Solomon’s official in Benjamin (1 Kings 4:18). (4) The second son of Pedaiah (1 Chron. 3:19), he was a grandson of King Jehoiachin. (5) The third son of Mishma, a descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:26). (6) The third of the seven sons of Joel, a Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:4). (7) The third of the seven sons of Merari, a Le-vite (1 Chron. 6:29). (8) The son of Jahath, he was an ancestor of the temple musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:42). (9) The fourth of the six sons of Jeduthun, who served under him as musician-prophets (1 Chron. 25:3). (10) The Ramathite in charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chron. 27:27).

(11) He assisted his brother Konaniah, who was the supervisor of contributions, tithes, and gifts to the temple during the reign of Hez-e-kiah (2 Chron. 31:12). (12, 13, 14) Three returned exiles who had married foreign women and pledged to divorce them (Ezra 10:23, 33, 38). (15) The son of Kish and a grandfather of Mordecai (Esther 2:5).

(1) A Benjamite and the son of Gera, Shimei cursed David in the name of the Lord near Bahurim during David’s flight from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 16:5–14). David twice refused to have Shimei executed, first at the time of the curse and then later at David’s reinstallment as king (19:23). Although David had promised Shimei with an oath that he would live, in his final days David instructed Solomon to kill Shimei. King Solomon offered Shimei a life sentence in Jerusalem, with death the punishment for leaving. Shimei later left and was killed (1 Kings 2:36–46).

(2) A son of Gershon and the head of a Gershonite clan (Exod. 6:17; Num. 3:18). (3) The son of Ela, Solomon’s official in Benjamin (1 Kings 4:18). (4) The second son of Pedaiah (1 Chron. 3:19), he was a grandson of King Jehoiachin. (5) The third son of Mishma, a descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:26). (6) The third of the seven sons of Joel, a Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:4). (7) The third of the seven sons of Merari, a Le-vite (1 Chron. 6:29). (8) The son of Jahath, he was an ancestor of the temple musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:42). (9) The fourth of the six sons of Jeduthun, who served under him as musician-prophets (1 Chron. 25:3). (10) The Ramathite in charge of David’s vineyards (1 Chron. 27:27).

(11) He assisted his brother Konaniah, who was the supervisor of contributions, tithes, and gifts to the temple during the reign of Hez-e-kiah (2 Chron. 31:12). (12, 13, 14) Three returned exiles who had married foreign women and pledged to divorce them (Ezra 10:23, 33, 38). (15) The son of Kish and a grandfather of Mordecai (Esther 2:5).

A priestly clan descended from Shimei (Num. 3:21; Zech. 12:13).

(1) The third son of Jesse and brother to David (1 Chron. 2:13). He fathered Jonadab (2 Sam. 13:3, 32) and Jonathan (1 Chron. 20:7). He is also called “Shimeah” (2 Sam. 21:21) and “Shammah” (1 Sam. 17:13). (2) A variant of the name for one of David’s sons, Shammua (1 Chron. 3:5; see NIV mg.). (3) A descendant of Merari the Levite (1 Chron. 6:30). (4) A grandfather of Asaph, a Levite temple musician appointed by David who served with Heman (1 Chron. 6:39).

A man with four sons in the genealogy of Judah (1 Chron. 4:20).

The ninth of the nine sons of Shimei, of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:21).

(1) An ancestor of Ziza (1 Chron. 4:37). (2) The father of Jediael, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:45). (3) One of the thirteen sons of Hosah the Merarite, appointed as gatekeepers in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 26:10). (4) A Levite who helped to consecrate the temple during Hezekiah’s time (2 Chron. 29:13).

The Moabite mother of Je-ho-za-bad, one of King Joash’s assassins (2 Chron. 24:26). In 2 Kings 12:21 Jehozabad is said to be the son of “Shomer,” a variant of the name “Shimrith” without the feminine ending.

(1) One of four sons of Issachar and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:13; 1 Chron. 7:1). He was the eponymous head of the Shimronite family (Num. 26:24). (2) A Canaanite city. Its king joined other Canaanite city-kings assembled by King Jabin of Hazor against the Israelites under Joshua (Josh. 11:1). It was later allotted to the tribe of Zebulun (Josh. 19:15). The site has been identified with Tell Simuniya, located about seven miles west of Nazareth. Its name appears in the Egyptian Execration texts. It is mentioned on a papyrus that lists the Palestinian towns during the reign of Thutmose III in the Egyptian New Kingdom period.

One of the thirty-one Canaanite cities defeated by Joshua (Josh. 12:20). In Josh. 11:1 only Shimron is mentioned. “Shimron-Meron” might be the full name for Shimron. However, the LXX lists Shimron and Meron as two distinct towns in Josh. 12:20 and emends “Madon” to “Meron” in Josh. 11:1.

Descendants of Shimron who are counted in the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:24).

A Persian scribe living in Samaria during the reign of Artaxerxes I (Ezra 4:8–9, 17, 23). Along with the Persian official Rehum, he sent a letter warning Artaxerxes that allowing the rebuilding of Jerusalem would cultivate rebellion. Artaxerxes replied, ordering reconstruction there to cease (Ezra 4:18–22).

The king of Admah during the time of Abraham (Gen. 14:2). He was one of five Canaanite kings who formed an alliance against a coalition of four Near Eastern kings. Besides taking plunder, the coalition kidnapped people, including Lot, Abraham’s nephew. Abraham successfully recaptured the plunder and the people.

A town in Issachar (Josh. 19:19). It is reported by early authorities to be near Mount Tabor.

The father of Ziza, from the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:37).

The native designation of Zabdi (1 Chron. 27:27), whom David put in charge of the wine cellars. It is most likely a reference to the town of Shepham, which probably was a hill town on the eastern border of Judah.

One of the two Hebrew midwives (the other being Puah) who refused to heed the command of the king of Egypt to execute all male children upon their birth (Exod. 1:15–22). Consequently, the Hebrew population increased, and she was blessed because she feared God.

The father of Kemuel, who was the representative from the tribe of Ephraim among those chosen by Moses to assign grants of land in Canaan (Num. 34:24).

Old Testament

Phoenicians and Philistines. As a people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked and timber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites of biblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring or shipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises on alliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenician states to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and had access to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians (the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity for their seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily between Syria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout the Mediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia (Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Another seagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose base of power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. The Bible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in the twelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

The perennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precluded joint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and the Phoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritime activities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of the Philistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remained confined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attempt to take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. When they did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert a military and political presence among the agrarian Israelites and Judahites rather than to establish permanent settlements and Philistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at Medinet Habu (in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III) depict a naval battle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs include pictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israelite seafaring. One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes the Danites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg. 5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlapped with the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlapped substantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg. 5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked in the port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. In another passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It is noteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughly between Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance of natural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificial harbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of such a project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet of breakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported from Italy—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors in this region.

Solomon’s fleet. The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign of Solomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, which is near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1 Kings 9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, to which a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. The story confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians in the area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram [the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew the sea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men” (1 Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have been imported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1 Kings 9:11). Even at the height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embark on sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

The success of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only on warm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial control of the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. This favorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout the biblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on the seas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel was an essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and with it to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. The Phoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean, could never independently control the long overland route from Phoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory of Israel and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerful Israelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiram sent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen and supplies for the construction of the temple (1 Kings 5:10–12). Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships” that would return to port every three years bringing “gold, silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat. In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted to repeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 22:48–49; 2 Chron. 20:35–37). According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they could set sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of the story disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political and economic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

By this time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, with the northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politically closer to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel, Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, married Jezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal (1 Kings 16:31). According to 1 Kings, King Ahaziah of Israel (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat by sending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomon in the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion, possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northern dominance. According to 2 Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat did cooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that the ships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat for too close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In 1 Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’s venture there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overland route between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success of any voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

However the contradiction between 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles regarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions of the story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commanded the interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, and its successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of all three.

Ships of Tarshish. Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon and Jehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1 Kings 10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associated with the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron, lead, tin, gold, and silver (1 Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer. 10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish” is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of their cargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekiel observes, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for your wares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Your oarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

In the Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan (Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of the eastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples of the Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia” [see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that the ships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeastern Turkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul [Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony of Tartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This location figures in the interpretation of the identification of the destination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he were avoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head toward Spain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus in Cilicia.

In addition to these two geographical options, some have attempted to explain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as deriving from the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the many references to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used to transport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar has proposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos, meaning “oar.”

Descriptions of ships and seafaring. Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek. 27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. The picture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built and manned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber for the construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, among other places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen (v. 7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were from the Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list a large number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety of cargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and the Israelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheat from Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm” (v. 17)—thus filling out the picture of what the Israelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury items imported by their country from elsewhere.

In 1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician ships that had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, each measuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wine and were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean.

Ships and sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded a ship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on the Mediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features of ancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Not only the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumably non-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing of a god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god (1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure. When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the same strategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits of ancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods who controlled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance, are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples (presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the port cities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm 107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from an Israelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on the sea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters” (i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God of Israel, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm. This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a storm and the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safe haven.

Noah’s Ark

According to the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen. 6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, the ship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as having six decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozen cubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (a rough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships are described as providing space for the builder’s family and every living creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but its dimensions are not given.

Because of the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to draw conclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historical antiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblical text, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship in history, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming, completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also 450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore and aft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with early twentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant length rendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. The largest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the Greek Syracusia (third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis (second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s “Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered in modern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Pliny the Elder; and Ptolemy IV’s Tessarakonteres (third century BC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This last ship was not designed for cruising in open water.

New Testament

Fishing in the Sea of Galilee. Several of Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee, and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing and traveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both from boats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermen on the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto the beach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish (Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enough to transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boats could be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort to rowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesus stood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark 4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen miles long. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea to avoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g., Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In 1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-first century AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had been scuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “Jesus Boat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in length and has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of wood were used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life. While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or his disciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and it provides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

A second source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT is the account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the case of Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paul learned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats: among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, he recalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea” (2 Cor. 11:25).

Paul’s journeys. A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives some idea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1. Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleucia in Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus (Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). After journeying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where he embarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing again through the port at Salamis (14:26).

2. The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but rather with a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustrating that although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, the overland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul would repeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travel was fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternative land route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It is during the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts of Paul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed the short distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the island of Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast from Berea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey, Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus (18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call not mentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of sea travel so far mentioned.

3. The third missionary journey once more began with a long overland trip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had many associates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean, from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point, Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while his companions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, he sailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south of Cyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship again hugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Paul disembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate the variety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailing in deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there were reasons to make frequent stops.

4. Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to a trial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. From the account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at sea in the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and it carried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiers and prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’s friend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’s owner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and took soundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’s course could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds: twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to the lee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, but the only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

When extended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option was simply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in a harbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learn something of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many of which are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hull of the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), the lifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchors were deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncoming waves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargo and gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah, sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see also the protective emblems in 28:11).

When all other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on a sandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage to the boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, the decision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of the ship (27:41).

Metaphors and illustrations. Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. James likens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship: although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a great ship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of the unwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph. 4:14). In 1 Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience is likened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’s faithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

Old Testament

Phoenicians and Philistines. As a people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked and timber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites of biblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring or shipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises on alliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenician states to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and had access to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians (the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity for their seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily between Syria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout the Mediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia (Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Another seagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose base of power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. The Bible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in the twelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

The perennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precluded joint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and the Phoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritime activities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of the Philistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remained confined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attempt to take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. When they did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert a military and political presence among the agrarian Israelites and Judahites rather than to establish permanent settlements and Philistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at Medinet Habu (in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III) depict a naval battle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs include pictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israelite seafaring. One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes the Danites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg. 5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlapped with the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlapped substantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg. 5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked in the port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. In another passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It is noteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughly between Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance of natural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificial harbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of such a project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet of breakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported from Italy—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors in this region.

Solomon’s fleet. The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign of Solomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, which is near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1 Kings 9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, to which a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. The story confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians in the area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram [the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew the sea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men” (1 Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have been imported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1 Kings 9:11). Even at the height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embark on sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

The success of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only on warm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial control of the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. This favorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout the biblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on the seas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel was an essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and with it to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. The Phoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean, could never independently control the long overland route from Phoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory of Israel and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerful Israelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiram sent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen and supplies for the construction of the temple (1 Kings 5:10–12). Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships” that would return to port every three years bringing “gold, silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat. In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted to repeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 22:48–49; 2 Chron. 20:35–37). According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they could set sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of the story disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political and economic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

By this time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, with the northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politically closer to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel, Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, married Jezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal (1 Kings 16:31). According to 1 Kings, King Ahaziah of Israel (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat by sending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomon in the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion, possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northern dominance. According to 2 Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat did cooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that the ships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat for too close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In 1 Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’s venture there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overland route between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success of any voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

However the contradiction between 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles regarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions of the story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commanded the interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, and its successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of all three.

Ships of Tarshish. Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon and Jehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1 Kings 10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associated with the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron, lead, tin, gold, and silver (1 Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer. 10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish” is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of their cargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekiel observes, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for your wares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Your oarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

In the Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan (Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of the eastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples of the Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia” [see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that the ships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeastern Turkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul [Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony of Tartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This location figures in the interpretation of the identification of the destination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he were avoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head toward Spain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus in Cilicia.

In addition to these two geographical options, some have attempted to explain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as deriving from the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the many references to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used to transport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar has proposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos, meaning “oar.”

Descriptions of ships and seafaring. Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek. 27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. The picture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built and manned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber for the construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, among other places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen (v. 7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were from the Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list a large number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety of cargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and the Israelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheat from Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm” (v. 17)—thus filling out the picture of what the Israelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury items imported by their country from elsewhere.

In 1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician ships that had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, each measuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wine and were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean.

Ships and sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded a ship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on the Mediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features of ancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Not only the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumably non-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing of a god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god (1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure. When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the same strategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits of ancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods who controlled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance, are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples (presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the port cities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm 107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from an Israelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on the sea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters” (i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God of Israel, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm. This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a storm and the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safe haven.

Noah’s Ark

According to the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen. 6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, the ship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as having six decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozen cubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (a rough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships are described as providing space for the builder’s family and every living creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but its dimensions are not given.

Because of the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to draw conclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historical antiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblical text, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship in history, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming, completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also 450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore and aft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with early twentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant length rendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. The largest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the Greek Syracusia (third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis (second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s “Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered in modern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Pliny the Elder; and Ptolemy IV’s Tessarakonteres (third century BC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This last ship was not designed for cruising in open water.

New Testament

Fishing in the Sea of Galilee. Several of Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee, and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing and traveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both from boats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermen on the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto the beach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish (Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enough to transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boats could be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort to rowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesus stood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark 4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen miles long. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea to avoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g., Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In 1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-first century AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had been scuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “Jesus Boat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in length and has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of wood were used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life. While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or his disciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and it provides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

A second source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT is the account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the case of Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paul learned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats: among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, he recalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea” (2 Cor. 11:25).

Paul’s journeys. A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives some idea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1. Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleucia in Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus (Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). After journeying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where he embarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing again through the port at Salamis (14:26).

2. The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but rather with a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustrating that although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, the overland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul would repeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travel was fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternative land route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It is during the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts of Paul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed the short distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the island of Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast from Berea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey, Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus (18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call not mentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of sea travel so far mentioned.

3. The third missionary journey once more began with a long overland trip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had many associates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean, from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point, Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while his companions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, he sailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south of Cyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship again hugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Paul disembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate the variety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailing in deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there were reasons to make frequent stops.

4. Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to a trial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. From the account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at sea in the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and it carried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiers and prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’s friend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’s owner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and took soundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’s course could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds: twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to the lee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, but the only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

When extended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option was simply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in a harbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learn something of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many of which are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hull of the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), the lifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchors were deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncoming waves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargo and gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah, sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see also the protective emblems in 28:11).

When all other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on a sandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage to the boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, the decision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of the ship (27:41).

Metaphors and illustrations. Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. James likens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship: although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a great ship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of the unwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph. 4:14). In 1 Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience is likened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’s faithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

The secretary of David, also known as Seraiah (2 Sam. 8:17), Sheva (2 Sam. 20:25), and Shavsha (1 Chron. 18:16). In 1 Kings 4:3 two sons of Shisha (Elihoreph and Ahijah) are identified as “secretaries” (Heb. soperim) among the officials in Solomon’s court. Their inclusion in a list of only thirteen officials (including high functionaries of the temple and the army) suggests that these scribes/secretaries had greater responsibilities than simply reading and writing for the king. The fact that they were brothers suggests that their office was hereditary. Shisha himself may have been a scribe before them, paralleling the later scribal family of Shaphan, which appears prominently in several accounts of the seventh and sixth centuries BC.

Shishak was king of Egypt (r. 935–914 BC) during the reigns of Solomon and his son Rehoboam. He gave sanctuary to Solomon’s rebellious servant Jeroboam, who, upon Solomon’s death, became king of the northern tribes (1 Kings 11:40). Not only was Shishak instrumental in stripping away the ten northern tribes from Solomon’s son, but also he stripped away from Rehoboam much of Solomon’s glorious gold and treasure (1 Kings 14:25–26). This was understood by the Chronicler as a direct judgment on Rehoboam because he had forsaken God’s law (2 Chron. 12:2–9). Shishak is there presented as being in command of a vast international force, including Libyans and Ethiopians.

A Sharonite, he is listed among the officials in charge of David’s property as the one in charge of David’s herds grazing in the Plain of Sharon (1 Chron. 27:29). Some manuscripts (and the Jewish reading tradition) give his name as “Shirtai.”

An English rendering of the Hebrew word shittim. When referring to the tree, many modern translations use “acacia” (Isa. 41:19; KJV: “shittah tree”); however, when shittim is used in reference to a place name, it often is simply transliterated as “Shittim” (Num. 25:1; Josh. 2:1; Mic. 6:5). More than likely, the place name resulted from an abundant presence of the trees in that location (Josh. 3:1; Joel 3:18).

The acacia tree is readily available in the Sinai and provides a hard wood suitable for crafting objects requiring durability. It was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant (Exod. 25:10), the poles for moving the ark (25:13), portions of the tabernacle (26:15–37), and parts of the altar of burnt offering (38:1, 6). See also Shittim.

(1) A place on the east bank of the Jordan, opposite Jericho (Num. 25:1). The name means “acacias.” At Shittim, although God had just protected them from Balak and Balaam, Israelite men committed immorality and idolatry with foreign women. The resulting judgment ended only when Phinehas killed an Israelite man and a Midianite woman as they lay together (Num. 25). During the rest of Israel’s stay at Shittim, a census was taken of the new generation (Num. 26), and Moses taught the people (Num. 28–Deut. 33). After Moses’ death, Joshua sent spies from Shittim to Jericho (Josh. 2:1). Israel then left Shittim for the promised land (3:1). Centuries later, Micah urged Israel to remember this momentous journey “from Shittim to Gilgal” (Mic. 6:5). (2) A valley mentioned in Joel 3:18 NRSV (NIV: “valley of acacias”), probably close to Jerusalem.

An English rendering of the Hebrew word shittim. When referring to the tree, many modern translations use “acacia” (Isa. 41:19; KJV: “shittah tree”); however, when shittim is used in reference to a place name, it often is simply transliterated as “Shittim” (Num. 25:1; Josh. 2:1; Mic. 6:5). More than likely, the place name resulted from an abundant presence of the trees in that location (Josh. 3:1; Joel 3:18).

The acacia tree is readily available in the Sinai and provides a hard wood suitable for crafting objects requiring durability. It was used in the construction of the Ark of the Covenant (Exod. 25:10), the poles for moving the ark (25:13), portions of the tabernacle (26:15–37), and parts of the altar of burnt offering (38:1, 6). See also Shittim.

The father of Adina, one of David’s elite warriors (1 Chron. 11:42).

A group of people named in Ezek. 23:23 in conjunction with the Babylonians and the Chaldeans, along with the equally obscure Pekod and Koa. The three names may belong to tribal groups within the Babylonian Empire, and some scholars link Shoa to another group, the Sutians. Since the three names rhyme (long o vowel), it is possible that one or more of the names has been made up or distorted to conform to this pattern.

(1) The second of Caleb’s three sons with his wife Azubah (1 Chron. 2:18). (2) One of the sons born to David while he reigned in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:14; 1 Chron. 3:5; 14:4). His mother was Bathsheba.

The commander of the army of the Aramean king Hadadezer (2 Sam. 10:16). He led an Aramean force across the Euphrates, at which time David met him in battle at Helam, where Shobak was killed (2 Sam. 10:17–19). In 1 Chron. 19:16, 18 he is called “Shophak.”

A priestly gatekeeper at the time of the early postexilic period (Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45).

The commander of the army of the Aramean king Hadadezer (2 Sam. 10:16). He led an Aramean force across the Euphrates, at which time David met him in battle at Helam, where Shobak was killed (2 Sam. 10:17–19). In 1 Chron. 19:16, 18 he is called “Shophak.”

(1) The second of the seven sons of Seir the Horite, he was a chief and the ancestor of one of the Horite clans (Gen. 36:20; 1 Chron. 1:38). (2) A descendant of Caleb and the “father of Kiriath Jearim,” perhaps referring to its clans (1 Chron. 2:50, 52–53). (3) The fifth of the five sons of Judah and the father of Reaiah (1 Chron. 4:1–2).

One of the leaders who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s public reading of the law (Neh. 10:24).

An Ammonite leader and son of Nahash who brought David supplies while he fled from his son Absalom (2 Sam. 17:27).

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

In ancient times, footwear generally was sandals, a flat sole constructed of leather, wood, or matted grass secured to the foot with leather straps. Soldiers and dignitaries had more-substantial foot coverings than common people had (cf. Eph. 6:15). Sandals were common and cheap; their quality and presence or absence were indicators of social status (Ezek. 16:10; Luke 15:22). Prisoners were unshod (2 Chron. 28:15; Isa. 20:2–4), and those in mourning also went barefoot (2 Sam. 15:30; Ezek. 24:17). One put on sandals in preparation for a journey (Exod. 12:11; Mark 6:9; Acts 12:8). Moses and Joshua were instructed to take off sandals when they stood on holy ground (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The transfer of a sandal from one party to another sealed a property transaction (Ruth 4:6–10; cf. Ps. 60:8), while the removal of the sandal of a man who refused to marry his brother’s widow was a ceremony of disgrace (Deut. 25:9–10).

The lowest servant in a household removed guests’ sandals and washed their feet, as Jesus demonstrated for his disciples (John 13:5; cf. 1 Sam. 25:41; Luke 7:38). John the Baptist did not consider himself worthy of the humble task of untying Jesus’ sandal (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:7; Acts 13:25).

In ancient times, footwear generally was sandals, a flat sole constructed of leather, wood, or matted grass secured to the foot with leather straps. Soldiers and dignitaries had more-substantial foot coverings than common people had (cf. Eph. 6:15). Sandals were common and cheap; their quality and presence or absence were indicators of social status (Ezek. 16:10; Luke 15:22). Prisoners were unshod (2 Chron. 28:15; Isa. 20:2–4), and those in mourning also went barefoot (2 Sam. 15:30; Ezek. 24:17). One put on sandals in preparation for a journey (Exod. 12:11; Mark 6:9; Acts 12:8). Moses and Joshua were instructed to take off sandals when they stood on holy ground (Exod. 3:5; Josh. 5:15). The transfer of a sandal from one party to another sealed a property transaction (Ruth 4:6–10; cf. Ps. 60:8), while the removal of the sandal of a man who refused to marry his brother’s widow was a ceremony of disgrace (Deut. 25:9–10).

The lowest servant in a household removed guests’ sandals and washed their feet, as Jesus demonstrated for his disciples (John 13:5; cf. 1 Sam. 25:41; Luke 7:38). John the Baptist did not consider himself worthy of the humble task of untying Jesus’ sandal (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:7; Acts 13:25).

An instrument made out of an animal’s horn (most commonly a ram) that had at most three notes. The Hebrew word, shopar, most often is translated as “trumpet” or “horn.” It had many uses and was most often used to signal troops during times of war (Josh. 6:4; Judg. 3:27) and to gather people for religious or civic ceremonies (Exod. 19:13; 2 Sam. 15:10). It also has eschatological connotations in relationship to the day of the Lord (Joel 2:1).

The second of the four sons of Jaaziah, a Levite of the Merari clan (1 Chron. 24:27).

(1) The father of Jehozabad, one of King Joash’s assassins (2 Kings 12:21). In 2 Chron. 24:26 Jehozabad is said to be the son of “Shimrith,” a variant of the name “Shomer” with a feminine ending. (2) A son of Heber (1 Chron. 7:32) of the tribe of Asher, also called “Shemer” (1 Chron. 7:34 NASB, NET, NRSV, NKJV).

The commander of the army of the Aramean king Hadadezer (2 Sam. 10:16). He led an Aramean force across the Euphrates, at which time David met him in battle at Helam, where Shobak was killed (2 Sam. 10:17–19). In 1 Chron. 19:16, 18 he is called “Shophak.”

One of the towns built by the descendants of Gad on the east side of the Jordan River. This is the land that was conquered from Sihon, king of the Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan (Num. 32:35).

An instrument made out of an animal’s horn (most commonly a ram) that had at most three notes. The Hebrew word, shopar, most often is translated as “trumpet” or “horn.” It had many uses and was most often used to signal troops during times of war (Josh. 6:4; Judg. 3:27) and to gather people for religious or civic ceremonies (Exod. 19:13; 2 Sam. 15:10). It also has eschatological connotations in relationship to the day of the Lord (Joel 2:1).

A transliteration of the Hebrew word for “lilies.” The word appears in the titles to Pss. 45; 69; 80 (the title of Ps. 60 uses the singular, shushan). It likely refers to either lily-shaped musical instruments or a melody. Some word studies suggest specific reference to a six-stringed instrument. The same Hebrew word is translated “lilies” in Song 2:16; 4:5; 5:13; 6:2; 7:2.

The title of Ps. 80 includes the instruction “to the tune of ‘The Lilies of the Covenant,’ ” apparently referring to a musical accompaniment. Several psalms are prefixed with titles including shoshannim (“lilies” [Pss. 45; 69; 80]) and shushan ’edut (“lily of the covenant” [Ps. 60]).

Two straps that attached to the front and back sides of the priestly ephod (Exod. 28:7, 12, 25, 27; 39:4, 7, 18, 20). Two precious stones were attached to them, each engraved with the names of six tribes of Israel. They served as a reminder of the people of God.

A tool with a rectangular flat blade used to place coals in pots or remove ashes from the altar (Exod. 27:3; Jer. 52:18).

Twelve loaves of unleavened bread that were to be on continuous display (replaced every Sabbath) in the holy place of the sanctuary (Exod. 25:30; Lev. 24:8). The loaves were to be placed in two rows of six on the table of pure gold constructed for the holy place. The bread symbolized the covenant between God and his people, with a specific emphasis probably being placed upon his provision and sustenance. The name “bread of the Presence” (lit., “bread of the face”) arises from the close proximity in which they were placed to God’s presence in the sanctuary. Because of their holy nature, only priests were allowed to consume them (Lev. 24:5–9; 1 Sam. 21:1–6; Matt. 12:4 pars.; Heb. 9:2).

A place of worship of local importance, often lacking the approval of the biblical authors. The translation “shrine” entails a judgment as to the illicitness of the place of worship, even when the Hebrew term is value-neutral: “shrine” renders “sanctuary” (miqdash [Isa. 16:12]), “house” (bayit [Isa. 44:13]), “room” (kheder [Ezek. 8:12]), “house of god” (bet ’elohim [Judg. 17:5]), and “mountains” (heharim [Ezek. 18:6, 11]). In each case, these terms can refer also to places of licit worship; the distinction is contextual rather than lexical. In other cases, “shrine” does reflect the Hebrew vocabulary of illicit worship: the “high places” (bamot [2 Kings 23:8]; beth bamot [1 Kings 12:31]; ramah [Ezek. 16:24]). Judges 17:5 describes a household shrine in ancient Israel. Acts 19:24 refers to the manufacture of shrines to Artemis in first-century Ephesus.

The KJV rendering of a Hebrew phrase in Ezek. 8:12 referring to secret rooms in the Jerusalem temple where pagan idols or idolatrous wall paintings were worshiped (Ezek. 8:10; 23:14). God points out to Ezekiel that the “elders” of Israel are worshiping false gods in the darkness, claiming, “The Lord does not see us.” The NIV renders the phrase as “shrine of his own idol,” and the NASB as “room of his carved images.”

A cloth used to wrap a body for burial, as distinct from coffin burial, which was not customary in biblical Israel (though see Gen. 50:26 on the use of the coffin in Egypt). The haste with which Ananias’s corpse was “wrapped up” (Acts 5:6) suggests shrouding with everyday garments. In other cases, the corpse was washed (Acts 9:37), dressed with spices, and carefully wrapped with strips of linen, and a cloth was placed on the face (John 11:44; 19:40).

(1) The Canaanite father of Judah’s unnamed wife and mother of Er, Onan, and Shelah (Gen. 38:2–5; 1 Chron. 2:3). Shua was from Adullam, probably near Bethlehem. (2) Reflecting a different Hebrew spelling, “Shua” also refers to a female descendant of Asher (1 Chron. 7:32).

The sixth of the six sons of Abraham and Keturah (Gen. 25:2; 1 Chron. 1:32), the wife whom Abraham married after the death of Sarah. Among the sons of Keturah, the descendants of Jokshan and Midian figure most prominently in biblical ethnography (Gen. 25:3–4; 1 Chron. 1:32–33). The one possible case of a descendant of Shuah in the Bible is Bildad the Shuhite, one of Job’s three friends (Job 2:11), though it is not certain that this connection is intended.

(1) The “land of Shual” (Heb. ’erets shu’al ) refers to an unidentified region in the vicinity of Ophrah (1 Sam. 13:17). Several texts also mention one or more places called “Hazar Shual,” in Judah or Simeon (Josh. 15:28; 19:3; 1 Chron. 4:28; Neh. 11:27). (2) The third of the eleven sons of Zophah, a descendant of Asher (1 Chron. 7:36).

(1) A descendant of Levi and Gershom (1 Chron. 23:16; 26:24). He is the same person as Shubael in 1 Chron. 24:20; thus, Shubael was not Gershom’s son, but rather a later descendant. (2) A son of Heman (1 Chron. 25:4; see also 25:20).

According to 1 Chron. 4:11, Kelub and Shuhah were brothers among the descendants of Judah. Versional evidence (Greek, Syriac, Latin) and the broader context (see 1 Chron. 4:13, 15; also Judg. 1:13) suggest that the name “Kelub” should be read as “Caleb.” Thus, Shuhah would be related to the better-known family of Caleb. Little else is known.

Shuham was from the tribe of Dan. A clan descended from Shuham, the Shuhamites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:42).

Shuham was from the tribe of Dan. A clan descended from Shuham, the Shuhamites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:42).

Bildad, one of Job’s three friends, was a Shuhite (Job 2:11). Although it is not certain, this designation may refer to Shuah, one of Abraham and Keturah’s sons (Gen. 25:2).

The Shulammite (KJV: “Shul-a-mite”) is found only in Song 6:13: “Come back, come back, O Shulammite; come back, come back, that we may gaze on you! Why would you gaze on the Shulammite as on the dance of Mahanaim?” Some connect the name with Shulmanitu, a Mesopotamian goddess of love, but such a view depends on identifying the Song of Solomon as connected to a pagan ritual, which is unlikely. Some others, noting an association between Shulam and the city of Shunem, argue that the title refers to a well-known woman from Shunem, possibly Abishag (1 Kings 1:1–4:15), the woman who kept David warm in his old age. Most likely, the term is a feminine form of the name “Solomon,” which as a noun is also shalom, meaning “peace.”

A clan descended from Caleb’s son Hur (1 Chron. 2:53).

A person from Shunem. In the Bible, two women are referred to as “the Shunammite.” The woman whose son Elisha raises from the dead (2 Kings 4) is known only by this title. Abishag, the young woman who kept warm the elderly King David, is identified as “the Shunammite” as well (1 Kings 1–2). See also Shunem.

Shunem of Issachar’s territory (Josh. 19:18) is important in connection with three women. First, it was at Shunem that Saul, afraid of numerous enemies and having gotten no response to his request to God for guidance (1 Sam. 28:4–7), decided to consult a medium in the nearby town of Endor. The medium conjured Samuel, who in a postmortem rebuke announced Saul’s impending death. Second, the beautiful Shunammite Abishag kept David warm in his old age (1 Kings 1:3–4, 15). Later, in an attempt to ursurp the kingdom, Solomon’s brother Adonijah schemed with Bathsheba to convince Solomon to give him Abishag in marriage, but the shrewd king instead had Adonijah killed (1 Kings 2:16–25). Third, in Shunem a wealthy but barren woman provided for Elisha, who blessed her in return with a miraculous conception. But after her son had grown, he suddenly died. She called upon Elisha after the fact, and he then raised her son from death (2 Kings 4:8–37).

Shuni was a son of Gad (Gen. 46:16). A clan descended from him, the Shunites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:15).

Shuni was a son of Gad (Gen. 46:16). A clan descended from him, the Shunites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:15).

Shupham was the ancestor of the Shuphamites, one of the seven clans of the descendants of Benjamin (Num. 26:39). His name may correspond to “Muppim” in the list of Benjamin’s sons in Gen. 46:21. “Shuppites” and “Shuppim,” possibly alternate forms of the group name, are mentioned in 1 Chron. 7:12, 15; 26:16.

Shupham was the ancestor of the Shuphamites, one of the seven clans of the descendants of Benjamin (Num. 26:39). His name may correspond to “Muppim” in the list of Benjamin’s sons in Gen. 46:21. “Shuppites” and “Shuppim,” possibly alternate forms of the group name, are mentioned in 1 Chron. 7:12, 15; 26:16.

Each of the three occurrences of “Shuppim” is fraught with textual difficulties. (1) One of the sons (the other being Huppim) of Ir in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:12 NRSV [NIV: “Shuppites”]). (2) A man in the genealogy of the tribe of Manasseh, again with Huppim (1 Chron. 7:15 [NIV: “Shuppites”]). (3) With Hosah, a gatekeeper assigned by lot to the West Gate and the Shalleketh Gate in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 26:16). See also Shupham, Shuphamites.

Occupied as early as 4000 BC, Susa is about two hundred miles east of Babylon. The Hebrew name for the city, shushan, means “lily,” but the name’s proper origin is in the similar sounding “Shush,” which may be traced to In-Shushinak, the high god of the Elamites. Susa is mentioned in Ezra, Nehemiah, Esther, and Daniel. Nehemiah served at Artaxerxes I’s palace at Susa (Neh. 1:1, 11; 2:1). A substantial portion of the book of Esther takes place at Susa. Ezra 4:9–10 reports that people from Susa were deported by the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, and Dan. 8:2 identifies Susa as the setting of Daniel’s vision.

Susa first saw fame as the capital of Elam, from which a number of early texts were recovered, including the law code of Hammurabi. After being destroyed by Ashurbanipal of the Assyrians (c. 640 BC), Susa was rebuilt and eventually rose to its apex in the Persian Empire under Darius (521–486 BC). It served as a capital alongside Persepolis, Ecbatana, and Babylon. After surrendering to Alexander the Great (c. 331 BC), who would soon conquer the entire Persian Empire, Susa remained significant but began a slow decline. Part of its site remains occupied by the city of Shush in the Khuzestan province of Iran.

Apparently a musical term of uncertain meaning that occurs in the headings of Pss. 60 (“lily”); 80 (“lilies”). More precisely, it is “lily of the testimony” (NLT, NKJV; NIV: “lily of the covenant”). It is possible that the two words should be read independently of each other: “Lily. Testimony.”

Shuthelah was from the tribe of Ephraim (1 Chron. 7:20–21 also lists a descendant of Shuthelah with the same name). A clan descended from him, the Shuthelahites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:35–36).

Shuthelah was from the tribe of Ephraim (1 Chron. 7:20–21 also lists a descendant of Shuthelah with the same name). A clan descended from him, the Shuthelahites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:35–36).

Shuthelah was from the tribe of Ephraim (1 Chron. 7:20–21 also lists a descendant of Shuthelah with the same name). A clan descended from him, the Shuthelahites, was counted at the second census taken in the wilderness (Num. 26:35–36).

Although the use of looms was widespread in biblical times, biblical references provide little detail, and so we must rely mostly on archaeological and anthropological evidence. There were essentially two types of looms, the horizontal and the vertical. The horizontal was older and more common. It consisted of two beams tied to four pegs driven into the ground. The warp was stretched between them. The vertical loom consisted of two vertical beams and one horizontal. On the vertical loom, the warp was strung from the horizontal beam and held taut by a perforated ball of clay or stone, called a “loom weight.” As the warp was held taut on the loom, the horizontal yarn—the woof, or weft—was passed over and under its strands. This is the picture that emerges from the story of Samson and Delilah. Delilah tries to take Samson’s strength by weaving his hair into the warp of the loom. She then fastens it with a loom pin (Judg. 16:13). It is likely that some of the artistic pieces discussed in Exod. 35:35 were made with a loom, showing the artistic talent of people in those days.

One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:44; “Sia” in Neh. 7:47). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:44; “Sia” in Neh. 7:47). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

One of David’s elite soldiers. He is called a “Hushathite,” probably indicating that he came from a village southwest of Bethlehem. He is noted for killing a Philistine giant named “Saph” (assuming that “Rapha” means “giant”) at Gob, which is perhaps in the region of Gezer (2 Sam. 21:18; cf. 1 Chron. 20:4 [here the giant is named “Sippai”]). He may appear in the list of David’s men as Mebunnai in 2 Sam. 23:27 (NET, NASB), but he is listed as Sibbekai in 1 Chron. 11:29. He also commanded the military division for the eighth month (1 Chron. 27:11).

One of David’s elite soldiers. He is called a “Hushathite,” probably indicating that he came from a village southwest of Bethlehem. He is noted for killing a Philistine giant named “Saph” (assuming that “Rapha” means “giant”) at Gob, which is perhaps in the region of Gezer (2 Sam. 21:18; cf. 1 Chron. 20:4 [here the giant is named “Sippai”]). He may appear in the list of David’s men as Mebunnai in 2 Sam. 23:27 (NET, NASB), but he is listed as Sibbekai in 1 Chron. 11:29. He also commanded the military division for the eighth month (1 Chron. 27:11).

The Hebrew word used by Jephthah’s forces in Judg. 12:6 to identify escaping Ephraimite troops, who would pronounce it as “Sibboleth.” The meaning of the word is uncertain and probably irrelevant to the events recounted in Judg. 12, but it may mean “ear of corn” or “flowing water.”

The struggle for supremacy between siblings. The common features of this topos include the following: (1) the younger brother triumphs over the older brother (Isaac wins over Ishmael [Gen. 21:8–12]; Moses wins over Aaron and Miriam [Num. 12:1–10]); (2) the father’s favorite son loses out to the other, often the mother’s favorite (Jacob prevails over Esau [Gen. 25–27]; Abel, the heavenly Father’s favorite, loses to Cain [Gen. 4:8]); (3) sibling rivalry often ends in fratricide (Cain murders Abel [Gen. 4:8]; Absalom kills Amnon [2 Sam. 13:28–29]); (4) fratricide in sibling rivalry usually occurs in the field (Cain’s killing of Abel; Absalom’s murder of Amnon; Joseph and his brothers [Gen. 37]; cf. the parable that Joab placed on the lips of the Tekoite sage [2 Sam. 14:6]). Deuteronomy’s prohibition of the subversion of the inheritance rights of the firstborn (Deut. 21:15–17) seems to be a genuine attempt to grapple with the perennial problem of sibling rivalry in Israel’s covenant community, which often was triggered by the special favors shown the younger son over his elder brother(s). In the NT the parable of the Prodigal Son is a well-known example of sibling rivalry (Luke 15:11–32).

One of the Transjordanian towns allotted by Moses to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:19), which built the town up along with a number of others (Num. 32:38) near Ammonite and Moabite territory. The town is depicted in the oracles of Isaiah and Jeremiah against Moab as being known for its vines, which would be destroyed because of Moab’s pride and insolence (Isa. 16:8–9; Jer. 48:32). Sibmah has been identified with modern Khirbet Uyun Musa, approximately twenty miles southwest of Amman. See also Sebam.

In Ezekiel’s version of the idealized boundaries of Israel, the northern border runs westward from the Mediterranean Sea through “Sibraim (which lies on the border between Damascus and Hamath)” (Ezek. 47:16). The exact location cannot be identified with certainty.

Arising when Felix was procurator of Judea (AD 52–60), a group of revolutionary Jews favored freedom and equality to the point of opposing any kind of human rule (even Jewish). The group is called the Sicarii, after the short dagger they often used (Lat. sica). Josephus reports that they would conceal the daggers under their clothing, assassinate their enemies in broad daylight, especially during festivals, and escape in the crowd, sometimes feigning surprise and indignation at the murder and thus removing suspicion against themselves (Josephus, Ant. 20.8.5; J.W. 2.13.3). This original cloak-and-dagger group is mentioned in the NT only at Acts 21:38, where the commander of the soldiers arresting Paul assumed that he was an Egyptian revolutionary who had led four thousand Assassins (ESV, NASB; Gk. sikarioi; NIV: “terrorists”). Although certainly zealous in their actions, the Assassins’ relationship to the Zealots is debated. See also Zealots.

(1) A descendant of Manasseh and patriarch of a family (Num. 26:31; Josh. 17:2). (2) The second of the four sons of She-mida, from the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:19). (3) The son of Hamor the Hivite, who was the head of the town and environs of Shechem (Gen. 34:2; cf. Josh. 24:32; Judg. 9:28). He raped Jacob and Leah’s daughter Dinah, whose brothers killed him, Hamor, and the men of their town and plundered it in revenge.

(4) A crucial town in the hill country on the border of the tribal allotment of Ephraim (Josh. 20:7). The site has been identified with Tell Balata in a valley between Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim. Shechem is the first Canaanite town to be mentioned in the book of Genesis (12:6). Abraham camped at the site near the oak tree of Moreh, and God revealed himself to Abraham there, giving the first indication of the importance of the place. In response to God’s revelation, Abraham built an altar at Shechem. Later, Jacob settled in the region of Shechem and purchased land from Hamor the Hivite (33:18–19). When Hamor’s son Shechem raped Jacob’s daughter Dinah, her brothers Simeon and Levi killed the men of the region, and Jacob’s other sons pillaged the town of Shechem. Jacob buried his foreign gods at Shechem under the aforementioned oak tree in response to the revelation of God (35:1–4). It was in the general region of Shechem that Joseph later would seek his brothers and their flocks (Gen. 37). Israel would bury the bones of Joseph there in accordance with his wishes (50:25; Josh. 24:32).

Due to the revelation of God and its significance to the patriarchs, Joshua gathered the Israelites to Shechem after the conquest of Canaan and just prior to his death in order to renew the covenant (Josh. 8:30–35; 24). After the conquest the town was allotted to the Kohathite Levites and was one of the cities of refuge (Josh. 20:7; 21:21; 1 Chron. 6:67). However, in the period of the judges Shechem apparently was still under the cultural and religious influence of the Canaanites, as evidenced by the presence of the temple of Baal-Berith (Judg. 9:4). Abimelek, whose mother was a Shechemite, convinced the people of the town to make him their king. After three years, the Shechemites rejected Abimelek, and he killed many of them and destroyed the town (Judg. 9). It was at Shechem that the ten northern tribes made the decision to reject Solomon’s son Rehoboam and make Jeroboam their king. Jeroboam subsequently made Shechem his capital for a period (1 Kings 12).

Archaeological evidence indicates that Shechem suffered major damage during the Assyrian invasion in 724–721 BC. Yet the town continued to be occupied, and the inhabitants brought offerings to the temple in Jerusalem up until its destruction in 586 BC. Shechem became the religious and civic center for the Samaritans. This put Shechem in competition with Jerusalem and is the motivation for the Samaritan woman’s question in John 4:5 (where Shechem is called “Sychar”).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness] The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, and illness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing was also the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agents included the prophets (1 Kings 17:8–23; 2 Kings 5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah (Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32; 6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), and miraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke 7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign of God’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could send disease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

The Bible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and their symptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive. Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe the symptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often was based on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. The Bible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of a person. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals, cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

Ancient Near Eastern Influences

In the ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine was precritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown. Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine, physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and other botanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physicians also administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Disease was considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo or possession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes laws regulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. In Egypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintings and several papyrus documents describe the developing state of Egyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greek physicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians. However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC), called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with being the first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divine forces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result of environmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishment imposed by the gods.

It is clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near East the same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropical climates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, and sunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequent droughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types of diseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must be remembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamian and Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products, but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

Biblical Concept of Disease

The religious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonic origin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factors regulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual as well as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, also recognized that much sickness arose from the individual’s relationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed on hygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchal legislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to prevent the possibility of disease and sickness: (1) Sabbath observance for humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods of rest (Gen. 2:3); (2) dietary regulations, which divided food into efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11); (3) circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well as religious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the only example of Hebrew surgery); (4) laws governing sexual relationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees of marital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5) provisions for individual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6) stipulations for cleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitary and hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

In NT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folk remedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means. He also suggested that sickness and disease were not direct punishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standards of the new covenant promoted the total health of the community and the individual.

Circulatory Diseases

Nabal most likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1 Sam. 25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died” (KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsed into a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may contain a clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “If I forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.” This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body (right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that result from a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiled psalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he held anything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some have considered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize the ark of the covenant (2 Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequence of an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was described and death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is more probable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or a coronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

A possible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled (atrophic) hand of Jeroboam I (1 Kings 13:4–6). In an angry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemned the altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it “shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.” Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the “withered” hand, but it is possibly an example of cataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotional stimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding of the emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

The threat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech. 11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye, may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, or locomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindness characterize this disease.

Paralysis is frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark 2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts 9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these cases remains uncertain.

The physician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos (Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused by chronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2; cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of these examples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writers regarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostles as miraculous.

Mental Illness and Brain Disorders

Cases of mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting the symptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mental illness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit or spirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’s control and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him (1 Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT “madness” and “confusion of mind” were regarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28, 34).

It has been argued that King Saul displayed early indications of personality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement (1 Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior (10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s character transpired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14; 18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense of persecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that he suffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzar suffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beast in the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save his own life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistine king Achish (1 Sam. 21:12–15).

In the NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilated themselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior (Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demon possession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt. 15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2; Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mute demoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl (Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive of paranoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, the mind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannot be ruled out.

Epilepsy (grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foam at the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to the ground in an ecstatic state (1 Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaam falling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. In the NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24; 17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Some scholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascus with the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. His subsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epileptic disturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

Childhood Diseases

The cause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown (1 Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’s son has been attributed to sunstroke (2 Kings 4:18–37), although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v. 19). In both cases there is too little evidence to present an accurate diagnosis.

In the first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1 Kings 17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijah resuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearly states that the Shunammite boy died (2 Kings 4:20), implying a resurrection.

Infectious and Communicable Diseases

Fever and other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantal infidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may be intentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,” and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”). Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark 1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesus and Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these fevers were likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to be endemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Several epidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague are mentioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). The fifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed to Jordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plague has been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1 Sam. 5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form of tropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in the military camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic that killed a large number of the Assyrian army (2 Kings 19:35).

Parasitic Diseases

Some scholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents” (NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and the children of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestation of the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopic fleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slender nematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract to the skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet, discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the host occurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

After the conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who would endeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethel attempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result of the curse (1 Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify the bad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2 Kings 2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and thereby making the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological study has discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks used to construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are now known to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite that can cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematode infects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that this type of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s two sons.

In NT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of a parasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies (myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten by worms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The father of Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

Physical Deformities and Abnormalities

Individuals with deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev. 21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, and dwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenital or acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) and perhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustained injury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity and a limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17) might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar to scoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveled hand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt. 12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could be congenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number of factors.

Diseases and Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physical blindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excluded one from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness and deafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from the community (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” of Leah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindness in the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16 speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably were responsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John 9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud made from spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healed a blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt. 20:34 with Mark 10:52).

Congenital deafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defects because a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry. Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37). The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss of hearing early in life.

Skin Conditions

Various skin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made the individual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “the boils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailments included tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch (Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments: broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), black peeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20; 30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). These symptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. A poultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2 Kings 20:7).

Leprosy was once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world. Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronic infectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss of sensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type of disease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case of Hansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died (2 Chron. 26:21).

Scholars now suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bible do not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’s disease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that English versions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’) probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, often characterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associated with peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points more toward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

This disease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), and on clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but could occur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly (13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but it was also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2 Kings 5:1–27). Individuals with the disease were not necessarily shunned (2 Kings 7; Matt. 26:6 // Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), and Naaman experienced this type of skin disease (2 Kings 5:1–27). Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3; Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “men who had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailments of an Unknown Nature

Some cases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars to render a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet (2 Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for “feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexual organs (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of the disease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurable disease of the bowels” (2 Chron. 21:18–19). Other unknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of David and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy (1 Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2 Kings 13:14), and of Ezekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

A harvesting implement with a handle and a crescent-shaped blade used to cut grain at harvesttime. The sickle may have been made from chips of flint fitted to a bone or wooden piece, or else metal (bronze or iron) secured to a wooden handle. The instrument appears in passages that refer to actual cutting of grain (Deut. 23:25; Mark 4:29) as well as figurative descriptions of harvesting used to describe judgment (Joel 3:13; Rev. 14:14–19).

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness] The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, and illness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing was also the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agents included the prophets (1 Kings 17:8–23; 2 Kings 5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah (Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32; 6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), and miraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke 7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign of God’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could send disease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

The Bible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and their symptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive. Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe the symptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often was based on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. The Bible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of a person. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals, cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

Ancient Near Eastern Influences

In the ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine was precritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown. Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine, physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and other botanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physicians also administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Disease was considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo or possession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes laws regulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. In Egypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintings and several papyrus documents describe the developing state of Egyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greek physicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians. However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC), called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with being the first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divine forces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result of environmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishment imposed by the gods.

It is clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near East the same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropical climates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, and sunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequent droughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types of diseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must be remembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamian and Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products, but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

Biblical Concept of Disease

The religious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonic origin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factors regulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual as well as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, also recognized that much sickness arose from the individual’s relationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed on hygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchal legislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to prevent the possibility of disease and sickness: (1) Sabbath observance for humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods of rest (Gen. 2:3); (2) dietary regulations, which divided food into efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11); (3) circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well as religious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the only example of Hebrew surgery); (4) laws governing sexual relationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees of marital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5) provisions for individual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6) stipulations for cleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitary and hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

In NT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folk remedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means. He also suggested that sickness and disease were not direct punishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standards of the new covenant promoted the total health of the community and the individual.

Circulatory Diseases

Nabal most likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1 Sam. 25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died” (KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsed into a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may contain a clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “If I forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.” This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body (right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that result from a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiled psalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he held anything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some have considered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize the ark of the covenant (2 Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequence of an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was described and death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is more probable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or a coronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

A possible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled (atrophic) hand of Jeroboam I (1 Kings 13:4–6). In an angry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemned the altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it “shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.” Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the “withered” hand, but it is possibly an example of cataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotional stimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding of the emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

The threat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech. 11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye, may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, or locomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindness characterize this disease.

Paralysis is frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark 2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts 9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these cases remains uncertain.

The physician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos (Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused by chronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2; cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of these examples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writers regarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostles as miraculous.

Mental Illness and Brain Disorders

Cases of mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting the symptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mental illness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit or spirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’s control and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him (1 Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT “madness” and “confusion of mind” were regarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28, 34).

It has been argued that King Saul displayed early indications of personality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement (1 Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior (10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s character transpired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14; 18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense of persecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that he suffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzar suffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beast in the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save his own life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistine king Achish (1 Sam. 21:12–15).

In the NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilated themselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior (Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demon possession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt. 15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2; Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mute demoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl (Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive of paranoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, the mind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannot be ruled out.

Epilepsy (grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foam at the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to the ground in an ecstatic state (1 Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaam falling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. In the NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24; 17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Some scholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascus with the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. His subsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epileptic disturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

Childhood Diseases

The cause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown (1 Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’s son has been attributed to sunstroke (2 Kings 4:18–37), although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v. 19). In both cases there is too little evidence to present an accurate diagnosis.

In the first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1 Kings 17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijah resuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearly states that the Shunammite boy died (2 Kings 4:20), implying a resurrection.

Infectious and Communicable Diseases

Fever and other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantal infidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may be intentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,” and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”). Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark 1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesus and Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these fevers were likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to be endemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Several epidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague are mentioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). The fifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed to Jordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plague has been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1 Sam. 5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form of tropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in the military camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic that killed a large number of the Assyrian army (2 Kings 19:35).

Parasitic Diseases

Some scholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents” (NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and the children of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestation of the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopic fleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slender nematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract to the skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet, discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the host occurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

After the conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who would endeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethel attempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result of the curse (1 Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify the bad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2 Kings 2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and thereby making the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological study has discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks used to construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are now known to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite that can cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematode infects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that this type of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s two sons.

In NT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of a parasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies (myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten by worms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The father of Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

Physical Deformities and Abnormalities

Individuals with deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev. 21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, and dwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenital or acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) and perhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustained injury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity and a limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17) might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar to scoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveled hand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt. 12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could be congenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number of factors.

Diseases and Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physical blindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excluded one from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness and deafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from the community (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” of Leah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindness in the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16 speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably were responsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John 9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud made from spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healed a blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt. 20:34 with Mark 10:52).

Congenital deafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defects because a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry. Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37). The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss of hearing early in life.

Skin Conditions

Various skin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made the individual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “the boils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailments included tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch (Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments: broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), black peeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20; 30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). These symptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. A poultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2 Kings 20:7).

Leprosy was once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world. Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronic infectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss of sensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type of disease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case of Hansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died (2 Chron. 26:21).

Scholars now suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bible do not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’s disease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that English versions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’) probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, often characterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associated with peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points more toward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

This disease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), and on clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but could occur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly (13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but it was also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2 Kings 5:1–27). Individuals with the disease were not necessarily shunned (2 Kings 7; Matt. 26:6 // Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), and Naaman experienced this type of skin disease (2 Kings 5:1–27). Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3; Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “men who had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailments of an Unknown Nature

Some cases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars to render a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet (2 Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for “feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexual organs (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of the disease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurable disease of the bowels” (2 Chron. 21:18–19). Other unknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of David and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy (1 Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2 Kings 13:14), and of Ezekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

In this valley the kings of five allied cities (Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, Zeboyim, and Bela) awaited the approach of invaders (Gen. 14:3, 8, 10). This term appears to have been assigned to a broad, flattish tract, sometimes of considerable width, enclosed on each side by a definite range of hills.

Two ancient city-states of the Phoenicians that have a long and well-documented history predating many of the events in the Bible. Genesis 10:15 notes that Sidon was a son of Canaan, likely hinting at the importance of this city for the Canaanites. Several times in the Bible the term “Sidon” or “Sidonians” serves as an alternate name for the Phoenicians or Canaanites and usually refers to the southern part of this northern neighbor. There was much social and political interaction between Sidon and Tyre and the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, including Solomon’s marriage to several women from Sidon (1 Kings 11:1) and the Omride dynasty’s treaties and intermarriage with the Phoenicians (16:31). For much of the tenth through seventh centuries BC, Israel and the Phoenicians were close economic allies, with Israel providing materials for trade, and the cities of Sidon and Tyre offering the transport of those goods in their famed ships. Like Israel, Sidon and Tyre suffered under the expansions of the Assyrians and the Babylonians. Both Sidon and Tyre often were recipients of the OT prophets’ ire. Tyre especially was subject to many prophetic denouncements of which Ezekiel’s is an archtype (Ezek. 26:1–28:19). Ezekiel prophesied the total destruction of the city. Both cities had special cultic centers that advocated various versions of Baal worship and attempted to propagate their religion, as demonstrated by the actions of Jezebel, the wife of King Ahab and daughter of the king of Sidon.

Tyre and Sidon continued to be significant cities under Roman rule during the NT period. Jesus went to these two locations and condemned Jewish cities by saying that even the pagan Tyre and Sidon would have repented if they had witnessed miracles he had performed around them (Matt. 11:20–23). Paul also traveled to Tyre, staying there for seven days during a missionary journey (Acts 21:3–4).

Ancient accounts and remains (e.g., the bas relief from Sennacherib’s palace in Nineveh depicting the siege of Lachish) and the biblical record (2 Kings 25:1–2; Ezek. 4:2) reveal the siege techniques of the period. Spies sought any strategic weakness (Judg. 1:22–26). The city’s water supply was interrupted (2 Sam. 12:27). People were prevented from entering or leaving. An attempt was made to starve the inhabitants into surrendering. The besieging army might use siege engines, scaling ladders, earthen ramps, and battering rams and make tunnels under walls. Although scholars refer to the Assyrian “siege” of Jerusalem in 701 BC, Isa. 36–37 and 2 Kings 18–19 indicate that the city was only blockaded, and the word used in Isa. 1:8 (netsurah [NIV: “under siege”]) means “watched, guarded.”

A general war term re-fer-ring to systematic methods or mechanisms designed to overcome a fortified city. Siege works might include earthen ramps built against city walls (Ezek. 4:2), towers probably designed for use by archers (Isa. 29:3), scaling ladders, and battering rams used to weaken walls and gates (Ezek. 21:22). Wood was the primary material (Deut. 20:20) used in the construction of siege works, often accompanied by metal, particularly on the heads of battering rams for added strength and weight. Nebuchadnezzar used siege works to overcome Jerusalem’s fortifications during Zedekiah’s reign (2 Kings 25:1; Jer. 52:4). Utter destruction often followed once a city’s defenses were overcome and the besieging forces had gained entry into the city (Jer. 52:10, 13).

A screen-like implement used in biblical times to separate grain from debris such as pebbles (i.e., to sift). In two prophetic passages (Isa. 30:28; Amos 9:9), divine judgment against Israel and the nations is compared to the use of the sieve. This image can be compared to several other descriptions of divine judgment or military action in terms of agriculture (threshing in Isa. 27:12; Amos 1:3; Matt. 3:12; plowing in Mic. 3:12; reaping in Jer. 9:22) or viticulture (pruning in Isa. 18:5).

The word “sign” usually is a translation of the Hebrew word ’ot or the Greek word sēmeion. Signs are visible, typically being an object, a mark, an event, or a custom. In addition, signs are symbolic, pointing to things not seen. Signs often reveal or share some quality with the unseen reality to which they point, and so they are a token of that reality. In the Bible, signs typically are caused or instituted by God, and in many cases they are miraculous. However, in a few cases signs are set forth as the work of other gods (as in Deut. 13:1–2) or as being instituted by merely human design (as in Num. 2:2). In summary, a sign may be defined as something seen that points to something unseen, and that is instituted or created to do so by someone’s intention.

Several examples support this definition. Keeping the Sabbath is a sign of God’s rest after creating the world (Exod. 31:15); the Sabbath rest itself imitates God’s rest. Circumcision is a sign of God’s promise to both Abraham and his descendants; circumcision is also a physical mark that is related to human fertility (Gen. 17:11). The rainbow is a sign of God’s promise not to destroy the world by water and rain; rainbows appear only with rain (Gen. 9:13). (In the original Hebrew text, both the custom of circumcision and the rainbow that appears after the great flood are called “signs.”) The early Passover plagues both bring and warn of judgment, while the healing miracles of Jesus both bring and promise blessing. While signs point to unseen realities, these realities do not diminish the value or importance of the visible world. Instead, the unseen realities themselves are ultimately expressed in the visible world.

Divine Intervention

The word “sign” usually refers to an event that cannot be plausibly explained by natural or human causes but is consistent with intervention by God or by some other divine power. An important example of this occurs in the book of Exodus. In Exodus, Moses predicts each kind of plague that will occur and the time of its occurrence. Many of those plagues, such as the plague of locusts (Exod. 10:14–15), are events that could occur naturally. However, the merely natural occurrence of so many plagues in such a short time is quite improbable. It is likewise improbable that Moses could simply guess beforehand the type and timing of all these plagues.

Ultimately, a merely natural explanation for these plagues does not prove credible to the Egyptians. However, the plagues are consistent with acts of divine intervention, provided one does not rule out that possibility beforehand. They are consistent because Moses gives a plausible explanation of why God would intervene at this time, even though God had not intervened within living memory. All these evidences together are considered sufficient to infer that some god has caused the signs. The signs are portrayed as objectively known events. When Pharaoh refuses to admit that Moses can bring plagues, Pharaoh’s own officials say that he should know better (Exod. 10:7). The officials believe in the reality of the signs even though they do not follow the faith or God of Moses.

Throughout the Bible, signs give evidence of God’s direct action and identity, but they are not given as evidence for God’s existence. God’s existence is to be known by other means; for example, Paul writes that the existence of the Creator is “clearly seen” from the created world (Rom. 1:20).

Miracles and Faith

Miraculous signs often are given to validate a prophet and his message. Signs are especially frequent when that prophetic message is a covenant from God that has life-or-death consequences. Both the Mosaic covenant (Deut. 30:15–20) and the new covenant of Jesus (Luke 22:15–20; John 5:24–29) warn of life and death. In the OT, signs occur most prolifically at the hands of Moses. The signs manifested on behalf of Moses are explicitly given so that people will believe in Moses and follow God’s covenant (Exod. 4:1–9; 19:9).

Signs occur even more frequently and prominently in the NT. Jesus makes the lame walk, heals the blind, and even raises the dead (John 5:1–9; 9:1–7; 11:1–44). Throughout the Gospels, Jesus is characterized as performing many signs, and the signs are cited as one reason to believe in Jesus (John 20:30–31). The signs are characteristic of Jesus’ ministry and later of his apostles’ ministries. The tradition that Jesus performed signs is interwoven throughout the four Gospels as we have them, even in portions often thought to reflect earlier sources. The most important sign in the NT is the resurrection of Jesus, since this is the ultimate validation of Jesus by God, and the Christian faith hangs upon the truth of Jesus’ resurrection (1 Cor. 15:1–20).

Although signs are given to elicit faith, human nature and desires are such that reasonable belief does not always take root. As with Pharaoh, many others throughout the OT do not believe despite seeing signs (e.g., Num. 14:11; Ps. 78:11). In the Gospels, many will not believe any reports about miraculous signs. They instead demand to see signs personally (Mark 8:11–12; John 4:48; 6:30; 9:27–41; 20:29) or attribute them to Satan. The Passover signs were to be remembered and credited by later generations (Exod. 12:26–27). Similarly, the signs performed by Jesus were intended by the evangelists to be credited by readers who had not seen them (John 20:29–31). Belief is not expected without inquiry (John 4:39–42; Acts 17:11); however, unbelief in the face of evidence is seen as a human failing (John 11:37–40).

A ring with a seal inscribed upon it. A signet ring denoted authority and honor. Set on the front side of the ring was a hard or semiprecious stone with a seal inscription carved in reverse. The seal upon the ring served as an individual’s official stamp or signature and could prove authenticity. For instance, a royal document was not considered legitimate unless stamped with the king’s seal. Proof of witness to a contract also was confirmed by stamping the seals of the involved parties on a document or object. A seal could also be used to fasten a document by stamping a small, circular lump of clay (“bulla”) over the document. A seal might bear the name of its owner and/or various decorations. Some common motifs include Egyptian themes such as scarabs or winged sun discs, animals such as lions and bulls, and plant patterns incorporating important or symbolic plants such as the lotus, papyrus, or pomegranate. For occurrences in the Bible, see Gen. 38:18; 41:42; Exod. 28:36; Esther 3:10.

The Amorite king of Heshbon who opposed the passage of the Israelites through his territory on their journey from Egypt to Canaan (Num. 21:21–22; Deut. 2:26–29). Moses informed Sihon that the Israelites would stay on the highway and pay for any food or drink that they needed on the way. But Sihon refused, and he assembled his troops to fight against Israel in the wilderness (Num. 21:23). The Israelites defeated Sihon and took the cities and villages of his kingdom (21:24–25).

A river that forms part of the boundary between the promised land and Egypt (Josh. 13:3; 1 Chron. 13:5). It is now connected with the Wadi el-’Arish, which forms the southern border of what was Canaan. In those cases where “Shihor” appears to be in reference to the Nile (Isa. 23:3; Jer. 2:18), it has been argued that the Wadi el-’Arish was once connected to the Nile and serves as the first sweet, freshwater that a traveler would come to en route to Egypt.

The name for the Babylonian deity that Amos called a “star-god” (Amos 5:26 NRSV). The Akkadian term refers to the planet Saturn. The Hebrew of the MT, kiyyun (“Kiyyun” [NASB, ESV, NET]), appears to reflect the intentional scribal replacement of the original vocalization with vowels of the Hebrew word for “abomination.” Some versions translate the word as “pedestal” (NIV [but see footnote], NEB), linking it to the Hebrew root kun, meaning “to be firm, steady, secure, durable.”

Silas was a Jewish Christian, a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37–38), and a leader of the Jerusalem church (15:22). He was assigned the very important role of emissary of the Jerusalem church to Antioch, carrying the letter related to the Jerusalem council of Acts 15. He was also a prophet (15:32). Paul chose Silas to accompany him on the second missionary journey (15:40–41), yet Silas was a coequal with Paul rather than a subordinate like Timothy. Silas’s presence probably was a validation of Paul’s gospel, and Silas likely represented the Jerusalem church in the “Pauline” missionary work.

Paul probably refers to Silas as an apostle of Christ in 1 Thess. 2:6. Silas preached the gospel to the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1:19) and is a named cosender of both Thessalonian letters. The same Silas is the secretary who wrote down the letter 1 Peter for the apostle Peter (1 Pet. 5:12–13). “Silas” is the Greek form of the Hebrew or Aramaic name “Saul”; the Latin spelling is “Silvanus” (cf. Gk. Silouanos in 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; 1 Pet. 5:12).

Several words are translated with the English word “silence.” It usually is used to refer to the intentional act of not speaking, but it can refer to someone who is passive (2 Kings 7:9 KJV), the importance of listening (Acts 19:33), the process of subduing a people (Ps. 101:8), and figuratively of death (Ps. 94:17).

In antiquity, silk was imported to the Mediterranean world from the Far East and thus was a luxury commodity. The secret of its manufacture was closely guarded into the Middle Ages. There is one certain mention of silk in the Bible, in Rev. 18:12 (Gk. sirikos). Some older English translations of the OT refer to silk, but the Hebrew word (shesh) probably refers to a linen textile. The Greek word from which English “silk” is derived (cf. Lat. sericus) came into the classical languages as a loanword from the Semitic world through which the overland silk trade passed and probably goes back to the Chinese word for “silk,” by which the Chinese themselves were also known among classical geographers (Sēres).

The Judahite king Joash was assassinated by his officials “at Beth Millo, on the road down to Silla” (2 Kings 12:20). Beth Millo and Silla presumably are in Jerusalem’s City of David, Silla at a lower elevation than Beth Millo. See also Beth Millo.

A Byzantine-era pool on the southwest side of the Ophel Hill, near Jerusalem. Siloam is mentioned three times in the NT (Luke 13:4; John 9:7, 11). The Siloam Tunnel is one of two subterranean channels (along with “Hezekiah’s Tunnel”) bringing water from the Gihon spring to this location. These tunnels are best known for the discovery (in 1880) of the so-called Siloam Inscription, which describes the completion of work on those tunnels in some detail. The events mentioned in this inscription generally have been associated with 2 Kings 20 and 2 Chronicles 32, which describe the building projects of King Hezekiah, including “how he made the pool and the tunnel by which he brought water into the city” (2 Kings 20:20) and how he “blocked the upper outlet of the Gihon spring and channeled the water down to the west side of the City of David” (2 Chron. 32:30). The inscription has been dated to the late eighth century BC, based on paleographic data, and usually is associated with the preparations for Hezekiah’s rebellion against Sennacherib in 701 BC.

The extant text of the Siloam Inscription reads as follows:

. . . its tunneling through. And this was the way in which it was tunneled out. While the picks were still (in motion), each man toward his fellow worker, and while there were yet three cubits to be tun[neled through], the voice of a man [could be hea]rd calling to his fellow gang member, for there was a fissure in the rock on the right hand and on the left. Now on the day that the tunneling (was completed), the hewers struck (the rock), each man toward his fellow worker, pick against pick, and the water flowed from the spring to the pool—a distance of twelve hundred cubits. The rock was one [hun]dred cubits high over the heads of the hewers.

Silas was a Jewish Christian, a Roman citizen (Acts 16:37–38), and a leader of the Jerusalem church (15:22). He was assigned the very important role of emissary of the Jerusalem church to Antioch, carrying the letter related to the Jerusalem council of Acts 15. He was also a prophet (15:32). Paul chose Silas to accompany him on the second missionary journey (15:40–41), yet Silas was a coequal with Paul rather than a subordinate like Timothy. Silas’s presence probably was a validation of Paul’s gospel, and Silas likely represented the Jerusalem church in the “Pauline” missionary work.

Paul probably refers to Silas as an apostle of Christ in 1 Thess. 2:6. Silas preached the gospel to the Corinthians (2 Cor. 1:19) and is a named cosender of both Thessalonian letters. The same Silas is the secretary who wrote down the letter 1 Peter for the apostle Peter (1 Pet. 5:12–13). “Silas” is the Greek form of the Hebrew or Aramaic name “Saul”; the Latin spelling is “Silvanus” (cf. Gk. Silouanos in 2 Cor. 1:19; 1 Thess. 1:1; 2 Thess. 1:1; 1 Pet. 5:12).

A precious metal used in the ancient world and the Bible as a measure of wealth (Gen. 13:2) and a medium of exchange (Deut. 2:28). The minting of coins did not begin until the very end of the OT, so the hundreds of earlier scriptural references to money were to silver. Ancient peoples used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2) or pay taxes, but substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages, and silver served as a standard medium of exchange in the land of the Bible.

Silver had to be mined and purified before serving as an object of value. Silver ore was crushed, washed, strained, and heated to remove undesired materials (dross), a process that God used to symbolize spiritual purification (Ps. 66:10; Ezek. 22:18–22). Smiths then formed the refined silver (or gold or bronze) into pure pieces of metal that functioned as money (Gen. 23:15–16), war plunder (2 Sam. 8:11), jewelry (Gen. 24:53), household items (2 Tim. 2:20), or other desired objects. These other objects included trumpets (Num. 10:2) and implements used in worshiping God (Exod. 26:19–25) or items for illicit or pagan worship (Judg. 17:4; Acts 19:24). The Bible notes that the value and stability of silver are transient in light of eternity (1 Cor. 3:12–13; James 5:3).

A metalworker who creates objects out of silver and sometimes gold, brass, or iron (2 Chron. 2:7). The OT references translated “silversmith” are based on the Hebrew word for “smelter, refiner” (tsorep) with “silver” as a modifier (Judg. 17:4; Isa. 40:19) or implied from context (Prov. 25:4; Jer. 10:9). In the NT, the only silversmith (Gk. argyrokopos) is Demetrius of Ephesus (Acts 19:24), a guild leader who made shrines honoring Artemis. Recognizing that the gospel threatened his industry, he incited a riot against Paul.

(1) Jacob’s second son by Leah. Along with Levi, he massacred the men of Shechem for defiling their sister Dinah (Gen. 34). He was imprisoned in Egypt by Joseph when the other brothers returned to Canaan (42:24). He is identified in Jacob’s blessing as a violent man whose descendants would be scattered in Israel (49:5–7). (2) One of Jesus’ ancestors (Luke 3:30). (3) A righteous and devout man in Jerusalem who had received a vision that he would witness the Messiah’s coming (Luke 2:25–35). After seeing Jesus, he offered praise to God. His words are often called the Nunc Dimittis, the first two words of his prayer in Latin (“now dismiss [your servant in peace]”). He prophesied that Jesus was “destined to cause the falling and rising of many in Israel, and to be a sign that will be spoken against” (2:34). (4) One of the prophets and teachers in Antioch along with Barnabas and Saul (Acts 13:1). He is called “Niger,” evidently because he was an African or of dark complexion. (5) A variant name for Simon Peter (Acts 15:14; see NIV mg.).

In the wilderness, the tribe of Simeon camped between Reuben and Gad. The Simeonites were allotted land within Judah’s territory. Their subsequent absorption fulfilled Jacob’s prophecy of scattering (Gen. 49:5–7).

There are two definitions for “similitude,” both of which are archaic and rarely used but are found in the KJV. The first refers to a literary device that compares objects emphasizing their similarities (see Hos. 12:10 KJV). The second use of the word, much more common in the KJV, is simply a reference to the similarity between two people or objects. An example of this use is found in Ps. 106:20.

Possibly an official of the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar. According to the Hebrew text, he, along with other Babylonian officials, took his seat in Jerusalem’s middle gate during the siege (Jer. 39:3 NRSV). Some versions, including the NIV, have correctly understood this name to be a misunderstanding of the passage. It is possible to understand “Samgar-Nebo” as a proper name, but based on a parallel Akkadian expression, “Samgar” is more likely a title to be associated with the previous name. “Samgar” should then be understood as either the name of a locality (NIV: “Nergal-Sharezer of Samgar”) or a title (NET: “Nergal-Sharezer, who was a high official”). See also Nebo-Sarsekim.

(1) One of the original twelve apostles (Matt. 10:2), also called “Peter.” Simon Peter was the brother of Andrew and a fisherman by trade (Matt. 4:18). (See also Peter.) (2) The Zealot, one of the original twelve apostles (Matt. 10:4). (3) One of the brothers of Jesus, along with James, Joseph, and Judas (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). (4) A leper who lived in Bethany. In his house the precious bottle of ointment was poured upon Jesus in preparation for his burial (Matt. 26:6). (5) A man from Cyrene who carried Jesus’ cross on the way to crucifixion (Matt. 27:32). (6) A Pharisee who invited Jesus for a meal (Luke 7:40). Jesus was anointed with ointment in his house. He perhaps is the same individual as in Matt. 26:6. (7) The father of Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus (John 6:71). (8) A sorcerer who believed the gospel and was baptized. However, he became enamored with the miraculous power of Philip and with the ability of the apostles to impart the Holy Spirit, and he offered them money to give him that ability (Acts 8:9–25). (9) A tanner with whom Peter stayed in Joppa before traveling to the house of Cornelius (Acts 9:43).

Simon Peter is the best-known and the most colorful of Jesus’ twelve disciples. The name “Peter” means “rock” in Greek. In some biblical texts, he is also called “Cephas,” which is the Aramaic word for “rock” (see esp. John 1:42). Despite the ups and downs of Peter’s spiritual life, God was able to use him as the foundational apostle for the establishment of the NT church. Peter first met Jesus immediately after Jesus’ baptism, when Peter’s brother, Andrew, heard John the Baptist’s identification of Jesus as the Lamb of God (John 1:35). In classic missionary style, “the first thing Andrew did was to find his brother Simon and tell him, ‘We have found the Messiah’ ” (John 1:41). Peter’s official call to ministry took place later, when he was fishing on the Sea of Galilee and Jesus issued the well-known invitation “Come, follow me, . . . and I will send you out to fish for people” (Matt. 4:19).

Peter was the chief spokesman for the disciples at Caesarea Philippi when Jesus asked them, “Who do people say the Son of Man is?” (Matt. 16:13). Peter responded, “You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God,” an insight given him by God the Father (16:16–17). Jesus promised him, “I tell you that you are Peter [petros], and on this rock [petra] I will build my church, and the gates of Hades will not overcome it” (16:18). Yet Peter almost immediately became a “stumbling block” to Jesus when he chided Jesus for saying that he must go to Jerusalem and suffer many things and be killed (16:21–22). Another major failure by Peter came with his threefold denial of Jesus after Jesus had warned him, “This very night, before the rooster crows, you will disown me three times” (Matt. 26:34). Fortunately, there were tears of repentance, and Peter was forgiven and restored after Jesus’ threefold question (“Do you love me?” [John 21:15–19]).

Jesus’ death and resurrection, as well as the giving of the Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost, had stabilizing effects on Peter. After Jesus’ ascension, Peter exercised primary leadership among the other disciples during the upper room prayer meetings and the choosing of the replacement for Judas (Acts 1). Peter clearly was the public spokesman for the apostles on the day of Pentecost and a key player in the establishment of the church in Jerusalem (Acts 2–5), in receiving the first Samaritan converts (Acts 8:14–25), and in receiving Cornelius as the first Gentile convert (Acts 10–11). Following Peter’s miraculous deliverance from prison in Acts 12, he essentially disappears from recorded history. By the time of the Jerusalem council (Acts 15), Peter reappeared briefly, but by this time he had been replaced by James as the leader of the Jerusalem church. Peter apparently continued to live as a missionary (1 Cor. 9:5), specifically “to the circumcised” (Gal. 2:7–8), for the rest of his life. Yet Peter was still human, and on one occasion Paul gave him a stinging rebuke (Gal. 2:11–21).

During his travels, Peter undoubtedly visited the recipients of his later letter 1 Peter (and possibly 2 Peter) in north central Asia Minor (the regions of “Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia and Bithynia” [1 Pet. 1:1]), possibly Corinth (1 Cor. 1:12; 3:22), and, at least by the end of his life, Rome itself. According to tradition, he was put to death by Nero between AD 64 and 68, apparently by being crucified upside down (cf. John 21:18–19). Peter’s life is a vivid illustration of the Christian’s fight for faith, God’s gracious provision, and Jesus’ intercession on his behalf (“I have prayed for you, Simon, that your faith may not fail” [Luke 22:32]).

In biblical wisdom, the notion of the simple person (Heb. peti) can carry either a negative or a positive connotation. Negatively, a simpleminded person is equivalent to the proverbial fool (“For the waywardness of the simple will kill them, and the complacency of fools will destroy them” [Prov. 1:32]) and is contrasted with the wise or prudent person (“The simple believe anything, but the prudent give thought to their steps” [Prov. 14:15]). Positively, the simple person depends on God for protection (“The Lord protects the simple” [Ps. 116:6 NRSV]) and is open to instruction (“The unfolding of your words gives light; it gives understanding to the simple” [Ps. 119:130]).

In biblical wisdom, the notion of the simple person (Heb. peti) can carry either a negative or a positive connotation. Negatively, a simpleminded person is equivalent to the proverbial fool (“For the waywardness of the simple will kill them, and the complacency of fools will destroy them” [Prov. 1:32]) and is contrasted with the wise or prudent person (“The simple believe anything, but the prudent give thought to their steps” [Prov. 14:15]). Positively, the simple person depends on God for protection (“The Lord protects the simple” [Ps. 116:6 NRSV]) and is open to instruction (“The unfolding of your words gives light; it gives understanding to the simple” [Ps. 119:130]).

(1) An ancestor of Ziza (1 Chron. 4:37). (2) The father of Jediael, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:45). (3) One of the thirteen sons of Hosah the Merarite, appointed as gatekeepers in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 26:10). (4) A Levite who helped to consecrate the temple during Hezekiah’s time (2 Chron. 29:13).

There are few subjects more prominent in the Bible than sin; hardly a page can be found where sin is not mentioned, described, or portrayed. As the survey that follows demonstrates, sin is one of the driving forces of the entire Bible.

Sin in the Bible

Old Testament. Sin enters the biblical story in Gen. 3. Despite God’s commandment to the contrary (2:16–17), Eve ate from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil at the prompting of the serpent. When Adam joined Eve in eating the fruit, their rebellion was complete. They attempted to cover their guilt and shame, but the fig leaves were inadequate. God confronted them and was unimpressed with their attempts to shift the blame. Judgment fell heavily on the serpent, Eve, and Adam; even creation itself was affected (3:17–18).

In the midst of judgment, God made it clear in two specific ways that sin did not have the last word. First, God cryptically promised to put hostility between the offspring of the serpent and that of the woman (Gen. 3:15). Although the serpent would inflict a severe blow upon the offspring of the woman, the offspring of the woman would defeat the serpent. Second, God replaced the inadequate covering of the fig leaves with animal skins (3:21). The implication is that the death of the animal functioned as a substitute for Adam and Eve, covering their sin.

In Gen. 4–11 the disastrous effects of sin and death are on full display. Not even the cataclysmic judgment of the flood was able to eradicate the wickedness of the human heart (6:5; 8:21). Humans gathered in rebellion at the tower of Babel in an effort to make a name for themselves and thwart God’s intention for them to scatter across the earth (11:1–9).

In one sense, the rest of the OT hangs on this question: How will a holy God satisfy his wrath against human sin and restore his relationship with human beings without compromising his justice? The short answer is: through Abraham and his offspring (Gen. 12:1–3), who eventually multiplied into the nation of Israel. After God redeemed them from their slavery in Egypt (Exod. 1–15), he brought them to Sinai to make a covenant with them that was predicated on obedience (19:5–6). A central component of this covenant was the sacrificial system (e.g., Lev. 1–7), which God provided as a means of dealing with sin. In addition to the regular sacrifices made for sin throughout the year, God set apart one day a year to atone for Israel’s sins (Lev. 16). On this Day of Atonement the high priest took the blood of a goat into the holy of holies and sprinkled it on the mercy seat as a sin offering. Afterward he took a second goat and confessed “all the iniquities of the people of Israel, and all their transgressions, all their sins, putting them on the head of the goat, and sending it away into the wilderness. . . . The goat shall bear on itself all their iniquities to a barren region; and the goat shall be set free in the wilderness” (Lev. 16:21–22 NRSV). In order for the holy God to dwell with sinful people, extensive provisions had to be made to enable fellowship.

Despite these provisions, Israel repeatedly and persistently broke its covenant with God. Even at the highest points of prosperity under the reign of David and his son Solomon, sin plagued God’s people, including the kings themselves. David committed adultery and murder (2 Sam. 11:1–27). Solomon had hundreds of foreign wives and concubines, who turned his heart away from Yahweh to other gods (1 Kings 11:1–8). Once the nation split into two (Israel and Judah), sin and its consequences accelerated. Idolatry became rampant. The result was exile from the land (Israel in 722 BC, Judah in 586 BC). But God refused to give up on his people. He promised to raise up a servant who would suffer for the sins of his people as a guilt offering (Isa. 52:13–53:12).

After God’s people returned from exile, hopes remained high that the great prophetic promises, including the final remission of sins, were at hand. But disillusionment quickly set in as the returnees remained under foreign oppression, the rebuilt temple was but a shell of Solomon’s, and a Davidic king was nowhere to be found. Before long, God’s people were back to their old ways, turning away from him. Even the priests, who were charged with the administration of the sacrificial system dealing with the sin of the people, failed to properly carry out their duties (Mal. 1:6–2:9).

New Testament. During the next four hundred years of prophetic silence, the longing for God to finally put away the sins of his people grew. At last, when the conception and birth of Jesus were announced, it was revealed that he would “save his people from their sins” (Matt. 1:21). In the days before the public ministry of Jesus, John the Baptist prepared the way for him by “preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:3). Whereas both Adam and Israel were disobedient sons of God, Jesus proved to be the obedient Son by his faithfulness to God in the face of temptation (Matt. 2:13–15; 4:1–11; 26:36–46; Luke 3:23–4:13; Rom. 5:12–21; Phil. 2:8; Heb. 5:8–10). He was also the Suffering Servant who gave his life as a ransom for many (Mark 10:45; cf. Isa. 52:13–53:12). On the cross Jesus experienced the wrath of God that God’s people rightly deserved for their sin. With his justice fully satisfied, God was free to forgive and justify all who are identified with Christ by faith (Rom. 3:21–26). What neither the law nor the blood of bulls and goats could do, Jesus Christ did with his own blood (Rom. 8:3–4; Heb. 9:1–10:18).

After his resurrection and ascension, Jesus’ followers began proclaiming the “good news” (gospel) of what Jesus did and calling to people, “Repent and be baptized, every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins” (Acts 2:38). As people began to experience God’s forgiveness, they were so transformed that they forgave those who sinned against them (Matt. 6:12; 18:15–20; Col. 3:13). Although believers continue to struggle with sin in this life (Rom. 8:12–13; Gal. 5:16–25), sin is no longer master over them (Rom. 6:1–23). The Holy Spirit empowers them to fight sin as they long for the new heaven and earth, where there will be no sin, no death, and no curse (Rom. 8:12–30; Rev. 21–22).

As even this very brief survey of the biblical story line from Genesis to Revelation shows, sin is a fundamental aspect of the Bible’s plot. Sin generates the conflict that drives the biblical narrative; it is the fundamental “problem” that must be solved in order for God’s purposes in creation to be completed.

Definition and Terminology

Definition of sin. Although no definition can capture completely the breadth and depth of the concept of sin, it seems best to regard sin as a failure to conform to God’s law in thought, feeling, attitude, word, action, orientation, or nature. In this definition it must be remembered that God’s law is an expression of his perfect and holy character, so sin is not merely the violation of an impersonal law but rather is a personal offense against the Creator. Sin cannot be limited to actions. Desires (Exod. 20:17; Matt. 5:27–30), emotions (Gen. 4:6–7; Matt. 5:21–26), and even our fallen nature as human beings (Ps. 51:5; Eph. 2:1–3) can be sinful as well.

Terminology. The Bible uses dozens of terms to speak of sin. Neatly classifying them is not easy, as there is significant overlap in the meaning and use of the various terms. Nonetheless, many of the terms fit in one of the following four categories.

1. Personal. Sin is an act of rebellion against God as the creator and ruler of the universe. Rather than recognizing God’s self-revelation in nature and expressing gratitude, humankind foolishly worships the creation rather than the Creator (Rom. 1:19–23). The abundant love, grace, and mercy that God shows to humans make their rebellion all the more stunning (Isa. 1:2–31). Another way of expressing the personal nature of sin is ungodliness or impiety, which refers to lack of devotion to God (Ps. 35:16; Isa. 9:17; 1 Pet. 4:18).

2. Legal. A variety of words portray sin in terms drawn from the lawcourts. Words such as “transgression” and “trespass” picture sin as the violation of a specific command of God or the crossing of a boundary that God has established (Num. 14:41–42; Rom. 4:7, 15). When individuals do things that are contrary to God’s law, they are deemed unrighteous or unjust (Isa. 10:1; Matt. 5:45; Rom. 3:5). Breaking the covenant with God is described as violating his statutes and disobeying his laws (Isa. 24:5). The result is guilt, an objective legal status that is present whenever God’s law is violated regardless of whether the individual subjectively feels guilt.

3. Moral. In the most basic sense, sin is evil, the opposite of what is good. Therefore, God’s people are to hate evil and love what is good (Amos 5:14–15; Rom. 12:9). Similarly, Scripture contrasts the upright and the wicked (Prov. 11:11; 12:6; 14:11). One could also include here the term “iniquity,” which is used to speak of perversity or crookedness (Pss. 51:2; 78:38; Isa. 59:2). Frequent mention is also made of sexual immorality as an especially grievous departure from God’s ways (Num. 25:1; Rom. 1:26–27; 1 Cor. 5:1–11).

4. Cultic. In order for a person to approach a holy God, that individual had to be in a state of purity before him. While a person could become impure without necessarily sinning (e.g., a menstruating woman was impure but not sinful), in some cases the term “impurity” clearly refers to a sinful state (Lev. 20:21; Isa. 1:25; Ezek. 24:13). The same is true of the term “unclean.” Although it is frequently used in Leviticus to speak of ritual purity, in other places it clearly refers to sinful actions or states (Ps. 51:7; Prov. 20:9; Isa. 6:5; 64:6).

Metaphors

In addition to specific terms used for “sin,” the Bible uses several metaphors or images to describe it. The following four are among the more prominent.

Missing the mark. In both Hebrew and Greek, two of the most common words for “sin” have the sense of missing the mark. But this does not mean that sin is reduced to a mistake or an oversight. The point is not that a person simply misses the mark of what God requires; instead, it is that he or she is aiming for the wrong target altogether (Exod. 34:9; Deut. 9:18). Regardless of whether missing the mark is intentional or not, the individual is still responsible (Lev. 4:2–31; Num. 15:30).

Departing from the way. Sin as departing from God’s way is especially prominent in the wisdom literature. Contrasts are drawn between the way of the righteous and the way of the wicked (Ps. 1:1, 6; Prov. 4:11–19). Wisdom is pictured as a woman who summons people to walk in her ways, but fools ignore her and depart from her ways (Prov. 9:1–18). Those who do not walk in God’s ways are eventually destroyed by their own wickedness (Prov. 11:5; 12:26; 13:15).

Adultery. Since God’s relationship with his people is described as a marriage (Isa. 62:4–5; Ezek. 16:8–14; Eph. 5:25–32), it is not surprising that the Bible describes their unfaithfulness as adultery. The prophet Hosea’s marriage to an adulterous woman vividly portrays Israel’s unfaithfulness to Yahweh (Hos. 1–3). When the Israelites chase after other gods, Yahweh accuses them of spiritual adultery in extremely graphic terms (Ezek. 16:15–52). When Christians join themselves to a prostitute or participate in idolatry, they too are engaged in spiritual adultery (1 Cor. 6:12–20; 10:1–22).

Slavery. Sin is portrayed as a power that enslaves. The prophets make it clear that Israel’s bondage to foreign powers is in fact a picture of its far greater enslavement to sin (Isa. 42:8; 43:4–7; 49:1–12). Paul makes a similar point when he refers to those who do not know Christ as slaves to sin, unable to do anything that pleases God (Rom. 6:1–23; 8:5–8). Sin is a cosmic power that is capable of using even the law to entrap people in its snare (Rom. 7:7–25).

Scope and Consequences

Sin does not travel alone; it brings a large collection of baggage along with it. Here we briefly examine its scope and consequences.

Scope. The stain of sin extends to every part of the created order. As a result of Adam’s sin, the ground was cursed to resist human efforts to cultivate it, producing thorns and thistles (Gen. 3:17–18). The promised land is described as groaning under the weight of Israel’s sin and in need of Sabbath rest (2 Chron. 36:21; Jer. 12:4); Paul applies the same language to all creation as well (Rom. 8:19–22).

Sin affects every aspect of the individual: mind, heart, will, emotions, motives, actions, and nature (Gen. 6:5; 8:21; Jer. 17:9; Rom. 3:9–18). Sometimes this reality is referred to as “total depravity.” This phrase means not that people are as sinful as they could be but rather that every aspect of their lives is tainted by sin. As a descendant of Adam, every person enters the world as a sinner who then sins (Rom. 5:12–21). Sin also pollutes societal structures, corrupting culture, governments, nations, and economic markets, to name but a few.

Consequences. Since the two greatest commandments are to love God and to love one’s neighbor as oneself (Matt. 22:34–40), it makes sense that sin has consequences on both the vertical and the horizontal level. Vertically, sin results in both physical and spiritual death (Gen. 2:16–17; Rom. 5:12–14). It renders humanity guilty in God’s court of law, turns us into God’s enemies, and subjects us to God’s righteous wrath (Rom. 1:18; 3:19–20; 5:6–11). On the horizontal level, sin causes conflict between individuals and harms relationships of every kind. It breeds mistrust, jealousy, and selfishness that infect even the closest relationships.

Conclusion

No subject is more unpleasant than sin. But a proper understanding of sin is essential for understanding the gospel of Jesus Christ. As the Puritan Thomas Watson put it, “Until sin be bitter, Christ will not be sweet.”

A sin described by Jesus as unforgivable (Matt. 12:31–32; Mark 3:28–30; Luke 12:10). While in many ways mysterious, it is identified as blasphemy and involves the conscious and deliberate attribution of the work of God’s Spirit to the power of the devil.

The quality of being free from deceit or hypocrisy. Sincere actions flow from authentic and apparent motives. Paul likens sincerity to “unleavened bread” (1 Cor. 5:8) and often speaks of sincere love (Rom. 12:9; 2 Cor. 6:6; 8:8). He charges slaves to be sincere in obedience to their masters (Eph. 6:5; Col. 3:22).

A tough structural tissue found in the body that connects muscles to bones; it is synonymous with tendon or ligament. It is symbolic of the intricate and wondrous nature of God’s creation (Job 10:11; 40:17). The phrase “iron sinew” (Isa. 48:4 ESV, NRSV, NASB) connotes stubbornness and rebellion against God on Israel’s part. Paul speaks of “sinews” with regard to the body of Christ and its various members (Col. 2:19).

A song of worship and praise to God. The NIV only uses the word once in the OT, in Ps. 40:3, referring to a “hymn of praise” to God. The Hebrew word behind this phrase is tehillah, which is common in the OT and is elsewhere translated simply as “praise,” especially in the psalms. Psalms were part of Israel’s worship, and so such “hymns of praise” to God are more common than the English suggests.

The content of these hymns is not laid out for modern readers, but it involves things such as thanksgiving, gratitude, or generally giving God due recognition for who he is (e.g., Ps. 66:2) and what he has done (e.g., 106:2, 12).

In the NT, the word occurs only a handful of times in the NIV, and there is very little indication what these hymns were about. Here too, generally we can say that a hymn is a particular type of song of praise to God.

In Matt. 26:30; Mark 14:26, Jesus and the disciples sang a hymn at the conclusion of the Lord’s Supper. Since this meal was patterned after the Passover, it is likely that one or more of the Hallel psalms (Pss. 111–118) were sung. (“Hallel” means “praise” in Hebrew and is related to tehillah). The Greek word behind this use in the Gospels, hymneō, is the origin of the English word “hymn.” In Acts 16:25 Paul and Silas sang hymns at midnight while in prison, although we are told nothing about their content.

In 1 Cor. 14:26 Paul is instructing his readers about orderly worship. According to the NIV, one of the elements of worship includes hymns, although the Greek word here is psalmos (the word used to refer to the book of Psalms in Luke 20:42; 24:44; Acts 1:20; 13:30), which the KJV renders there as “psalm.” There is certainly significant overlap between hymns and psalms, since both involve praising God, but evidently there is some distinction too, as can be seen in Eph. 5:19 and Col. 3:16, where Paul makes a distinction between “psalms, hymns, and songs from the Spirit.” Perhaps these terms do not reflect clearly marked categories in Paul’s mind. In Eph. 5:19 all three are directed to God “from [the] heart,” and in Col. 3:16 they are sung with “gratitude,” both of which reflect the use of psalms in the OT.

Biblical scholars also refer to other portions of the Bible as “hymns,” even though the word is not used. The Song of Moses (Exod. 15:1–18) and the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2:1–10) are sometimes called “hymns” simply as a convenient designation (although Hannah’s is more a prayer). The same goes for Mary’s song, the Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55), which clearly is modeled after Hannah’s song, and Zechariah’s song, the Benedictus (Luke 1:68–79), which reflects OT prophetic poems. Elsewhere biblical scholars detect the possibility of fragments of preexisting “hymns” that were incorporated into the NT (e.g., Phil. 2:6–11). This suggests to some that there was some hymn-writing activity in the early church.

A song of worship and praise to God. The NIV only uses the word once in the OT, in Ps. 40:3, referring to a “hymn of praise” to God. The Hebrew word behind this phrase is tehillah, which is common in the OT and is elsewhere translated simply as “praise,” especially in the psalms. Psalms were part of Israel’s worship, and so such “hymns of praise” to God are more common than the English suggests.

The content of these hymns is not laid out for modern readers, but it involves things such as thanksgiving, gratitude, or generally giving God due recognition for who he is (e.g., Ps. 66:2) and what he has done (e.g., 106:2, 12).

In the NT, the word occurs only a handful of times in the NIV, and there is very little indication what these hymns were about. Here too, generally we can say that a hymn is a particular type of song of praise to God.

In Matt. 26:30; Mark 14:26, Jesus and the disciples sang a hymn at the conclusion of the Lord’s Supper. Since this meal was patterned after the Passover, it is likely that one or more of the Hallel psalms (Pss. 111–118) were sung. (“Hallel” means “praise” in Hebrew and is related to tehillah). The Greek word behind this use in the Gospels, hymneō, is the origin of the English word “hymn.” In Acts 16:25 Paul and Silas sang hymns at midnight while in prison, although we are told nothing about their content.

In 1 Cor. 14:26 Paul is instructing his readers about orderly worship. According to the NIV, one of the elements of worship includes hymns, although the Greek word here is psalmos (the word used to refer to the book of Psalms in Luke 20:42; 24:44; Acts 1:20; 13:30), which the KJV renders there as “psalm.” There is certainly significant overlap between hymns and psalms, since both involve praising God, but evidently there is some distinction too, as can be seen in Eph. 5:19 and Col. 3:16, where Paul makes a distinction between “psalms, hymns, and songs from the Spirit.” Perhaps these terms do not reflect clearly marked categories in Paul’s mind. In Eph. 5:19 all three are directed to God “from [the] heart,” and in Col. 3:16 they are sung with “gratitude,” both of which reflect the use of psalms in the OT.

Biblical scholars also refer to other portions of the Bible as “hymns,” even though the word is not used. The Song of Moses (Exod. 15:1–18) and the Song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2:1–10) are sometimes called “hymns” simply as a convenient designation (although Hannah’s is more a prayer). The same goes for Mary’s song, the Magnificat (Luke 1:46–55), which clearly is modeled after Hannah’s song, and Zechariah’s song, the Benedictus (Luke 1:68–79), which reflects OT prophetic poems. Elsewhere biblical scholars detect the possibility of fragments of preexisting “hymns” that were incorporated into the NT (e.g., Phil. 2:6–11). This suggests to some that there was some hymn-writing activity in the early church.

Isaiah says that at the time of God’s favor, people will come from far-off lands, including “from the land of Sinim” (Isa. 49:12 KJV). Some have suggested that this is China (classical Lat. Sinae). The LXX translates the Hebrew erets sinim as “land of the Persians.” The NIV, following the DSS (1QIsaa), emends the text slightly to read “Aswan,” the location in Upper Egypt.

The Sinites are twice listed among the Canaanite peoples (Gen. 10:17; 1 Chron. 1:15), though not in the frequently occurring lists of the six or seven Canaanite nations (see Exod. 3:8; Deut. 7:1). Based on the form of the list, the Sinites may have dwelled to the north of Israel.

A person who fails to live up to God’s standard of holiness and righteousness. As descendants of Adam, infected with a sinful nature, all of humankind fits this definition (Ps. 14:3; Rom. 3:10). In biblical terms, “sinner” can also be used in contrast with the self-righteous, who do not see their sinfulness. In this sense, a sinner is someone who is humbled before God and who recognizes his or her need for God’s grace (Luke 5:30–32; 18:10–14). See also Sin.

The KJV uses “Sion” to translate the Hebrew word si’on in Deut. 4:48, referring to Mount Hermon (NIV: “Sirion”); the Hebrew word tsiyyon in Ps. 65:1, referring to Zion (NIV: “Zion”); and the Greek form of “Zion,” Siōn, in Matt. 21:5; John 12:15; Rom. 9:33; 11:26; Heb. 12:22; 1 Pet. 2:6; Rev. 14:1 (NIV: “Zion”).

(1) A town in the southern Negev allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:24). This town is connected with Sufah and is said to be close to the ascent of Akrabbim (Scorpion Pass). (2) A town in the hill country near Carmel and Juttah allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:55). David hid from Saul in the “Desert of Ziph” (1 Sam. 23:14–15), which was likely the region east of Ziph. David was betrayed by the Ziphites at this time (Ps. 54 superscription [KJV: “Ziphims”]). Saul was on his way to Ziph when David and Abishai crept into his camp at night and confiscated Saul’s spear and water jug (1 Sam. 26:2). This town was later fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:8). It is associated with Tell Ziph, approximately five miles southeast of Hebron. (3) A grandson of Caleb, in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:42). (4) The first of the four sons of Jehallelel, in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:16).

In 1 Sam. 30:28 Siphmoth is listed among a number of locations in southern Judah and the Negev where David sent plunder as a reward for prior hospitality (see 1 Sam. 30:31). Zabdi, the “Shiphmite” named in 1 Chron. 27:27, may have been a native of this place.

A giant killed by Sibbekai the Hushathite, one of David’s elite soldiers (1 Chron. 20:4). In 2 Sam. 21:18 he is called “Saph.”

The location of a well or cistern mentioned in connection with Joab’s murder of Abner (2 Sam. 3:26). It is the place where Joab’s men found Abner. The current site of the well is not certain, but several wells near Hebron have been identified as possibilities.

The highest mountain in ancient Israel, with its highest peak reaching over 9,200 feet. Due to its height, its peak is snow-covered year-round, causing abundant dew in comparison to the arid land in that region, with its melting ice serving as a major source of the Jordan River.

The Canaanites referred to Hermon as Sirion or Senir (Deut. 3:9), as do some biblical texts (e.g., 1 Chron. 5:23). It is located above the Lebanon Valley (Josh. 11:17) and above Mizpah (11:3), where Joshua pursued the Canaanite kings and defeated them at the Waters of Merom (11:1–7). Hermon is identified with the modern Jebel es-Sheik (Arabic for “mountain of the sheik”), about thirty miles southwest of Damascus.

Hermon formed the northern frontier of Israel’s Amorite conquests (Deut. 3:8; Josh. 11:17). Before the Israelites conquered the region, the Hivites dwelled there (Judg. 3:3), and it was ruled by King Og of Bashan (Josh. 12:4–5) and the Amorite king Sihon (Josh. 13:10–11) and was known as “the area of the Gebalites [NIV: “Byblos”]” (Josh. 13:5).

Ancient Near Eastern mythology associated high mountains with the dwelling of the gods, so it is no surprise that the Canaanites regarded the mountain as sacred. Archaeologists have discovered some Iron Age (1200–586 BC) remains on the summit and more than twenty temples dating from later times. This probably explains references in the Bible to “Baal Hermon” (Judg. 3:3) and “Baal Gad below Mount Hermon” (Josh. 13:5).

Hermon is mentioned fifteen times in the Bible (Deut. 3:8, 9; 4:48; Josh. 11:3, 17; 12:1, 5; 13:5, 11; Judg. 3:3; Pss. 42:6; 89:12; 133:3; Song 4:8; 1 Chron. 5:23). It is known for its lions and leopards (Song 4:8) and pine trees (Ezek. 27:5). It is praised for its dew (Ps. 133:3) and mentioned in reference to other mountains (89:12), the Jordan River (42:6), and the power of God (29:6). Hermon is not mentioned in the NT, but due to its geographical proximity to Caesarea Philippi, some have suggested it was the location for Jesus’ transfiguration, which Mark 9:2 locates on a “high mountain.”

The son of Eleasah, a descendant of Jerahmeel son of Hezron, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:40).

(1) The commander of the army of King Jabin of Canaan. Sisera fled from Deborah and Barak’s forces into the tent of Jael. When Sisera fell asleep, Jael killed him by driving a tent peg through his head (Judg. 4:1–22). (2) A family of temple servants who returned from exile in Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:53; Neh. 7:55).

The son of Eleasah, a descendant of Jerahmeel son of Hezron, of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:40).

Sisters play a major role in many OT narratives. Sarah was Abraham’s half sister (Gen. 20:12; marriage or intercourse with one’s half sister was later prohibited [Lev. 18:11; 20:17]). More than once he sought to protect himself in a cowardly way by presenting her as his sister, not mentioning that she was also his wife (Gen. 12:10–12; 20). Isaac repeated the sin of his father (Gen. 26). Jacob loved Rachel but was deceived by her father Laban into marrying her older sister Leah, initiating one of the most vicious sibling rivalries in the Bible. Miriam, the sister of Moses, was a prophet and an important leader in her own right (Exod. 15:20; but see Num. 12:1, when she challenged Moses’ authority). Amnon began a bitter feud with his half brother Absalom when Amnon raped Absalom’s sister Tamar (2 Sam. 13). Jeremiah and Ezekiel both depict the northern and southern kingdoms as unfaithful sisters (Jer. 3:6–10; Ezek. 23; cf. Ezek. 16).

Certain biblical stories indicate that sisters were protected by brothers rather than fathers. It is Laban who negotiates the terms of his sister Rebekah’s marriage to Isaac (Gen. 24). Dinah is avenged and defended by her brothers; Jacob does nothing (Gen. 34). Tamar comes under Absalom’s protection, not David’s (2 Sam. 13). In Song of Songs, it is the brothers, not the parents, who supervise the girl (1:6) and who discuss her protection until she comes of age (8:8–9), though she declares she is able to take care of herself (8:10).

In the NT, the most famous sisters are Mary and Martha (Luke 10:38–42), who mourn the death of their beloved brother, Lazarus (John 11). Throughout the NT, the members of the church are often referred to as “brothers and sisters” (e.g., Matt. 18:15; Acts 6:3; 1 Cor. 12:1; Phil. 4:8; James 1:2; 1 John 3:13; many modern Bible versions [such as GW, NIV, NLT, NRSV] translate the Greek term adelphoi as including both men and women), carrying on Jesus’ redefinition of the family: “whoever does the will of my Father in heaven is my brother and sister and mother” (Matt. 12:50). See also Brotherly Love; Brothers and Sisters, Jesus’.

The third of the three sons of Uzziel, a Levite (Exod. 6:22).

Meaning “enmity” or “opposition,” Sitnah was the name given to the second of three wells dug by the herdsmen of Isaac. This well, like the one dug before it (Esek), was the cause of hostility over water rights with the herdsmen of Gerar, a Philistine city (Gen. 26:21). The actual site is unknown.

Persian word for the third month of the Jewish year, extending from the new moon in June to the new moon in July (Esther 8:9).

(1) Human skin: The skin on Moses’ face was shining (Exod. 34:29–30, 35). Certain skin diseases were considered ritually unclean and were required to be examined by a priest (Lev. 13). Job suffered from a skin disease (Job 2:7; 7:5). The term “skin” is used proverbially (Job 19:20; Jer. 13:23) and metaphorically (Mic. 3:2–3). (2) Animal skin: Animal skins were used in a variety of ways in daily life and in sacrificial rituals. Cured or tanned animal skins were used for garments (Gen. 3:21; Num. 31:20; Heb. 11:37). The skins of goats’ kids were used to cover Jacob’s hands and neck (Gen. 27:16). Rams’ skins and goatskins were used in the construction of the tabernacle (Exod. 25:5; 35:7). Processed animal skins were used as containers to store liquids such as wine (1 Sam. 1:24; 2 Sam. 16:1; Neh. 5:18; Matt. 9:17), water (Gen. 21:14), and milk (Judg. 4:19). Skins usually were burned outside in sacrifice (Exod. 29:14; Lev. 4:11; 8:17), with some exceptions (Lev. 7:8). (3) Plant skin: Anything produced by a grapevine, even the skins of the grapes, was prohibited as food for those who made the Nazirite vow (Num. 6:4).

The Hebrew word typically translated as “skirt” (kanap) does not indicate the woman’s garment of today. Instead, in the Bible “skirt” is often used in the archaic sense of “edge” or “extremity.” This is why some of the modern translations have changed the wording of the KJV and substituted words such as “edge,” “extremity,” and “hem.” For example, the KJV uses “skirt” in 1 Sam. 15:27 to translate kanap, but the NIV renders it as “hem” (cf. 1 Sam. 24:4, where kanap is rendered as “skirt” by KJV and as “corner” by the NIV; see also Ezek. 16:8; Hag. 2:12). The word translated as “skirt” is also used euphemistically, carrying sexual connotations. The biblical phrase literally reads, “So he shall not uncover the skirt [kanap] of his father,” which likely refers to having sexual intercourse with his father’s wife (Deut. 22:30; 27:20).

The name given to the site of Jesus’ crucifixion. In the Greek NT the site is called “Golgotha,” from the Aramaic term meaning “skull,” which is translated in the Gospels as the “place of the skull.” The Latin Vulgate then translates this phrase as Calvariae locum (Matt. 27:33; Mark 15:22; Luke 23:33; John 19:17–18), from which the English term “Calvary” derives. Golgotha could have been given its name because an outcropping of rock gave the place the appearance of a skull, but it seems more likely that Golgotha was a place habitually used for executions. It is clear then how Golgotha warranted its morbid name. The Bible specifies that Golgotha was outside Jerusalem, but not far from the city boundaries of Jesus’ day (John 19:20; Heb. 13:12). Today, Calvary lies within Jerusalem’s Old City, as Herod Agrippa I (r. AD 40–44) changed the boundaries of the city walls. The land eventually held a pagan temple, the Capitolium, which was torn down by the Christian emperor Constantine starting in AD 325 and replaced with a building complex meant to honor the holy site. After the crucifixion, Jesus was laid in a tomb in a nearby garden at the request of Joseph of Arimathea (Matt. 27:59–60; John 19:41). Very early Christian tradition claims to have identified this site, which today is inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. All the constructions and renovations of the site have changed Golgotha greatly since the first century, so that it bears little resemblance to a garden or an execution ground. The word “Calvary” has become a shorthand for the death of Jesus in Christian worship, so that sinners are called to come “to Calvary” and receive forgiveness. See also Golgotha.

The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2 Cor. 12:2–4, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.

The Abode of God

One of the challenges in understanding “heaven” as the present dwelling place of God involves God’s omnipresence. In one sense, God is present everywhere. David asks in Ps. 139:7, “Where can I go from your Spirit? Where can I flee from your presence?” He answers that regardless of whether he goes as high up as anyone can go (“up to the heavens”), as low down as anyone can go (“in the depths), as far east as anyone can go (“the wings of the dawn”), or as far west as anyone can go (“the far side of the sea”), God is still there (Ps. 139:8–9).

Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).

At times, “heaven” becomes virtually a synonym for God himself. In the parable of the prodigal son in Luke 15, the son confesses to his father, “Father, I have sinned against heaven and against you” (v. 21). This son’s sin against “heaven” has nothing to do with environmental issues such as air pollution, and everything to do with his relationship with God. Note also Matthew’s expression “the kingdom of heaven” versus “the kingdom of God” used elsewhere.

The Final Dwelling Place for Believers

Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1 Thess. 4:14).

However, this picture of heaven is more complicated. It is true that heaven is sometimes used in Scripture to refer to the present abode of all departed believers who have left this present life and entered the intermediate state between death and the bodily resurrection (2 Cor. 5:4). It is this hope in a bodily resurrection that sets Christianity apart from other religions. Ultimately, the Christian hope is not that people will receive new physical bodies and float around some ethereal “heaven” like astronauts in outer space for all eternity. Instead, God has created human beings with physical bodies to inhabit a physical world, and our future hope is one of new resurrection bodies inhabiting new heavens and a new earth (Isa. 65:17; 66:22; 2 Pet. 3:13). Just as there will be a certain continuity between the bodies of believers in this present life and their new resurrection bodies (we will know one another), there will also be a certain continuity between this present earth and the new earth to come. Yet, at the same time, everything will also be changed and made new and perfect, as God has designed it to be (Rom. 8:18–21).

The clearest description of this new reality is found in Rev. 21–22, where John describes how he “saw ‘a new heaven and a new earth,’ for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away” (21:1). Here is “the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride beautifully dressed for her husband” (21:2), when “God himself will be with them and be their God. ‘He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death’ or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away” (21:3–4). Even better than all the descriptions of such things as streets of “gold, as pure as transparent glass” (21:21) is that God himself will come and dwell in the midst of his people. As Paul has phrased it, “Now we see only a reflection as in a mirror; then we shall see face to face” (1 Cor. 13:12). The day will come when we will see God as he is, in all his glory (1 John 3:2).

Two other ideas complete our picture of life in these new heavens and new earth. Heaven will be a place of continued activity and service. Notice Jesus’ blessing in Matt. 25:21: “Well done, good and faithful servant! You have been faithful with a few things; I will put you in charge of many things.” The other principle is that there will be different degrees of reward. Although our ultimate reward is simply being with God himself, Paul also reminds us that if what believers do with their lives “survives, the builder will receive a reward,” and if what they do “is burned up, the builder will suffer loss” (1 Cor. 3:14–15 NRSV). Our choices make a difference for time and eternity (cf. Rev. 14:13). See also Heavens, New.

Evil, malicious talk or lies intended to defame or destroy another person or another’s reputation (Pss. 31:13; 50:20; Ezek. 22:9). Both Testaments frequently condemn the sin of slander. Mosaic law forbade it (Lev. 19:16), and the ninth of the Ten Commandments specifically condemns bearing “false testimony” (Exod. 20:16). Slandering was an especially malicious act, with accompanying consequences (Prov. 30:10), and was viewed as a crime worthy of God’s displeasure or punishment (Pss. 101:5; 140:11). Paul includes slander among destructive ways of relating and speaking to one another (Rom. 1:30; 2 Tim. 3:3; cf. 2 Cor. 12:20; Eph. 4:31; Col. 3:8). The great accuser and slanderer of God and his people is Satan (Gen. 3:4–5; Job 1:9–11; 2:4–5; Zech. 3:1). There is no truth in him; he is a liar and the father of lies (John 8:44).

Matthew reports that in an attempt to kill the infant Jesus, Herod the Great ordered the slaughter of the boys in Bethlehem and its vicinity who were two years old or younger, adding that the extent of the slaughter was calculated to correspond with the information Herod learned from the magi regarding the time of Jesus’ birth (Matt. 2:16). Jesus escaped only because his parents fled to Egypt for the duration of Herod’s life (he died in 4 BC). Matthew regards this event as the fulfillment of Jer. 31:15: “A voice is heard in Ramah, weeping and great mourning, Rachel weeping for her children and refusing to be comforted, because they are no more” (Matt. 2:18). There is no external historical confirmation of the event, though scholars have noted that Josephus portrays Herod as a cruel ruler who would do anything to stay in power, even killing two of his own sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, when he perceived them as a threat (J.W. 1.550). Others have noted the similarity of the story to the birth of Moses and the order of Pharaoh to kill the Hebrew boys (Exod. 1:16). The event is commemorated on December 28 in the Western church calendar.

Slavery and servanthood were part of everyday life in the ancient world. There were many different kinds of circumstances through which a person might become a slave. Some were coerced into servitude after being captured in war; others were born into slavery; others served as slaves as a sentence for a crime; still others served by personal choice as an apprentice. Slavery was not based on race. Furthermore, there was an enormous range of social and economic classes among slaves, from the brutal life of a galley slave to that of a wealthy servant of a king who might likewise own property and slaves.

In some cases, manumission, or the freeing of slaves, was possible during Roman times. This could be accomplished if the master died or if the master’s will allowed for their freedom, and in some cases slaves could even purchase their own freedom. In the first century AD, there were many such manumitted slaves. Acts 6:9 speaks of a Synagogue of the Freedmen, which probably means that it was made up of former slaves.

Old Testament

There are numerous relationships in the OT that could be characterized as following a servant-master model. These included service to the monarchy (2 Sam. 9:2), within households (Gen. 16:8), in the temple (1 Sam. 2:15), or to God himself (Judg. 2:8). We also see extensive slavery laws in passages such as Exod. 21:1–11; Lev. 25:39–55; Deut. 15:12–18. The slavery laws were concerned with the proper treatment of Hebrew slaves and included guidelines for their eventual release and freedom. For example, Hebrew slaves who had sold themselves to others were to serve for a period of six years. On the seventh year, known also as the Year of Jubilee, they were to be released. Once released, they were not to be sent away empty-handed, but rather were to be supported from the owner’s “threshing floor” and “winepress.” Slaves also had certain rights that gave them special privileges and protection from their masters. Captured slaves, for example, were allowed rest on the Sabbath (Exod. 20:10) and during special holidays (Deut. 16:11, 14). They could also be freed if their master permanently hurt or crippled them (Exod. 21:26–27). Also, severe punishment was imposed on a person who beat a slave to death (Exod. 21:20–21).

Some slaves chose freely to stay with their owner. Deuteronomy 15:16–17 speaks of a slave who might say to a master, “I do not want to leave you,” out of love for the master and his family. This commitment was sealed by piercing the earlobe of the slave with an awl. This symbolized a lifelong commitment to the master.

New Testament

Slavery was very common in the first century AD, and there were many different kinds of slaves. For example, slaves might live in an extended household (oikos) in which they were born, or they might choose to sell themselves into this situation (1 Pet. 2:18–25). Although slavery was a significant part of society in the first century AD, we never see Jesus or the apostles encourage slavery. Instead, both Paul and Peter encouraged godly character and obedience for slaves within this system (Eph. 6:5–8; Col. 3:22–25; 1 Tim. 6:1–2; Philemon; 1 Pet. 2:18–21). Likewise, masters were encouraged to be kind and fair to their slaves (Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1). Later in the NT, slave trading was condemned by the apostle Paul as contrary to “sound doctrine” and “the gospel concerning the glory of the blessed God” (1 Tim. 1:10–11).

Jesus embodied the idea of a servant in word and deed. He fulfilled the role of the “Servant of the Lord,” the Suffering Servant predicted by the prophet Isaiah (Isa. 42:1–4; 50:4–9; 52:13–53:12). He also took on the role of a servant in the Gospels, identifying himself as the Son of Man who came to serve (Mark 10:45) and washing the disciples’ feet (John 13:4–5). Paul says that in the incarnation Jesus took on “the very nature of a servant” (Phil. 2:7).

The special relationship between Jesus and his followers is captured in the servant-master language of the NT Epistles, especially in Paul’s letters (Rom. 1:1; Phil. 1:1; Titus 1:1). This language focuses not so much on the societal status of these servants as on the allegiance and honor owed to Christ Jesus.

The imagery of slavery is also used metaphorically in the NT in both a negative and a positive manner. In Rom. 6 the apostle Paul discusses how slavery and obedience to former and latter masters is an essential part of the changed Christian life. Prior to knowing Christ, we were “slaves to sin” and obeyed its power (Rom. 6:16–17); after following Christ, we were freed from the power of sin and death and became “slaves to righteousness” (Rom. 6:18) and “slaves of God” (Rom. 6:22).

In the Bible, “sleep” can refer to natural sleep (Gen. 28:11; Jon. 1:5), moral unawareness (Isa. 29:10; 1 Thess. 5:6), inattentiveness (Pss. 44:23; 121:4), and even physical death (Ps. 13:3; Dan. 12:2). Commonly the Bible speaks of deceased Christians as having “fallen asleep” (Acts 7:60; 1 Thess. 4:13–15). Proverbs warns readers strongly against indulging in too much sleep (Prov. 6:4–10; 19:15; 20:13; 24:33–34).

In ancient cultures, the sling was a lethal military weapon with long-range precision. Slingers and slingstones are mentioned in battle contexts such as the descriptions of Benjamites (Judg. 20:16; 1 Chron. 12:2), David and Goliath (1 Sam. 17:40, 50), the siege of Kir Hareseth (2 Kings 3:25), and Uzziah’s provisions for the army (2 Chron. 26:14) and in eschatological prophecy (Zech. 9:15). Slinging is also employed metaphorically in proverbs (Prov. 26:8) and in descriptions of divine judgment (1 Sam. 25:29; Jer. 10:18). Slingstones have been recovered from numerous excavations in Israel, and slingers are depicted on Assyrian battle reliefs.

The slothful person or “sluggard” (NIV) is a recurring theme in the book of Proverbs. The Hebrew word, ’atsel, occurs fourteen times in Proverbs and nowhere else in the OT. The sluggard stands in contrast to the diligent or upright person, exemplifying folly by being disinclined to take responsibility for self-provision. This is sometimes stated in an exaggerated manner: “A sluggard buries his hand in the dish; he will not even bring it back to his mouth!” (Prov. 19:24). Sluggards are portrayed as indulging excessively in sleep (6:9), making excuses for inactivity (22:13), and exasperating those who depend on them (10:26). Ultimately, the sluggard’s ways result in self-imposed privation (13:4; 20:4; 24:33–34). Ironically, sluggards think that they are wise (26:16; cf. 14:12).

A general concern for idleness and laziness is found in the wisdom books (Prov. 10:4; Eccles. 10:18) and in Paul’s letters (1 Thess. 5:14; 2 Thess. 3:6–7). In the latter, idleness is twice associated with “busybodies” (2 Thess. 3:11; 1 Tim. 5:13), revealing the negative impact that idleness has upon a community (idleness leads to gossip, producing division and strife).

Aside from physical idleness, Heb. 6:12 warns against spiritual sloth, which undermines faith. Jesus warns against indifference to the Son of Man’s appearing, reflected in his condemnation of the squandering of one’s “talents” in the meantime (Matt. 25:14–30 NIV mg.).

A crucible (Prov. 17:3; 27:21; KJV: “fining pot”; see also Ps. 12:6) is a vessel in which a metal (in biblical times, silver-bearing lead sulfide) is heated to a high temperature, in order to remove impurities (Jer. 6:29–30; Ezek. 22:18–22). In Proverbs, it is mentioned in comparison to the way God tests and refines the human heart.

The location of one of the seven churches addressed in Revelation (Rev. 1:11; 2:8–11). Smyrna was a port city on the western coast of Asia Minor, at the gulf joining the Hermus River and the Aegean Sea. This location allowed Smyrna to prosper as a metropolitan center. The Smyrna of NT times was established in the fourth century BC, replacing an ancient Greek settlement that had been destroyed three centuries earlier. Smyrna was known for its faithfulness to Rome, and it housed a temple dedicated to the worship of the emperor. Ancient writers mention the “crown of Smyrna,” perhaps prompting John’s reference to “the crown of life” (Rev. 2:10 ESV, NRSV, NASB). Polycarp, a disciple of the apostle John and the bishop of Smyrna, was martyred in the city around AD 155. The city remains in existence as modern Izmir, Turkey.

Land snails were numerous in the Near East. In ancient belief, the snail, as it leaves a trail of slime behind, was thought to be gradually melting away. This pictures the self-destructing pathway of the wicked rulers (Ps. 58:8 [NIV: “slug”]). Secretions from sea snails provided highly valued purple dyes, purple being a color of distinction, wealth, and royalty. The Israelites imported purple goods (Ezek. 27:16), and Lydia was a “dealer in purple cloth” (Acts 16:14).

A device used to trap small birds and animals (Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Eccles. 9:12; Ezek. 12:13; 17:20; Amos 3:5). “To ensnare” means to catch or trap by secretive or deceitful means. Israel is frequently warned that foreign gods and idols will be snares to it, thus distracting it from undivided worship of Yahweh (Exod. 23:33; 34:12; Deut. 7:16; Judg. 2:3; 8:27; Ps. 106:36). A snare is a common image in Scripture implying anything of ill purpose or unwise practice (Exod. 10:7; 1 Sam. 18:21; Job 18:9; Pss. 25:15; 69:22; 91:3; 119:110; 124:7; 140:5; 142:3; Prov. 18:7; 21:6; 29:25; Eccles. 7:26; Isa. 8:14; 24:17–18; Jer. 5:26; 48:43–44; Hos. 5:1; Rom. 11:9).

Although not a normal occurrence in Palestine, snow was common in the higher regions of the area, notably Mount Hermon and the mountains of Lebanon, which often have snow year-round. Figuratively, snow refers to purity (Ps. 51:7), divine glory (Matt. 28:3), and paleness of skin color (Exod. 4:6).

Golden instruments used in the service of the tabernacle and temple (Exod. 25:38; 37:23; Num. 4:9; 2 Chron. 4:22 NRSV [NIV: “wick trimmers”]). Associated specifically with the lampstand (1 Kings 7:50), these were a kind of scissors used to trim the wicks of lamps or to remove or dispose of the burnt portions of the wicks. Sometimes they were made of bronze (2 Kings 25:14; Jer. 52:18); they differed from the “tongs” (Isa. 6:6) used to take coals from the altar.

A cleansing product made from alkali and mixed with certain oils. Alkali was a product of burning certain kinds of plants or trees and collecting the ash, potash. Soap was used to cleanse a person (Jer. 2:22; Job 9:30) and clothes (Mal. 3:2) and to purify metals (Isa. 1:25).

Avoiding intoxication, or being “self-controlled” (see Titus 2:6 NIV). A sober manner of living is characterized by watchfulness in one’s responsibility to God (1 Thess. 5:6, 8; cf. 2 Tim. 4:5; 1 Pet. 1:13; 4:7; 5:8) and self-control by curbing passions (Titus 2:6) and pride (Rom. 12:3).

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

The father of Gaddiel, who was the representative from the tribe of Zebulun among the twelve spies sent by Moses to scout the land of Canaan (Num. 13:10).

After Abram (Abraham) realizes that the land between Bethel and Ai cannot support both him and Lot, he suggests that they part company. Abraham gives Lot first choice, and he decides to settle in the fertile cities of the Jordan plain on the outskirts of Sodom (Gen. 13:1–12). The text then describes Sodom’s inhabitants as “wicked” and “sinning greatly against the Lord” (13:13). In Gen. 18 God reveals to Abram his plan to destroy Sodom and Gomorrah because of the “outcry against” these cities and their “grievous” sin. God says, “I will go down and see if what they have done is as bad as the outcry that has reached me” (18:20). Abram pleads on behalf of Sodom and bargains with God to spare the righteous in the city.

Two angels of the Lord then arrive at Sodom to carry out the task of God’s investigation, and Lot meets them and invites them to stay the night with him. The men of Sodom then surround the house and demand that the visitors be brought out to them to be raped. Lot refuses and offers his daughters instead, intending to protect the visitors. The angelic messengers strike the wicked men of Sodom with blindness, and Lot, his wife, and his daughters flee the city. God destroys Sodom and Gomorrah with a rain of “burning sulfur” (Gen. 19:24).

In both the OT and the NT, the cities’ names become a symbol of warning against violent wickedness and of God’s wrathful response of fiery destruction (Deut. 29:23; Isa. 1:9; Rom. 9:29; Jude 7). The ancient site of the cities is disputed, though they likely were located near the Dead Sea.

Those who imitated the wickedness of Sodom, especially males who had sexual intercourse with other males (1 Cor. 6:9; 1 Tim. 1:10 NRSV [NIV: “those practicing homosexuality”]). Initially, the term “sodomite” referred to a citizen of the town of Sodom. Sodom was, along with Gomorrah, one of the cities near the Dead Sea destroyed by God for its wickedness (Gen. 19:24).

A person or group of people whose birthplace is other than the location in which they are currently residing. Genesis records God’s covenant relationship with Abraham and his promise to create a vast nation from Abraham’s offspring (Gen. 17:8–20). In the OT context, a foreigner is a person not born into the nation of Israel, determined by lineage traceable to Jacob, son of Isaac, son of Abraham. Foreigners in the land of Israel were allowed to partake of the Passover only if it was done in accordance with Israelite law (Exod. 12:48; Num. 9:14). The relationship between foreigners and the nation of Israel was not hostile. In fact, God reminds Israel of their own sojourn in Egypt and gives specific laws for the fair treatment of foreigners in their midst (Exod. 23:9; Lev. 19:10, 33–34; 23:22; 25:35; Deut. 10:19).

In the NT, the apostle Paul uses the concept with respect to a person’s relationship to the kingdom of God. In Ephesians he refers to those without Christ as being “excluded from citizenship in Israel and foreigners to the covenants of the promise” (Eph. 2:12), meaning that they exist outside of God’s kingdom. Conversely, those believing in Christ have received “adoption as children” (Gal. 4:5 NRSV), meaning that they are no longer foreigners and are now counted as citizens of God’s kingdom, as the offspring of the king clearly are.

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

“Soko” and “Sokoh” (ESV, NRSV, NASB: “Soco” and “Socoh”) are variant spellings of the same name. In the KJV, the name also appears as “Shocho(h)” (1 Sam. 17:1; 2 Chron. 28:18), “Socho(h)” (1 Kings 4:10; 1 Chron. 4:18), and Shoco (2 Chron. 11:7). (1) A town in the Elah Valley in the foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:35), located approximately sixteen miles southwest of Jerusalem. Situated near the border with the Philistines, it served as the assembly point for the Philistine forces before David fought Goliath (1 Sam. 17:1). The Philistines later captured Soko at the time of Ahaz, king of Judah (2 Chron. 28:18). (2) A different Judean town, up in the hill country, ten miles southwest of Hebron (Josh. 15:48). Rehoboam, son of Solomon, fortified a Soko (2 Chron. 11:7), but it is unclear if it is #1 or #2. (3) A town in Ephraim located approximately ten miles west of Samaria, near the Via Maris (1 Kings 4:10). (4) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:18; though some think this is actually a place name and associate it with #1).

Although the events narrated in the NT took place during a time of peace in the Roman Empire, Roman soldiers were a fixture in Judea, and they appear in a number of stories: the centurion whose servant Jesus healed (Matt. 8:5–13; Luke 7:1–10); the soldiers who tortured and executed Jesus (Matt. 27; Mark 15; Luke 23; John 19) and guarded his tomb (Matt. 28:4); the God-fearing centurion Cornelius (Acts 10); and the Roman garrison in Jerusalem (Acts 21:27–40). Soldiers also guarded prisoners (Acts 12:1–10; 23; 27:1–2, 31–32, 42–44; 28:16). In several places Paul writes of Christian workers as soldiers (1 Cor. 9:7; Eph. 6:10–17; Phil. 2:25; 2 Tim. 2:3–4; Philem. 1:2).

The Israelites gathered regularly to celebrate their relationship with God. Such festivals were marked by communal meals, music, singing, dancing, and sacrifices. They celebrated, conscious that God had graciously brought them into a relationship with him. Within this covenant he had committed himself to act on their behalf both in regular ways, such as the harvest, and in exceptional ways, such as deliverance from Egypt. At the festivals, Israel celebrated God’s work in its past, present, and future and reaffirmed its relationship with this covenant God.

We know of Israel’s festivals from several calendars in the Mosaic legislation (Exod. 23:14–17; 34:18–23; Lev. 23; Num. 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17), calendars further clarified by the prophets (e.g., Ezek. 45:18–25; Zech. 14), and narrative material (e.g., 2 Kings 23:21–23). Some read discrepancies between calendars as evidence of multiple sources, but this fails to account for the various purposes that these calendars served. The narrative and prophetic passages suggest that Israel did not observe these festivals as frequently as, and in the ways, God intended (e.g., Amos 8:5), but when Israel sought to renew its relationship with God, it often did so with a festival (e.g., 2 Kings 23:21–23).

Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread

Israel’s religious calendar began with Passover, the day set aside to commemorate deliverance from Egypt. Occurring in spring, this single day was joined with a weeklong celebration known as the Festival of Unleavened Bread, during which all males were required to make a pilgrimage to the sanctuary and offer the firstfruits of the barley harvest (Lev. 23:9–14). Israel observed Passover with rituals that reactualized the night God’s destroyer spared the Israelites in Egypt. A lamb was killed, and its blood was put on the doorposts of the homes and on the bronze altar in the sanctuary. The lamb was roasted and served with unleavened bread and bitter herbs while those partaking—dressed in their traveling clothes—listened to the retelling of the exodus story. No yeast was to be found anywhere among them, no work was to be done on the first and last days of the festival, and offerings were to be brought to the sanctuary (Num. 9:1–5; Josh. 5:10–11; 2 Kings 23:21–23; 2 Chron. 30; 35:1–19).

Early Christians associated Jesus’ death with that of the Passover lamb (1 Cor. 5:7–8), encouraged by Jesus’ comments at the Last Supper (described by the Synoptic Gospels as a Passover meal [e.g., Matt. 26:17–30]). Perhaps Jesus meant to emphasize that just as Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread reminded God’s people of his deliverance and provision, his followers would find true freedom and full provision in him.

The Festival of Weeks

Also known as the Festival of Harvest, the Day of Firstfruits, or Pentecost (because it occurred fifty days after Passover), the Festival of Weeks took place on the sixth day of the third month (corresponding to our May or June). This marked another occasion when all Jewish men were required to come to the sanctuary. They were to bring an offering of the firstfruits of the wheat harvest, abstain from work, and devote themselves to rejoicing in God’s goodness.

Early in the NT period, if not before, this festival also became associated with the giving of the law on Mount Sinai. The Jews who assembled in Jerusalem on the day of Pentecost as described in Acts 2 came to celebrate not only God’s provision but also the revelation of his nature and will. Significantly, God chose this day to send the Holy Spirit, the One who would produce a harvest of believers and reveal God more fully to the world.

The Festival of Tabernacles

So important was the Festival of Tabernacles (also known as the Festival of Ingathering or the Festival of Booths) that Israel sometimes referred to it as “the festival of the Lord” (Judg. 21:19) or simply “the festival” (cf. 1 Kings 8:65). Held from the fifteenth to the twenty-first of the seventh month (September–October), this was the third of the three pilgrimage festivals. For that week, Israel lived in booths to remind them of their ancestors’ time in the wilderness. They also celebrated the fruit harvest. They were to “take the fruit of majestic trees, branches of palm trees, boughs of leafy trees, and willows of the brook; and you shall rejoice” before God for seven days (Lev. 23:40 NRSV). Avoiding all work on the first and last days of the festival, they were to mark the week with sacrifices, celebration, and joy. Also, every seventh year the law was to be read at this festival (Deut. 31:10–11).

The Mishnah, a collection of rabbinic laws compiled around AD 200 but often reflecting earlier traditions, records how Israel observed this festival during the early Roman period. As part of the celebration, men danced and sang in the courtyard of the temple while Levites, standing on the steps that led down from the court of the Israelites, played harps, lyres, cymbals, and other instruments. Two priests blew trumpets—one long blast, then a quavering one, then another long blast—while walking toward the eastern gate. When they reached the gate, they turned back toward the temple and said, “Our fathers when they were in this place turned with their backs toward the Temple of the Lord and their faces toward the east, and they worshiped the sun toward the east [referring to the apostasy of the Jews as described by Ezekiel]; but as for us, our eyes are turned toward the Lord” (m. Sukkah 5:4). Another part of this festival involved the drawing of water for a libation offering from the Pool of Siloam with great ceremony and joy. John 7 records Jesus’ secretive departure to Jerusalem for the Festival of Tabernacles, where he spent several days teaching in the temple courts. It was on the last and greatest day of the festival when Jesus invited those thirsty to come to him and drink.

The Festival of Trumpets

Occurring on the first day of the seventh month (September–October), this feast marked the beginning of the civil and agricultural year for the Jews; it was also referred to as Rosh Hashanah (lit., “head/beginning of the year”). Observed as a Sabbath with sacrifices and trumpet blasts, this day was intended for rest and to begin preparations for the coming Day of Atonement. The Mishnah makes this connection more explicit by identifying the Festival of Trumpets as the day when “all that come into the world pass before [God] like legions of soldiers” or flocks of sheep to be judged (m. Rosh HaSh. 1:2).

The Day of Atonement

Some festivals, like Passover, looked back to what God had done or was doing for his people; other festivals, like Trumpets and the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), focused on the relationship itself. The latter was marked by repentance and rituals designed to remove the nation’s sins and restore fellowship with God. Coming ten days after the Festival of Trumpets, this was a solemn occasion during which the Israelites abstained from eating, drinking, and other activities. This was the only prescribed annual fast in the Jewish calendar, though other fasts were added in the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tenth months to mourn the Babylonian exile (Zech. 7:3, 5; 8:19).

In Leviticus, God clarified the purpose of this day: “On this day atonement will be made for you, to cleanse you. Then, before the Lord, you will be clean from all your sins” (16:30). Not only would the people be purified, but so also would the sanctuary, so that God could continue to meet his people there. Sacrifices were offered for both priest and people, and the blood was taken into the most holy place. Only on Yom Kippur could this room be entered, and only by the high priest, who sprinkled blood on the cover of the ark of the covenant. Leaving that room, he also sprinkled blood in the holy place (16:14–17) and then on the bronze altar in the courtyard.

Yom Kippur was marked by another ritual that symbolized the removal of Israel’s sins, this one involving two goats. One goat, chosen by lot, was offered as a sacrifice to God. The high priest placed his hands on the other goat and transferred to it the sins of the nation. He then released the goat into the wilderness, for “the goat will carry on itself all their sins to a remote place” (Lev. 16:22).

The Mishnah describes how this day was observed when the second temple stood. The high priest, having been carefully prepared, washed, and clothed, placed both hands on the head of a bull and confessed his own sins. After this, the lots were drawn for the goats; the goat to be sacrificed had a thread tied around its throat, while the other had a scarlet thread bound around its head. When the high priest had confessed the sins of the priests over the bull, it was slaughtered, and its blood was collected in a basin. Taking coals from the bronze altar and incense from the holy place, he then entered the holy of holies. There he placed the incense on the coals, filling the room with smoke to obscure the ark from his view. Returning to the holy place, he offered a short prayer, lest he pray too long and “put Israel in terror” that he had died performing the ritual. He returned to the courtyard and took the basin of blood back into the most holy place. Dipping his finger into the blood, he sprinkled it with a whipping motion, and repeated this seven times. He did the same with the blood of the goat chosen for sacrifice, and then he poured out the remaining blood at the base of the bronze altar.

Then the high priest laid his hands on the head of the scapegoat and said, “O God, thy people, the House of Israel, have committed iniquity, transgressed, and sinned before thee. O God, forgive, I pray, the iniquities and transgressions and sins which thy people, the House of Israel, have committed and transgressed and sinned before thee; as it is written in the law of thy servant Moses . . .” (m. Yoma 6:2). The goat was then led outside Jerusalem, where it was pushed down a ravine to its death, apparently to keep it from wandering back into the city.

The Mishnah recognized that rituals alone were insufficient for true forgiveness, for it contains this warning: “If a man said, ‘I will sin and repent, and sin again and repent,’ he will be given no chance to repent. [If he said,] ‘I will sin and the Day of Atonement will effect atonement,’ then the Day of Atonement effects no atonement. For transgressions that are between man and God the Day of Atonement effects atonement, but for transgressions that are between a man and his fellow the Day of Atonement effects atonement only if he has appeased his fellow” (m. Yoma 8:9).

The book of Hebrews uses the symbols of Yom Kippur to describe Jesus’ death. As the high priest entered the most holy place, so Jesus entered God’s presence, carrying not the blood of bull and goat but his own. His once-for-all death at the “culmination of the ages” (Heb. 9:26) not only allows him to remain in God’s presence (10:12) but also gives us access to God’s presence as well (10:19–22).

Sabbath Year

Every seven years, the Israelites were to observe a “Sabbath of the land” (Lev. 25:6 ESV), a time for the land to rest. They could not sow fields or prune vineyards, but they could eat what grew of itself (Lev. 25:1–7). Deuteronomy 15:1–11 speaks of all debts being canceled (some would say deferred) every seventh year, presumably the same year the land was to lie fallow. When Israel was gathered at the Festival of Tabernacles during this Sabbath Year, the law of Moses was to be read aloud. The Chronicler described the seventy years of Babylonian exile as “sabbaths” for the land, perhaps alluding to the neglect of the Sabbath Year (2 Chron. 36:21; cf. Lev. 26:43). Those returning from exile expressed their intent to keep this provision (Neh. 10:31), and it appears to have been observed in the intertestamental period (see 1 Macc. 6:48–53; Josephus, Ant. 14.202–10).

This year seems intended to maintain the fertility of the land and to allow Israel’s economy to “reset,” equalizing wealth and limiting poverty. Observing such a provision took great faith and firm allegiance, for they had to trust God for daily bread and put obedience above profit. Rereading the law at the Festival of Tabernacles reminded the Israelites of God’s gracious covenant and their required response.

Jubilee

God instructed Israel to count off seven “sevens” of years and in the fiftieth year, beginning on the Day of Atonement, to sound a trumpet marking the Jubilee Year. As in the Sabbath Year, there was to be no sowing and reaping. Further, the land was released from its current owners and returned to those families to whom it originally belonged. Individual Israelites who had become indentured through economic distress were to be freed. The assumption underlying the Jubilee Year was that everything belonged to God. He owned the land and its occupants; the Israelites were only tenants and stewards (Lev. 25:23, 55). As their covenant lord, he would provide for their needs even during back-to-back Sabbath Years (Lev. 25:21). The year began on the Day of Atonement, perhaps to emphasize that the best response to God’s redemptive mercy is faith in his provision and mercy to others. Although the Jubilee Year is commanded in the Mosaic law and spoken about by the prophets (Isa. 61:1–2; Ezek. 46:17), rabbis, and Jesus (Luke 4:18–19), Scripture is silent on how or if Israel observed this year.

New Moon

The beginning of each month was marked with the sounding of trumpets, rejoicing, and sacrifices (Num. 10:10; 28:11–15). There is some indication that work was to be suspended on this day, as on the Sabbath (Amos 8:5), and that people gathered for a meal (1 Sam. 20:5, 18, 24, 27). By faithfully observing this day, Israel was in a position to properly observe the remaining days, set up, as they were, on the lunar calendar. Paul learned of some in Colossae who were giving undue attention to New Moon celebrations (Col. 2:16).

Purim

Beyond the festivals commanded in the law of Moses, the Jews added two more to their sacred calendar, one during the postexilic period and one between the Testaments. Both commemorated God’s deliverance of his people from their enemies. A wave of anti-Semitic persecution swept over the Jews living in Persia during the reign of Xerxes (486–465 BC). God delivered his people through Esther, and the Jews celebrated this deliverance with the festival of Purim. Their enemies determined when to attack by casting lots, so the Jews called this festival “Purim,” meaning “lots.” It was celebrated on the fourteenth and fifteenth days of the twelfth month (February-March) with “feasting and joy and giving presents of food to one another and gifts to the poor” (Esther 9:22).

Festival of Dedication

During the intertestamental period, the Jews came under great persecution from the Seleucids, who outlawed the practice of Judaism and desecrated the Jerusalem temple. After recapturing the temple, the Jews began the process of purification. On the twenty-fifth day of their ninth month, in the year 164 BC, the Jews rose at dawn and offered a lawful sacrifice on the new altar of burnt offering which they had made. The altar was dedicated, to the sound of hymns, zithers, lyres and cymbals, at the same time of year and on the same day on which the gentiles had originally profaned it. The whole people fell prostrate in adoration and then praised Heaven who had granted them success. For eight days they celebrated the dedication of the altar, joyfully offering burnt offerings, communion and thanksgiving sacrifices. . . . Judas [Maccabees], with his brothers and the whole assembly of Israel, made it a law that the days of the dedication of the altar should be celebrated yearly at the proper season, for eight days beginning on the twenty-fifth of the month of Chislev [December], with rejoicing and gladness. (1 Macc. 4:52–56, 59 NJB)

Summary

What did God want to impress on his people by commanding and permitting these specific festivals? First, these festivals reminded Israel of God’s help in the past, how he delivered them from Egypt, provided for them in the wilderness wanderings, or protected them from their enemies. Second, the festivals were occasions to celebrate God’s present provision. He had promised to provide for his covenant partner; the festivals, especially those timed to occur at the harvest, were occasions to celebrate how faithfully he had kept that promise for another year and opportunities to commit to providing for the needs of others.

The festivals prompted the Israelites not only to look back to God’s help in the past and recognize God’s help in the present, but also to look ahead, anticipating the promised consummation. The OT announced God’s intention to bring all nations into full allegiance, and the festivals were occasions to anticipate that day. Isaiah spoke of a festival in which all the nations would share: “On this mountain the Lord Almighty will prepare a feast of rich food for all peoples, a banquet of aged wine—the best of meats and the finest of wines” (Isa. 25:6). God promised to bless “foreigners who bind themselves to the Lord to minister to him, to love the name of the Lord, and to be his servants, all who keep the Sabbath without desecrating it and who hold fast to my covenant—these I will bring to my holy mountain and give them joy in my house of prayer. Their burnt offerings and sacrifices will be accepted on my altar; for my house will be called a house of prayer for all nations” (Isa. 56:6–7). Micah predicted a day when the nations would go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem (Mic. 4:1–5), and Zephaniah anticipated when God would “purify the lips of the peoples, that all of them may call on the name of the Lord and serve him shoulder to shoulder,” even bringing offerings to the temple (Zeph. 3:9–10). According to Zechariah, a time was coming when “the survivors from all the nations that have attacked Jerusalem will go up year after year to worship the King, the Lord Almighty, and to celebrate the Festival of Tabernacles” (Zech. 14:16). Israel’s festivals allowed them to look back at what God had done, was doing, and was going to do for them and, through them, for the whole world.

The Israelites experienced a wide range of emotions during these festivals, but the prevailing emotion was joy. They rejoiced in their selection by God, living “together in unity” (Ps. 133:1), in God’s deliverance, provision, and protection, and in the hope of God’s consummation of his plan. Over and over, God instructed them to gather and rejoice in his presence, suggesting a fourth insight: a God who desires his people’s happiness must love his people.

Finally, the festivals were occasions to recognize God’s rule over Israel. Especially in an agricultural economy such as Israel’s, to refrain from work on the Sabbath and on festival days was to confess God’s sovereignty over time and to admit dependence on God. To leave house and fields and travel to Jerusalem confessed faith in God to protect. Offerings of firstfruits confessed that the whole harvest came from God. When they gathered, it was in the sanctuary, God’s palace, yet another reminder that God was Israel’s king, and they were his subjects.

As the son and successor to David, Solomon reigned forty years over the united kingdom of Israel (c. 971–931 BC). Extensive accounts of his reign are provided in 1 Kings 1–11; 2 Chron. 1–9. Solomon, the second son born to Bathsheba, was marked out at birth as “loved by the Lord” (2 Sam. 12:24–25 NIV mg.). He succeeded his father as king, even though he was not David’s oldest living son (1 Kings 2). The building of the temple is the centerpiece of the biblical accounts of Solomon’s reign.

It is common to divide Solomon’s reign into two unequal halves (1 Kings 1–10; 11), with Solomon only becoming apostate due to the influence of foreign wives (1 Kings 11). The earlier chapters, however, are not wholly commendatory. Solomon’s “wisdom” in dealing with Joab and Shimei is vengeful and ruthless (2:6, 9). In 1 Kings 3:1 his palace is mentioned before the temple (because it took precedence in Solomon’s mind?). He spent seven years on the temple but lavished thirteen years on his own house (6:38; 7:1). Behind the picture of his excessive wealth and lucrative trade in horses stand the (unheeded) prohibitions of Deut. 17:14–17. His Egyptian marriage and resort to the high places (1 Kings 3:1–4) foreshadow his overt apostasy (11:1–8). All in all, Solomon proved to be a sad disappointment.

In Chronicles the reigns of David and Solomon are viewed as complementary, such that Solomon completed what David had prepared for. Solomon needed David’s plans and provisions (1 Chron. 28–29), but David needed Solomon to actually build the temple. Just as David brought the ark to Jerusalem, Solomon transferred it to the temple (2 Chron. 5). David organized the cultic officials (1 Chron. 22–27), but Solomon installed them (2 Chron. 8:14–15). Chronicles gives a picture of Solomon’s reign that is very different from the one found in Kings. There is no competition to succeed (cf. 1 Kings 1–2), no apostasy, and no raising up of adversaries (cf. 1 Kings 11:14–40). Solomon enjoyed all Israel’s support throughout his reign. This need not, however, be viewed as whitewashing Solomon. The true explanation is that the focus in Chronicles is almost exclusively on Solomon as temple builder. The Chronicler was also aware of Solomon’s failings (as hinted at in 2 Chron. 9:29; 10:4–15).

The immediate dissolution of the united kingdom after Solomon’s death cannot be simply blamed on the inept handling of the crisis by his son Rehoboam (1 Kings 12). Solomon’s policies put an inordinate economic burden on the north (4:7–19). His conscription of forced labor (5:13–18) and sale of twenty cities in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (9:10–14) were resented. The raising up of a series of adversaries, including Jeroboam, was a divine judgment (11:9–13). The prophet Ahijah favored Jeroboam (11:29–39). The prophet Shemaiah prevented Rehoboam’s military invasion of the north (12:21–24). The northern tribes wanted relief from Solomon’s harsh policies (“Your father put a heavy yoke on us” [12:4]). Rehoboam was unwilling (or unable?) to compromise. Solomon’s death is reported in 1 Kings 11:41–43, but frequent allusions to him follow (e.g., 12:2, 4, 6, 9), for it was his policies that precipitated the split.

Solomon was largely responsible for the book of Proverbs (Prov. 1:1; 10:1; 25:1). The superscription of the Song of Songs (Song 1:1) associates the book with Solomon, and he is referred to a number of times within it (1:5; 3:7–11; 8:11–12). He is not, however, the lover depicted. The book of Ecclesiastes sometimes is attributed to him, given that the author describes himself as “son of David, king in Jerusalem” (Eccles. 1:1). The author’s reputed wisdom, wealth, and building programs also suggest the figure of Solomon (1:12–2:11). Solomon’s marriages are used as an illustration in a sermon against foreign marriages in Neh. 13:26. In the NT, Solomon’s wealth and wisdom are alluded to in Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 6:29; 12:42). He is also mentioned in relation to the temple (John 10:23; Acts 3:11).

A magnificent roofed structure, two hundred yards long, that stood behind the east wall of Herod’s temple, similar to a Greek stoa. Jesus taught here during the Feast of Dedication (John 10:22–23). It was also known as Solomon’s Colonnade (NIV) or Portico (NRSV) because of the many columns that made up its architecture and the erroneous belief that it dated from the time of Solomon. It figured prominently in the gatherings of the early church (Acts 3:11; 5:12).

In the OT, heavenly beings or angels are sometimes referred to as “sons of God” (Gen. 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Pss. 82:6; 89:6). The more important background for the NT, however, is the use of the term with reference to the nation Israel and the messianic king from David’s line. Israel was God’s son by virtue of God’s unique calling, deliverance, and protection. Hosea 11:1 reads, “When Israel was a child, I loved him, and out of Egypt I called my son.” Similar references to God as the father of his people appear throughout the OT (Exod. 4:22; Num. 11:12; Deut. 14:1; 32:5, 19; Isa. 43:6; 45:11; Jer. 3:4, 19; 31:9, 20; Hos. 2:1). The king from the line of David is referred to as the son of God by virtue of his special relationship to God and his representative role among the people. In the Davidic covenant, God promises David concerning his descendant, “I will be his father, and he will be my son” (2 Sam. 7:14; cf. Pss. 2:7; 89:26). Later Judaism appears to have taken up these passages and identified the coming Messiah as the “son of God.”

In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus’ divine sonship is closely linked to his messiahship. The angel Gabriel connects Jesus’ status as “Son of the Most High” with his reception of the throne of David (Luke 1:32). At Jesus’ baptism (which Luke identifies as Jesus’ messianic anointing [Luke 3:21; 4:1, 14, 18]), the Father declares Jesus to be “my Son, whom I love” (3:22), an allusion to Ps. 2:7. Satan tempts Jesus as the Son of God to abandon obedience to the Father and claim independent authority (Matt. 4:1–11; Luke 4:1–13). Peter confesses that Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of the living God” (Matt. 16:16), and the high priest questions whether Jesus is “the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One” (Mark 14:61; Matt. 26:63). In these and other texts “Son of God” is almost synonymous with “Messiah” (cf. Mark 1:1; Luke 4:41; 22:70; John 11:27; 20:31; Acts 9:20, 22). In other contexts, Jesus’ divine sonship appears to exceed messianic categories. Jesus prays to God as his Father (“Abba” [Mark 14:36]) and refers to himself as the Son, who uniquely knows and reveals the Father. The Father has committed all things to him. No one knows the Father but the Son and those to whom the Son reveals him (Matt. 11:25–27; Luke 10:21–22). It is by virtue of Jesus’ unique sonship that he invites his disciples to pray to God as their Father (Matt. 6:9).

In the Fourth Gospel, the status of Jesus as the Son of God is especially important, indicating both Jesus’ unique relationship with the Father and his essential deity. John introduces the notion of preexistent sonship in which the “Word” from creation is the Son (John 1:1–18; 17:5, 24). God sends into the world his Son (3:16), who reflects the glory of the Father (1:14; 14:6–11) and who will soon return (14:28). Jesus affirms that “I and the Father are one” (10:30), that “the Father is in me, and I in the Father” (10:38). John’s purpose in writing is to provoke faith “that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God” (20:31).

Some scholars reject the royal Jewish background of “the Son of God” when investigating the phrase in the Gospels. Instead, they appeal to Hellenistic sources to argue that Jesus as the Son of God is a “divine man” (theios anēr), which accounts for his ability to work miracles. This line of thinking, however, is fraught with many difficulties, not least of which is that the epithet is never used to describe the “divine man” in Greek literature.

In Paul’s thinking, the corporate, Israelite background of “Son of God” is renewed with reference to the NT people of God. Paul states that “theirs [the people of Israel] is the adoption to sonship” (Rom. 9:4). Although ethnic Israelites are rightfully called “sons of God,” this status is contingent upon being people of faith: “So in Jesus Christ you are all children of God through faith” (Gal. 3:26); Jesus’ death as the Son effects salvation (Rom. 8:2, 32; Gal. 2:20). The Spirit also plays a role in testifying with the spirits of believers that they are indeed children of God (Rom. 8:15–16), by which they cry, “Abba, Father” (Gal. 4:3–6). The believers’ status as God’s children will be completely revealed when they share in Christ’s glory (Rom. 8:17).

Old Testament and Jewish Literature

In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. The general use of “son of man” occurs in poetic texts in which the phrase functions as a synonym for “man” or “human being” (Num. 23:19; Isa. 51:12; Pss. 144:3; 146:3). In Ps. 8:4 (ESV) the psalmist asks, “What is man that you are mindful of him, and the son of man that you care for him?” Echoing the creation of man in Gen. 1, “man” and “son of man” in this psalm have a royal status: being “crowned with glory and honor” and receiving dominion over all of God’s creation (Ps. 8:5–6). Later, in Ps. 80:17, “son of man” refers to the nation of Israel. The psalmist supplicates that God would make strong for himself the “son of man” over Israel’s enemies (80:12–16). In Ezekiel, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.

One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. Scholars debate the date of the composition of this chapter. While some argue for the sixth century BC, others prefer a second-century BC date during the oppressive reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:1–14), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in v. 27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (Dan. 9:21) or Michael (Dan. 10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.

In subsequent Jewish literature, the “one like a son of man” from Dan. 7 becomes quite active, appearing to be a development of the static image who is “given authority, glory and sovereign power” (Dan. 7:14). In 1 En. 37–71, a text that dates from the last half of the first century BC to the first half of the first century AD, the “Son of Man” is seated upon his throne and will judge “the kings and the mighty” who have persecuted faithful Israel (46:4–8; 62:5). At that point, the faithful ones (i.e., the holy, righteous, and chosen) will be formed into a new congregation. In another Jewish text that dates from the end of the first century AD, there is a strong echo of the Danielic son of man. In 4 Ezra 13, “something like the figure of a man came up out of the heart of the sea” (v. 3a). Unlike in 1 Enoch, this figure is a warrior who destroys with fire those who attempt to wage war on him. These texts indicate that at least two traditions developed and reinterpreted the “one like a son of man” from Dan. 7. He becomes an individual who executes judgment in one tradition, and one who executes destruction in another.

New Testament

In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. The phrase, or a variation of it, also occurs in Acts 7:56; Heb. 2:6; Rev. 1:13; 14:14. Unlike in Daniel or 1 Enoch, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. Because of this and because the Son of Man in 1 Enoch and 4 Ezra have similar functions, many scholars in the mid-twentieth century speculated that in first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. Others suggested that the significance of the phrase is found in its Aramaic background, bar ’enash’a, which in other texts means “I,” “man,” “a man,” or “someone.” Despite these alternatives, the OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.

The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v. 21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (Luke 12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).

In Acts, the vision that Stephen witnesses confirms that the Son of Man has indeed been exalted to the right hand of God (Acts 7:56). In the Gospel of John, the epithet is used as the object of the verbs “to lift up” and “to glorify,” so that the death of Jesus is a form of exaltation (John 8:28; 12:23; 13:31), which reflects his current exalted status in early Christian thinking. Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).

The titles, or superscriptions, of fifteen psalms include the designation “a song of ascents,” also called “a song of degrees.” The notion of ascending, or going up, has influenced the understanding of these psalms. The “going up” has been seen as going up to Jerusalem for a holy day, going up to Jerusalem as part of the return from the exile, going up the fifteen steps at the courts of the temple (a Jewish tradition in the Mishnah), or an aspect of their poetic style. These psalms occur together as a group, Pss. 120–134. They include different genres but share an emphasis on Jerusalem, which supports the idea that they were used on pilgrimage for a holy day (see Exod. 24:13; 34:23; Lev. 23:4; and Deut. 16 for religious journeys to Jerusalem). Harvest imagery in some of these psalms and the Mishnah tradition suggest the Feast of Tabernacles, but they need not have been limited to this festival.

The titles, or superscriptions, of fifteen psalms include the designation “a song of ascents,” also called “a song of degrees.” The notion of ascending, or going up, has influenced the understanding of these psalms. The “going up” has been seen as going up to Jerusalem for a holy day, going up to Jerusalem as part of the return from the exile, going up the fifteen steps at the courts of the temple (a Jewish tradition in the Mishnah), or an aspect of their poetic style. These psalms occur together as a group, Pss. 120–134. They include different genres but share an emphasis on Jerusalem, which supports the idea that they were used on pilgrimage for a holy day (see Exod. 24:13; 34:23; Lev. 23:4; and Deut. 16 for religious journeys to Jerusalem). Harvest imagery in some of these psalms and the Mishnah tradition suggest the Feast of Tabernacles, but they need not have been limited to this festival.

By its title, Song of Songs claims to be the most sublime song of all. The history of its interpretation also reveals that it may be the most misunderstood song as well. The reader of this book is dazzled by its intensity and honest expression of desire for intimate relationship. No wonder that early theologians who thought that the body was only a temporary casing for the all-important spirit felt that this book could not be talking about what it appeared to be talking about. Thus, for example, when the woman describes the man as a sachet of myrrh lodged between her breasts (1:13), this had to be a reference to Christ spanning the OT and the NT (so Cyril of Alexandria). But over time this book could not be suppressed by such interpretive strategies. Today most readily acknowledge that Song of Songs is love poetry that articulates human desires as well as our joys and worries.

Genre, Structure, and Outline

As implied by the preceding paragraph, Song of Songs is not an allegory. It is love poetry, in which a man and a woman express their deepest longings and desires to each other. They want to be in each other’s passionate embrace. This book celebrates love between a man and a woman.

Some interpreters believe that Song of Songs is a drama or at least tells a story of a particular love relationship. Although there are almost as many different suggestions of a story as there are advocates of the so-called dramatic approach, two main types emerge. One approach believes that there are two characters, a lover and his beloved, and the plot entails their growing relationship, sometimes following the pattern of courtship, engagement, marriage, honeymoon, and so forth. Occasionally this plot is given a historical background, usually with Solomon as the man (thanks to the superscription in 1:1) and a woman who goes by the name of the “Shulammite” (6:13 [curiously, apparently a feminine form of the name “Solomon”]). On the other hand, other interpretations introduce yet a third character, an unnamed shepherd boy, who is the woman’s true love. Thus, the story is that of a love triangle. Solomon is trying or has succeeded in adding the woman to his harem, but she retains her true love toward the shepherd boy. Thus, Song of Songs is the story of true love’s triumph over power and wealth.

Other interpreters point out that if it is difficult to determine how many characters are in this supposed plot or the exact contour of the story, then interpreters must be reading too much into the book to make it work. After all, there is no narrator in the book providing narrative guidelines to the reader. Indeed, there are not even indications of who is speaking when (thus modern translations insert italicized text headings such as “Beloved,” “Lover,” and “Friends” to identify speakers).

Such interpreters argue that Song of Songs does not tell a story but rather is a kind of “love Psalter” containing a number of different love poems. In other words, it is an anthology, a collection, of love poems united by a consistency of character and imagery as well as the occasional recurrent refrain. The book is truly a “Song [composed] of [many] Songs.” The exact number of poems in this anthology can be debated and is unimportant for their interpretation. The important point is that readers do not force connections between poems that are not there. However, the following division, after the superscription (1:1) into twenty-three poems may not be far off the mark.

I. Superscription (1:1)

II. Poem 1 (1:2–4)

III. Poem 2 (1:5–6)

IV. Poem 3 (1:7–8)

V. Poem 4 (1:9–11)

VI. Poem 5 (1:12–14)

VII. Poem 6 (1:15–17)

VIII. Poem 7 (2:1–7)

IX. Poem 8 (2:8–17)

X. Poem 9 (3:1–5)

XI. Poem 10 (3:6–11)

XII. Poem 11 (4:1–7)

XIII. Poem 12 (4:8–9)

XIV. Poem 13 (4:10–5:1)

XV. Poem 14 (5:2–6:3)

XVI. Poem 15 (6:4–10)

XVII. Poem 16 (6:11–12)

XVIII. Poem 17 (6:13–7:10)

XIX. Poem 18 (7:11–13)

XX. Poem 19 (8:1–4)

XXI. Poem 20 (8:5–7)

XXII. Poem 21 (8:8–10)

XXIII. Poem 22 (8:11–12)

XXIV. Poem 23 (8:13–14)

Date and Authorship

The conclusion that Song of Songs is a collection of love poems has implications for the date and authorship of the book. It is true that the superscription (1:1) associates the book with Solomon, and this connection must be taken seriously because there is no indication that the superscription is not a part of the canonical final form of the book. In light of a similar superscription in the book of Proverbs, however, this does not mean that Solomon wrote the entire book or that it is about him. Indeed, Solomon’s track record in love is dubious both in the book (Song 8:11–12) and outside it (1 Kings 11:1–13). Perhaps as in Proverbs, he is considered the fountainhead of the composition of the book, and like Psalms and Proverbs, the book came into existence over a lengthy period of time and as a result of several composers. If so, the final form bears the mark of a single editor who brought it all together at an unknown date within the period of the formation of the OT.

Theological Message

Song of Songs celebrates love between a man and a woman. It reminds the people of God that intimate relationship is a divine gift that should be enjoyed. Although joy is indeed the dominant note of the book, the reader is warned that love is a powerful emotion that has its disappointments (so begins the poem in 5:2–6:3). Accordingly, the woman makes sure that the young girls who are watching and looking at her understand that it is important not to hurry love (2:7; 3:5; 8:4).

But we must not read Song of Songs in isolation from the rest of the canon. This book describes the man and the woman in the garden as naked and enjoying each other. How can the reader not think of the garden of Eden? God created a man and a woman and established marriage as a source of mutual joy (Gen. 2:23–25). The next chapter, however, narrates the fall, where the rebellion against God results in alienation not only between God and Adam and Eve, but also between Adam and Eve. Their estrangement results in their efforts to cover themselves from the gaze of the other and their ejection from the garden. The poems of Song of Songs, then, may be seen as the story of the “already but not yet” redemption of sexuality.

Last, the broader canon frequently uses marriage as a metaphor of the relationship between God and his creatures (e.g., Ezek. 16; 23; Hos. 1–3). In other words, the more we learn about intimate marital relationships, the more we learn about our intimate relationship with God. Thus, Song of Songs may be read in a way that deepens our understanding of God and his love toward his people (cf. Eph. 5:21–33).

Continuing Significance

The opening chapters of Genesis describe human beings as creatures who were created for relationship, relationship with God to be sure, but also relationship with other people. Genesis 2:18–25 narrates the origin of the institution that formalizes the most intimate of human relationships, that between a man and a woman in marriage. The story continues in Gen. 3 on a tragic note when, because of sin, a barrier is erected between the man and the woman. Song of Songs poetically celebrates the redemption of the marriage relationship and encourages couples to grow closer to each other. The poems are not a how-to manual for courtship or intimate behavior, but they invite couples to cultivate their own love language and intimacies.

The Hebrew expression “sons of God” (often translated as “children of God” in contemporary usage) is an important biblical concept and is used to describe a range of referents.

In the OT, the term is used to refer to angels (e.g., Job 1:6). They are subordinate divine beings, carrying out God’s mission on earth (Job 2:1). Compared to them, Yahweh’s incomparability is asserted in divine council (Ps. 89:6; cf. Deut. 32:8 NIV mg.). They are called upon to praise Yahweh for his creation (Ps. 29:1). They shout for joy at God’s creation (Job 38:7). In Gen. 6:2 the term refers to beings that are apparently of divine origin and to be contrasted with the “daughters of men” in that same passage. The sin mentioned in this passage refers to the cohabitation of divine beings and humans. This union is one of the impetuses for the flood, an indication of how bad things had gotten. The “order” of creation (Gen. 1), where humans are meant to be fruitful with their own kind, is here transgressed. Hence, God introduces further disorder by bringing back the waters of chaos to flood the earth.

Israel as a covenant nation is called “my son, my firstborn” by Yahweh (Exod. 4:22; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1). As son, Israel is expected to give proper reverence and honor for his father (Mal. 1:6). Although only one of many metaphors for Israel in the OT, Israel’s status as son is important for understanding the movement of the book of Exodus. Israel is to be delivered from Egyptian rule because Israel is God’s son. If Pharaoh continues to mistreat Israel, God will call judgment upon Egypt’s firstborn, as he did in the plague of death and the Red Sea incident.

Sonship is not exclusive to Israel. The Gentiles are also included in the future of God’s program (Isa. 19:25; Zech. 14:16). Likewise, in the NT all humans are God’s children (Eph. 4:6). More often, though, the term refers to those who are in Christ. The bond is spiritual, and often the concept of adoption is used (John 1:12; Rom. 9:6; Gal. 3:26; 4:5–7; 1 John 5:1). See also Sons of God

Ten times the “sons of the prophets” (NIV: “company of the prophets”) are named in connection with Elisha (e.g., 2 Kings 2:3–7; 5:22; 9:1), and they are referenced once in 1 Kings 20:35. They were a small community of faithful Israelites who lived in the dark years of apostasy under Ahab and Jezebel, when worshipers of the true God were persecuted and the fertility cult of Baal was the state-sponsored religion. They lived in Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, and along the Jordan River. The sons of the prophets knew that God was going to take Elijah away and were concerned that Elisha knew this as well. They saw Elijah divide the Jordan; they also observed Elisha repeat the sign later. They concluded, “The spirit of Elijah is resting on Elisha” (2 Kings 2:15). After that, they considered Elisha to be their leader and themselves his servants.

Unlike Elijah, who was a loner, Elisha is presented in 2 Kings as a man of the city, comfortable living among them. They turned to Elisha on matters small and great because he possessed extraordinary powers, and he used them for the betterment of this faithful group of covenant keepers. He secured the home of a widow who was the wife of one of the sons of the prophets (2 Kings 4:1–7). He recovered a submerged ax head when the sons of the prophets were endeavoring to expand their living space (6:1–7). He even raised the dead (4:36). In many ways, they were like the disciples of Christ, and some of the Gospel accounts seem designed to pre-sent Christ as a new Elijah and Elisha (Luke 4:25–27).

A notable tree used in pagan divination practices, visible from the entrance to the city Shechem (Judg. 9:37). This may be the tree near which Abram built an altar after receiving God’s promise regarding the surrounding land (Gen. 12:6–7). This may also be the tree under which Jacob buried his household’s foreign gods and earrings (Gen. 35:4). These possible references cannot be verified. Renderings of the Hebrew ’elon me’onenim also include “plain of Meonenim” (KJV), “diviners’ oak” (NASB, RSV, ESV), and “oracle oak” (MSG).

The KJV uses “sop” to refer to a thin bit or morsel of bread torn from a flat loaf and dipped into a common dish of meat with broth (cf. Ruth 2:14). At his last supper with his disciples, Jesus dipped a piece of bread in the common or central dish of the Passover platter and handed it to Judas Iscariot, revealing Jesus’ unwillingness to treat his betrayer as an enemy and exposing Judas’s hardness of heart (John 13:26–30). A sop could also be a bite of the tastiest food served as a central dish, handed to a guest by the host. This act expresses warmth and friendship and is a mark of special honor in the biblical lands even today.

The son of Pyrrhus, he was a Berean traveling companion who accompanied Paul on his third missionary journey to deliver an offering from the Gentile churches to the Jerusalem church (Acts 20:4). He perhaps is the same person as Sosipater, who sent greetings with Paul to the church in Rome (Rom. 16:21).

An ancestor of a family that belonged to the “servants of Solomon” (Ezra 2:55; Neh. 7:57 [“Sophereth”]) and returned with Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after. Little is known about this group except that it likely performed menial functions at the temple, as it is grouped with the “temple servants” (see Nethinim). The name of the group suggests that it was formed during the period of Solomon, though it could have been so named because Solomon built the first temple.

Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughout the biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in the ancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination and magic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout the Mediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a wide range of magic-related practices, generally refers to various techniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such as gods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, or change something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaining information that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic and sorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree with divination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people, often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also to enhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic and sorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events through supernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlap and are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise, especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during the OT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers was quite fluid and not precise or restrictive.

The nonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancient Near East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundreds of references to various types of divination and magic. The most common divination techniques involved (1) watching birds and the patterns of their flight; (2) observing drops of oil spreading across the surface of water in a bucket; (3) astrology; and (4) removing and observing the entrails of animals, especially the liver. From observing these things, the skilled diviner supposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or other patron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting of spells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.

The book of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probably divination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confronts a sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous early nonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this same Simon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in various ways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey (Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power was fairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church was taking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesus responded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who had practiced sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,” indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.

In the OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magic and sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14 presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precise translation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There, divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing or determining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a wide range of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft are prohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). In contrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper way to engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophets chosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).

Likewise, in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spirit were proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even the most famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paul includes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probably includes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronounces judgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23; 21:8; 22:15).

Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughout the biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in the ancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination and magic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout the Mediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a wide range of magic-related practices, generally refers to various techniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such as gods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, or change something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaining information that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic and sorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree with divination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people, often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also to enhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic and sorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events through supernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlap and are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise, especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during the OT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers was quite fluid and not precise or restrictive.

The nonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancient Near East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundreds of references to various types of divination and magic. The most common divination techniques involved (1) watching birds and the patterns of their flight; (2) observing drops of oil spreading across the surface of water in a bucket; (3) astrology; and (4) removing and observing the entrails of animals, especially the liver. From observing these things, the skilled diviner supposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or other patron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting of spells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.

The book of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probably divination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confronts a sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous early nonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this same Simon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in various ways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey (Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power was fairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church was taking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesus responded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who had practiced sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,” indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.

In the OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magic and sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14 presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precise translation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There, divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing or determining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a wide range of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft are prohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). In contrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper way to engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophets chosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).

Likewise, in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spirit were proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even the most famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paul includes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probably includes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronounces judgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23; 21:8; 22:15).

(1) A painful breakage in the skin caused by a disease or wound that often becomes infected. Various skin ailments described in Hebrew vocabulary may be translated as “sore”: skin disorder (garab [Lev. 21:20; 22:22; Deut. 28:27]); moist wound (makkah teriyyah [Isa. 1:6]); boil, ulcer (mazor [2 Sam. 3:29; Jer. 30:13]); infected sore (nega’ [Lev. 13:3, 5, 29]); tumor, hemorrhoid (tekhorim [Deut. 28:27; 1 Sam. 5:6]); infectious skin disease, traditionally, though not necessarily correctly, translated as “leprosy” (tsara’at [e.g., Lev. 13:2–3, 8–9; 14:3, 7; Deut. 24:8; 2 Kings 5:6–7; 2 Chron. 26:9); skin sore or boil (shekhin [Exod. 9:9–11; Lev. 13:18–20, 23; Deut. 28:35; 2 Kings 20:7; Job 2:7; Isa. 38:21]); seeping sore, wart (yabbelet [Lev. 22:22]).

In contrast, NT Greek uses a single root, helkos, to refer to a sore, boil, skin abscess, ulcer (Luke 16:20–21; Rev. 16:2, 11). Sores are significant under Mosaic law, since certain types render one ritually unclean and therefore separated from community life (Lev. 13–14).

(2) A painfully tender physical discomfort (Gen. 34:25). (3) An archaic usage in older English versions that describes intensive upset or affliction (e.g., Gen. 20:8; 41:56–57; Josh. 9:24; Matt. 17:6; Acts 20:37 KJV).

Both the OT and the NT use several words that fall into the category of sorrow. Sorrow may be felt to different degrees as fits the severity of the circumstances. Likewise, it may be expressed in many ways, such as crying or weeping (Jer. 4:8; Joel 1:18), hiring professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Mark 5:38), tearing one’s clothes (2 Sam. 13:19), wearing sackcloth (2 Sam. 3:31; Jer. 4:8), sitting in dust and ashes (Job 2:8; Luke 10:13), throwing dust over one’s head (Job 2:12), fasting (Esther 4:3), shaving one’s head or beard (Job 1:20; Jer. 41:5), and beating one’s chest (Isa. 32:12; Luke 18:13).

Because of sin and the curse, pain is inescapable and sorrow appropriate. Although people may respond negatively, sorrow can be a positive part of repentance, developing character (2 Cor. 7:10–11) or demonstrating sympathy to others (Rom. 12:15) as a response to their difficulties. The reality of pain highlights joy and anticipation of Christ’s return (John 16:19–22; Rev. 21:4; cf. Jer. 31:13).

While sorrow may first come from the circumstances or threat of punishment, it is an important component of repentance, as regret over wrongdoing can lead one to change behavior.

A “fellow Jew” present with Paul during his writing of his letter to the Romans and whose greetings are conveyed to the church at Rome (Rom. 16:21). He perhaps is the same person as Sopater, who accompanied Paul on his third missionary journey (Acts 20:4).

(1) A synagogue ruler (leader) in Corinth when “the Jews” instigated legal action against Paul (Acts 18:12–17). Gallio, proconsul of Corinth, dismissed it as an internal Jewish matter. “The crowd” (probably the Jews, but perhaps the Greeks) shamed Sosthenes by publicly beating him, apparently believing that he was responsible for their loss (18:17); perhaps he selected or presented the charges. Apparently, Gallio agreed that Sosthenes’ actions were shameful, since he did not intervene. (2) The cosender of 1 Corinthians (1:1). The fact that Paul names Sosthenes as cosender indicates that he had some role in the letter’s composition. It is possible, but not proven, that this is the same person as in Acts 18:12–17. If so, he had become a believer in Jesus Christ, and perhaps he went to Ephesus from Corinth to visit Paul with Stephanas, Fortunatus, and Achaicus (see 1 Cor. 16:17–18).

An ancestor of a family that belonged to the “servants of Solomon” (Ezra 2:55; Neh. 7:57) and that returned with Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after. Little is known about this group except that they likely performed menial functions at the temple, since they are grouped with the “temple servants” (see Nethinim). The name of the group suggests that they were formed during the period of Solomon, although they could have been so named because Solomon had the first temple built.

The way the word “soul” is used in English does not align well with any single Hebrew or Greek word in the Bible. Rather, it reflects the accumulation of cultural and religious understanding of the past. It is widely accepted that the biblical view (both OT and NT) of humanity does not recognize sharp boundaries between body and soul (bipartite anthropology) or between body, soul, and spirit (tripartite). The human being is, according to biblical teaching, a psychosomatic unity. In fact, nepesh, the Hebrew word most commonly translated as “soul,” probably should more often be translated as “self.” In several occurrences in the OT, nepesh seems to mean “life” (Josh. 2:13; 1 Kings 19:4). Of course, given the Hellenistic background of the LXX and the NT, Greek psychē could mean something akin to “soul” as it is commonly used in English. But close examination shows that the NT use of the word is much closer to the OT conception than to its contemporary Hellenistic sense.

Nevertheless, our intuition leads us to make a conceptual distinction between the nonphysical abode of our “hearts and minds” and the physical presence of our being. At the most basic level, it relates to the question of death and its aftermath: when we die, can anything remain apart from the physicality of our existence? The Greek answer to this is belief in the immortality of the soul; the biblical answer is resurrection of the body. Since the Bible maintains the psychosomatic unity, purely nonphysical existence for the nonphysical part of humanity is not presented as a valid answer to the fundamental question of death. This is why the OT describes a dead person as “sleeping with his fathers.” The NT concept of soul is clearly based on the OT counterpart; nevertheless, there is also a clearer distinction between body and soul. An example is provided by Jesus when he says, “Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul” (Matt. 10:28).

Geography

Whereas the principal direction in the modern world is north, in the ancient world different cultures used a variety of orientations as they sought to describe their relationship to their geographical environment. In Israel the primary direction was determined by the sunrise: east. This is reflected in Hebrew, where the main word used to refer to east as a direction was qedem, which could also be used to simply refer to that which was directly ahead or in front of the speaker (e.g., Ps. 139:5). Elsewhere, east is designated by the terms mizrakh (“rising” [Josh. 11:3]) or mizrakh hashamesh (“rising of the sun” [Num. 21:11]), both of which derive from the direction of sunrise. By way of contrast, in Egypt the primary direction was south, in alignment with the source of the Nile River.

The ancient world employed the same notion of four cardinal directions, which persists to the present, and the terminology related to these was influenced by the choice of primary direction. Thus, in Israel north is often designated by “left”; south could be designated by “right,” and west by “behind.” In addition, directions could be specified by reference to geographical features found in those directions. North could be specified by the word tsapon, which was derived from the name of a northern Syrian mountain (Zaphon); south by negeb, a name for the region south of Israel (Negev); and west by yam (“sea”), since the Mediterranean Sea lay to the west.

Symbolism

Aside from their purely geographical significance, the directions also came to bear figurative significance. Some caution is warranted in assigning symbolic significance to language, for there is danger of reading invalid meanings into texts. Furthermore, given the ambiguity inherent in the use of terms to refer to directions, which also have alternate significances, there is danger of assigning a symbolic meaning to the direction that actually resides in the alternate. So, for example, while yam (“sea”) carries significant symbolic overtones in the Bible, this association does not appear to have been extended to encompass the term when used to designate a westerly direction.

East and west. Nonetheless, there is, for example, probably some significance in the expulsion from Eden and progressive movement eastward to the tower of Babel through Gen. 1–11, followed by a return to the promised land, which was approached by reversing the easterly migration and returning toward Eden. Eden itself was said to lie “in the east” (Heb. miqqedem; Gen. 2:8), although the same Hebrew expression in Pss. 74:12; 77:5, 11; 78:2; 143:5 means “in ancient times,” and there is perhaps a deliberate ambiguity in the use of the expression in Gen. 2:8. In Isa. 2:6 the east is the source of influences on the people that lead them astray. Following the exile, Ezekiel sees the glory of God returning to the temple from the east (Ezek. 43:1–2). Thus, when used symbolically, “east” is often viewed negatively or else may be used to mark a connection with distant antiquity (Gen. 2:8; Job 1:3). Any symbolic significance assigned to west appears primarily to be associated with it being the antithesis of east. The distance between east and west was used poetically to express vast distance (Ps. 103:12).

North and south. North is significant for two primary reasons. First, it is the direction from which invading armies most often descended upon Israel (Jer. 1:13) as well as from which Babylon’s destruction is said to come (Jer. 50:3). In light of this, Ezekiel’s vision of God approaching from the north strikes an ominous tone of impending judgment (Ezek. 1:1–4). Second, in Canaanite mythology the abode of the gods, and specifically Baal, lay to the north, on Mount Zaphon. Thus, the king of Babylon’s plans in Isa. 14:13 amount to a claim to establish himself as one of the gods. In contrast to this, Ps. 48:2 pre-sents Mount Zion as supplanting Mount Zaphon and thus implicitly presents Israel’s one God as supplanting the Canaanite pantheon.

As with west, there is little symbolic significance associated with the direction south in the Bible, aside from its use in combination with other directions.

The four directions. The four directions (or sometimes just pairs of directions) are used together to describe both the scattering of the Israelites as well as their being gathered by God back to the promised land (Ps. 107:3; Isa. 43:5–6; Luke 13:29). They are also used together to express the extent of the promised land (Gen. 13:14) or else to describe something that is all-encompassing (1 Chron. 9:24).

Since the early apologists’ first attempts to defend the Christian faith against contemporary Greco-Roman philosophers, explanations of God’s sovereignty have found support from Platonic, Neoplatonic, and Aristotelian categories. This unfortunate “marriage” pushed theologians to identify God’s power in static and absolute categories that explained God as unmoved and impassible. God’s sovereign will must be perfect and cannot be affected by the world or by human suffering. In his perfection, God is necessarily apatheia (Aristotle), beyond joy or sorrow (Plato). This notion led medieval and Reformation theologians to assert that Jesus suffered in his human nature, but not in his divine nature. To protect God’s integrity (incapability of corruption), the biblical emphasis on God’s passionate involvement with his creation and people (e.g., Isa. 34:2; Zeph. 3:17) was squelched.

Christian speculation on God’s sovereignty followed the Neoplatonic principle of plenitude, in which the created universe is little more than the divine being’s necessary overflow of temporal diversity. God’s perfection requires the unlimited actualization of all possibilities. For Augustine, this meant that all human experience is foreclosed in God’s eternity; for Anselm, it gave an ontological argument for God’s existence; for Abelard, it meant that God cannot do or leave undone anything other than what he has done; for Beza (Calvinism), double predestination was a given; for Schleiermacher, human self-consciousness had its roots in the divine being; for Tillich, a “God above God” was the ground of all being; and we could add many others. “Sovereignty,” in these delineations, expresses the necessary manifestation of God’s perfection and absolute power.

The biblical language of sovereignty does not parallel such logic. Broadly speaking, the Bible describes sovereignty as God’s divine authority to rule his creation in general and Israel in particular. He is the Lord of all creation and the King of Israel. He is almighty (sovereign) to accomplish his purpose, which is to restore his kingdom on earth through Christ (1 Tim. 6:14–15), to whom he now has given all authority (Matt. 28:18). Rather than an aloof divinity of perfection, God is presented in the Bible as intensely personal and superbly engaged in the affairs of his creation. He remains outside his creation as its supreme, infinite Creator (transcendence), while allowing his love to instruct both his justice and his power (immanence). He creates not because the necessity of his perfection requires it but rather out of sovereign freedom and love. He is both protective of his position as Lord of creation and concerned for his people’s welfare (Deut. 6:13–19). His sovereignty displays his moral character (Exod. 15:11–18) while demanding reciprocal love and relational obedience from his people.

As sovereign, God has power and rule that are above all other powers and rulers (Pss. 22:28; 103:19; Dan. 5:21). His providential care for all creation exhibits his loving kingship and confirms his essential goodness. God’s sovereignty affirms that human life has meaning and purpose; he does not leave us alone to create our own happiness, nor are we subject to whatever misery presses upon us (1 Chron. 29:11). Rather than an indivisible attribute, God’s power is subject to his control and expresses itself relationally. This same relationality lies behind the biblical understanding of God’s will and unchangeable character (James 1:17; cf. Ps. 102:25–27; Isa. 40:8). As a comparison of 1 Sam. 15:11 with 15:29 shows, God’s sovereignty does not militate against his freedom to change his mind. Rather, God remains unchangeably faithful and true to his character even when humans prove faithless and false (2 Tim. 2:13).

This relational quality of God’s sovereignty is rooted in his triunity. His existence is coexistence as Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. This makes love the distinctive mark of his sovereignty. The doctrine of the Trinity safeguards against metaphysical understandings of God that make light of his self-revelation in Christ. Opposite the self-expanding god of philosophical speculations, the biblical God manifests his sovereignty through the self-limiting and self-denying Christ (Phil. 2:5–11), who reveals God’s absolute power as the servant of his absolute love.

A female pig. Peter uses the sow’s instinct to wallow in mud as a metaphorical proverb, illustrating sinners who return to their sin (2 Pet. 2:22). See also Swine.

A farmer or one who plants seeds by scattering them. A very common profession in biblical times, it was frequently used metaphorically to refer to the natural rewards of living lives of holiness or sin, or of reaping what one sows (Prov. 11:18; 2 Cor. 9:6; Gal. 6:7). Jesus contrasted the “sower” with the “reaper” to illustrate different responsibilities that individuals have in participating in God’s “harvest” (John 4:36). He also used this example in one of his most famous parables to illustrate various responses of people to the word of God (Matt. 13:1–9 pars.).

The process of planting seeds. Because ancient Israel was an agricultural society, this concept is used in many biblical metaphors (Matt. 13:3; Luke 12:24; 1 Cor. 15:36–37).

A wide, open, roomy space, either in a city or the countryside, often used as a figure for deliverance. Within a city a spacious place (NKJV, ESV: “broad place”) provided space for assemblies or proclamations (e.g., Esther 4:6 ASV). In the country it allowed room for people to live and establish themselves (Job 36:16). The Bible often portrays God as providing the space (cf. Gen. 26:22), enabling his people to dwell in security, free from distress (2 Sam. 22:20; Ps. 18:19).

A country on the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe that was conquered by the Romans about 200 BC. Paul expressed a desire to evangelize the area before his death (Rom. 15:24, 28), though there is considerable debate as to whether he fulfilled this desire. According to 1 Clem. 5.5–7 (c. AD 95), Paul did reach Spain (“farthest limits of the West”).

A unit of measurement based on the breadth of a spread hand, the equivalent of half a cubit, nine inches, or twenty-two centimeters (Exod. 28:16; 39:9; 1 Sam. 17:4; Ezek. 43:13). More generally, it refers to the length between two limits (Exod. 23:26; Isa. 23:15).

A fiery particle thrown from a fire or produced by striking together two hard materials such as stone or metal. The figurative “sparks” (Job 41:19) are understood to emanate from the mouth of the mythical Leviathan. Man himself is the spark (Isa. 1:31), a catalyst for punishment, destroying both people and their work. A tiny spark instigating a forest fire describes the uncontrollable and destructive power of the tongue (James 3:5).

A small, predominantly brown, seed-eating bird that adapts well to towns. Species found in Israel include the house sparrow, the Spanish sparrow, and the Dead Sea sparrow. The Greek word strouthion may refer specifically to sparrows (Matt. 10:29, 31; Luke 12:6; Tob. 2:10), but the Hebrew word tsippor (translated as “sparrow” by the NIV in Ps. 84:3; Prov. 26:2) simply means “bird” and covers a wide range of species (see Gen. 7:14; Ezek. 39:4).

Ritually clean small birds were snared or taken from the nest to be used for sacrifice and food, especially by the poor (e.g., Lev. 14:4–7; Deut. 14:11; 22:6–7; Neh. 5:18; Eccles. 9:12). In poetry, they are mentioned in connection with their nests (e.g., Pss. 84:3; 104:17; Prov. 27:8), flight (Prov. 26:2), and song (Eccles. 12:4). Since many are normally gregarious and stay close to the nest, a solitary or straying small bird is a striking image (Ps. 102:7; Prov. 27:8).

In the first century AD a sparrow cost 1⁄32 or even 1⁄40 of a day’s wage. Jesus contrasts the low market price of sparrows with God’s providential care for each one of them, thereby assuring us that we are of far greater value to our Father (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7).

In some older translations “mote” refers to a small piece of foreign matter that more-modern translations typically render as “splinter” or “speck.” It appears three times each in the parallel accounts of Matt. 7:3–5; Luke 6:41–42. There, Jesus is warning followers to concentrate on dealing with their own major shortcomings (“planks” or “beams”) before focusing on the lesser failings of others (“motes” or “specks”).

An exhibition, dramatic public scene, or noteworthy display. In the OT, it refers to God making someone (Ezek. 28:17 [the king of Tyre]) or something (Nah. 3:6 [the city of Nineveh]) an object of contempt. In the NT, “spectacle” translates the Greek words theatron (1 Cor. 4:9 [in reference to the apostles’ public humiliations]) and theōria (Luke 23:48 [in reference to Jesus’ public crucifixion]), referring to events on the stage of an amphitheater.

In Mark 7:32 Jesus heals a man who was deaf and “mute” (mogilalos) by spitting, touching his ears and tongue, and saying, “Be opened!” The exact nature of the speech impediment is unclear, though it is described figuratively as a “binding of the tongue” (7:35; NIV “could hardly talk”). In Exod. 4:10, Moses describes himself as “slow of speech and tongue,” which many interpreters have understood as referring to a speech impediment; however, this may refer more broadly to a perceived lack of eloquence rather than to a literal impairment.

Triticum spelta is a hybrid of emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) and wild goat-grass (Aegilops tauschii) that appeared eight to ten millennia ago in the ancient Near East. Spelt spikelets contain two reddish grains that feature a hull tougher than that of common wheat (Triticum aestivum). In the Bible, it appears in the company of other grains and crops, such as wheat, barley, and millet (Exod. 9:32; Isa. 28:25; Ezek. 4:9).

In the Bible, words for “spice” include the Hebrew bosem (NIV: “spice, perfume, fragrance”) and sam (NIV: “fragrant incense, fragrant spice”) and the Greek arōma and amōmon (NIV: “spice”). Aromatic vegetable products were used either to season food or as perfuming agents, and sometimes as both. The Greek term amōmon occurs only in Rev. 18:13, in this context probably referring to a spice from India. The term arōma occurs only in Mark 16:1; Luke 23:56; 24:1; John 19:40, where it is not technically part of an embalming process, since it does not stop decomposition, but rather is intended to offset the odor of death. If a funeral pyre is not intended in 2 Chron. 16:14, the spices there serve this same function. The Hebrew term sam occurs most frequently in Exodus in connection with the incense to be burned before God (Exod. 25:6; 30:7, 34; 31:11; 35:8, 15, 28; 37:29; 39:38; 40:27; cf. Lev. 4:7; 16:12; Num. 4:16; 2 Chron. 13:11). The term bosem occurs more widely throughout the OT with reference to both fragrances (e.g., Isa. 3:24) and spices (e.g., 1 Kings 10:10) and can modify the name of specific spices, as in Exod. 30:23: “cinnamon spice” (NIV: “fragrant cinnamon”) and “cane spice” (NIV: “fragrant calamus”).

Spices were in high demand, making food and living more enjoyable, especially for the wealthy. They were used in food (implicit in Ezek. 24:10) and drink (Song 8:2). The spice trade forged the earliest routes from northern India to Sumer, Akkad, and Egypt (cf. Gen. 37:25). Trade led to cultural exchange and, in the time of Solomon, to national wealth from tolls collected on such shipments. Ezekiel 27:22 and Rev. 18:13 show the value associated with this trade, and 2 Kings 20:13 places spices among King Hezekiah’s “treasures.” The sensual luxury of spices could be erotic (e.g., Esther 2:12; Song 5:1; 6:2; 8:14); indeed, Song of Songs, though short, uses the word bosem more than any other book in the OT. Some spices, such as frankincense, were important to worship rituals in ancient Israel, being used in offerings (Lev. 24:7) and in the anointing oil and incense (Exod. 25:6; 30:22–38). Producing the right mixtures required skilled individuals (Exod. 30:25; 1 Chron. 9:29–30).

The list below includes a number of spices named in the Bible.

Aloe (Heb. ’ahalim, ’ahalot; Gk. aloē). In the OT this probably refers to Aquilaria agallocha, a spice derived from the eaglewood tree and used to perfume cloth (Ps. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song 4:14). In the NT, it refers to the juice from Aloe vera leaves (John 19:39).

Balm (Heb. tsori). Apparently native to Gilead, the plant is now unknown. The earliest association is with stacte (Commiphora gilea-densis), which does not currently grow in Gilead. Noted for its healing benefit to wounds (Jer. 8:22; 46:11; 51:8), balm was exported (Gen. 37:25; 43:11; Ezek. 27:17).

Calamus (Heb. qaneh). Also known as sweet flag (Acorus calamus), calamus was used for its aroma and as a tonic and stimulant (Song 4:14; Isa. 43:24; Jer. 6:20; Ezek. 27:19).

Caraway (Heb. qetsakh). The seeds of this plant (Nigella sativa) were used as a condiment and to ease intestinal gas. A light beating freed the seeds without crushing them (Isa. 28:25, 27).

Cassia (Heb. qiddah, qetsi’ah). These Hebrew terms probably refer to an aromatic similar to cinnamon, like the bark of the Cinnamomum aromaticum, or more likely the Cinnamomum iners of Arabia and Ethiopia (Exod. 30:24; Ps. 45:8; Ezek. 27:19).

Cinnamon (Heb. qinnamon; Gk. kinna-mōmon). A local variety of cinnamon, or “true cinnamon” (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) imported from Sri Lanka (Exod. 30:23; Prov. 7:17; Song 4:14; Rev. 18:13). Loosely related may be the “spice” (Gk. amōmon) of Rev. 18:13; the word often appears alongside “cardamom” in extrabiblical writings; it perhaps indicates black cardamom.

Coriander (Heb. gad). Also known as cilantro, this has long been used as a food seasoning; it also served as a medicine to aid digestion and sleep (Exod. 16:31; Num. 11:7).

Cumin (Heb. kammon; Gk. kyminon). Cuminum cyminum, which is similar to caraway in taste and appearance, has long been cultivated in Palestine as a seasoning. Like caraway, it is threshed to keep the seeds intact (Isa. 28:25, 27; Matt. 23:23).

Dill (Gk. anēthon). Used for seasoning, this herb (Anethum graveolens) was among those tithed by the Pharisees (Matt. 23:23).

Frankincense (Heb. lebonah; Gk. libanos). This fragrant resin from trees of the genus Bos-wellia was used in worship (Exod. 30:34; Lev. 24:7) and was among the gifts brought to Jesus at his birth (Matt. 2:11).

Gum resin (Heb. natap). Also known as stacte, this ingredient of the holy incense (Exod. 30:34) was derived from either Commiphora gileadensis (balm of Gilead) or Styrax officinale.

Mint (Gk. hēdyosmon). Most likely Mentha longifolia, it was tithed by the Pharisees (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42).

Myrrh (Heb. mor, lot; Gk. smyrna, cf. myron). A resin exuded from incisions in the branches of trees such as Commiphora myrrha and Commiphora kataf and useful for its fragrance and antiseptic properties (Exod. 30:23; Ps. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song 1:13; 3:6; Esther 2:12). Hebrew lot (Gen. 37:25; 43:11) probably refers to labdanum.

Nard (Heb. nerd; Gr. nardos). In the OT (Song 1:12; 4:13–14), camel grass (Cymbopogon schoenanthus) from northern Africa and Arabia probably is in view, but in the NT (Mark 14:3; John 12:3), Nardostachys jatamansi from Nepal is suggested. Nard was used as an ointment or perfume.

Rue (Gk. pēganon). Mentioned only in Luke 11:42, Ruta chalepensis was cultivated to flavor food and was thought to have medicinal value.

Saffron (Heb. karkom). Produced from the flowers of the Crocus sativus, native to Greece and Asia Minor, this expensive spice was used not only for culinary purposes but also as an antispasmodic and emmenagogue (Song 4:14).

Spiders are common in Palestine. Spiderwebs picture the ungodly’s fragile existence (Job 8:14; cf. Job 27:18), and the weaving of webs describes wicked actions (Isa. 59:5–6).

A high-quality and fragrant ointment or perfume, also known as spikenard. Song of Songs includes nard among fragrant items used metaphorically by the lover to describe his beloved (Song 4:13–14). Mark 14:3 and John 12:3 refer to the same incident, the anointing of Jesus at Bethany a few days before the crucifixion, and emphasize the high monetary value of the nard.

A rotating rod on which fibers are twisted to form thread. It is used along with the distaff in the process of spinning. Unspun flax or wool is drawn from the distaff and twisted onto a spindle. The spindle often is used in conjunction with a weight to expedite the process. In ancient times spinning was primarily the job of women (Exod. 35:25). The book of Proverbs gives a brief description of this process (Prov. 31:19).

Spinning (forming fibers into thread or yarn) and weaving (forming yarn into textiles) were the basic economic activities of women throughout the ancient world (see Exod. 35:25–26). This is reflected in the Bible in Prov. 31:10–31, where the “wife of noble character” is depicted as a proficient producer of fine textiles. The process is portrayed in some detail, including the gathering of raw materials (31:13), the skillful making of yarn with distaff and spindle (31:19), the crafting of garments and upholstery (31:22, 24), and the selling of the same (31:24). As is clear from this passage, textile production was a domestic activity, taking place not in specialized factories but in any home where sufficient labor was available. The Hebrew word for “weaver” occurs as a masculine participle, suggesting the participation of men in the craft (Exod. 35:35; Isa. 38:12).

In biblical Israel, fabric was made either from flax (a plant fiber yielding linen fabric) or wool (sheep or goat). In Isa. 19:9 the production of fine linen is particularly associated with Egypt. The most abundant evidence of spinning and weaving to survive in the archaeological record comes in the form of stone or clay loom weights and spindle whorls. Less frequently, we find fragments of the wooden parts of the loom (such as the heddle rod or beam [see 1 Sam. 17:7]), bone or ivory tools, spinning bowls, and in some cases actual textile and cordage fragments. A loom is a wooden framework on which fabric is woven. In biblical lands, both vertical (against a wall) and horizontal (parallel with the ground) looms were used. The ubiquity of these implements in excavations of domestic sites attests the universality of textile production as a home craft in the biblical world. Samson tricks Delilah into weaving his hair into a loom and tightening it with a pin (Judg. 16:13). Again, this story illustrates the fact that the typical home contained a loom.

Several ancient cultures had a patron deity of spinning and weaving, usually a female goddess: the Mesopotamian Uttu, the Egyptian Tait, and Athena in the Greek world. There are indications that Asherah was the goddess of spinning and weaving in West Semitic culture, which includes Israel and its neighbors. Evidence for spinning and weaving has been discovered at a tenth-century BC cultic site at Ta’anach in central Israel (see 2 Kings 23:7).

Metaphorically, a spider spins its web (Isa. 59:5). Jesus reverses the analogy of spinning and weaving to the natural world by stating that the lilies of the field “do not labor or spin” and yet are magnificently clothed in natural beauty, exceeding even the artificial splendor of Solomon (Matt. 6:28; Luke 12:27).

In the world of the Bible, a person was viewed as a unity of being with the pervading breath and thus imprint of the loving and holy God. The divine-human relationship consequently is portrayed in the Bible as predominantly spiritual in nature. God is spirit, and humankind may communicate with him in the spiritual realm. The ancients believed in an invisible world of spirits that held most, if not all, reasons for natural events and human actions in the visible world.

Old Testament

The OT writers used the common Hebrew word ruakh (“wind” or “breath”) to describe force and even life from the God of the universe. In its most revealing first instance, God’s ruakh hovered above the waters of the uncreated world (Gen. 1:2). In the next chapter of Genesis a companion word, neshamah (“breath”) is used as God breathed into Adam’s nostrils “the breath of life” (2:7). God thus breathed his own image into the first human being. Humankind’s moral obligations in the remainder of the Bible rest on this breathing act of God.

The OT authors often employ ruakh simply to denote air in motion or breath from a person’s mouth. However, special instances of the use of ruakh include references to the very life of a person (Gen. 7:22; Ps. 104:29), an attitude or emotion (Gen. 41:8; Num. 14:24; Ps. 77:3), the negative traits of pride or temper (Ps. 76:12), a generally good disposition (Prov. 11:13; 18:14), the seat of conversion (Ezek. 18:31; 36:26), and determination given by God (2 Chron. 36:22; Hag. 1:14).

On occasion in the OT, spirits are labeled “evil” (Judg. 9:23 ESV, NRSV, NASB). In the case of an evil spirit tormenting King Saul, the spirit was identified as “from the Lord” (1 Sam. 16:14–15, 23). According to the perspective of the ancients, once a person was possessed by a divine spirit, departure of such a spirit meant possession by a different spirit (1 Sam. 16:14). Such a perspective was common in the ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean worlds and stemmed from the religious fervor of Semitic nomads.

New Testament

The NT authors used the Greek term pneuma to convey the concept of spirit. In the world of the NT, the human spirit was understood as the divine part of human reality as distinct from the material realm. The spirit appears conscious and capable of rejoicing (Luke 1:47). Jesus was described by Luke as growing and becoming “strong in spirit” (1:80). In “spirit” Jesus “knew” what certain teachers of the law were thinking in their hearts (Mark 2:8). Likewise, Jesus “was deeply moved in spirit and troubled” at the sickness of a loved one (John 11:33). At the end of his life, Jesus gave up his spirit (John 19:30).

According to Jesus, the spirit is the place of God’s new covenant work of conversion and worship (John 3:5; 4:24). He declared the human spirit’s dependence on God and ascribed great virtue to those people who were “poor in spirit” (Matt. 5:3).

Human beings who were possessed by an evil spirit were devalued in Mediterranean society. In various places in the Synoptic Gospels and the book of Acts, either Jesus or the disciples were involved in exorcisms of such spirits (Matt. 8:28–33; Mark 1:21–28; 7:24–30; 9:14–29; 5:1–20; 9:17–29; Luke 8:26–33; 9:37–42; Acts 5:16).

The apostle Paul pointed to the spirit as the seat of conversion (Rom. 7:6; 1 Cor. 5:5). He described believers as facing a struggle between flesh and spirit in regard to living a sanctified life (Rom. 8:2–17; Gal. 5:16–17). A contradiction seems apparent in Pauline thinking as he appears to embrace Greek dualistic understanding of body (flesh) and spirit while likewise commanding that “spirit, soul and body be kept blameless” (1 Thess. 5:23). However, the Christian struggle between flesh and Spirit (the Holy Spirit) centers around the believer’s body being dead because of sin but the spirit being alive because of the crucified and resurrected Christ (Rom. 8:10). Believers therefore are encouraged to lead a holistic life, lived in the Spirit.

Holy Spirit

God’s Spirit is described in the opening chapters of Genesis as partaking in creation. His Spirit likewise is seen throughout the OT as an agent in establishing God’s people as a nation and a people of his own. Leaders of Israel were chosen and possessed by the Spirit to assist in leading the people into God’s will (Deut. 34:9; Judg. 6:34; 15:14; 1 Sam. 11:6; 16:23). Typically, the moment the Spirit of God descended on a leader, miraculous fortitude, wisdom, and power resulted. The Spirit also provided whatever was needed for God’s prophets—courage, inspiration, and miracles (Num. 11:25; 1 Sam. 10:10; Isa. 11:2; Ezek. 2:2; Dan. 4:8; Joel 2:28). The office of prophet included prophesying both in the king’s court and among the people of the land. As the Spirit came on a prophet of God, the prophet would correct the king’s and others’ behavior and at times foretell the future or the outcome of possible decisions.

In the Synoptic Gospels, the Holy Spirit functions in much the same way as in the OT. One such function appears in Luke’s birth narrative when the angel answers Mary’s question as to how she might conceive while a virgin (Luke 1:34): “The Holy Spirit will come on you, and the power of the Most High will overshadow you” (1:35). The Greek verb translated “will overshadow you” is used in the LXX to describe God’s protective nature (Pss. 91:4; 140:7). Likewise, the coming of God’s Spirit presented empowerment (Acts 1:8). Thus, Mary received both divine empowerment and protection. As the birth narrative continues, Luke records how other characters in the story, Elizabeth and Zechariah, were filled with the Spirit when Mary came to visit while pregnant with Jesus and when John the Baptist, the forerunner of the Messiah, was born (1:41, 67). The evangelists record the Spirit descending on Jesus at the time of his baptism (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32–34) and describe him as full of the Spirit when he was led by the Spirit into the desert (Luke 4:1). Finally, in John’s Gospel the Spirit is the promised comforter whom Jesus will give to his followers. He will testify about Christ (John 15:26).

In the new covenant the Spirit-possession of the OT gave way to believers’ reception of the Spirit at conversion. In Acts the Holy Spirit is presented as instrumental in carrying out the mission of the church, providing power and signs as well as moving and motivating missionaries. The apostle Paul attributes to the Holy Spirit the function of imbuing believers and the church with an assortment of virtues (Gal. 5:22), gifts (Rom. 12:7–8; 1 Cor. 12:1–11), and ministers (Eph. 4:7–13). He uses the idea of life in the Spirit as a point of contrast with life in the flesh. In John’s letters the Spirit is described as providing discernment of truth (1 John 4:6). See also Holy Spirit.

The outpouring of the Spirit that was prophesied in the OT to take place in the last days, in connection with the arrival of the Messiah.

Spirit baptism in the Bible. The OT prophets had spoken of both the Spirit of God coming upon the Messiah (e.g., Isa. 11:2; 42:1; 61:1) and a giving or pouring out of the Spirit in the last days (e.g., Isa. 32:15; 44:3; Ezek. 36:27; 37:14; 39:29; Joel 2:28). Peter connects the giving of the Spirit with Jesus’ being received by the Father and being granted messianic authority (Acts 2:33–38). The experience of Cornelius in particular associates the pouring out of the Spirit (Acts 10:45) with a baptism with the Spirit (11:16).

Seven passages in the NT directly speak of someone being baptized in/with the Spirit. Four of these passages refer to John the Baptist’s prediction that Jesus will baptize people in/with the Spirit in contrast to his own water baptism (Matt. 3:11; Mark 1:8; Luke 3:16; John 1:33). In Matthew and Luke, Jesus’ baptism is referred to as a baptism with the Holy Spirit and with fire. Two passages refer to Jesus’ prediction that the disciples would receive Spirit baptism, which occurred at Pentecost. As recorded in Acts 2, tongues of fire came to rest on each of them, they were filled with the Holy Spirit, and they began to speak in other tongues. As the disciples spoke to the Jews who had gathered in Jerusalem for the festival, three thousand were converted. Acts 1:5 contains Jesus’ prediction of this baptism with the Spirit, which Peter recounts in 11:16.

The final reference occurs in 1 Cor. 12:13, where Paul says, “For we were all baptized by one Spirit so as to form one body—whether Jews or Gentiles, slave or free—and we were all given the one Spirit to drink.” Thus, Christians form one body through their common experience of immersion in the one Spirit.

A second baptism? While in 1 Cor. 12 Paul seems to refer to an experience that all Christians undergo at conversion, there are several incidents in Acts where the reception of the Spirit occurs after conversion. The question then arises as to whether there is a separate “baptism in/with the Holy Spirit” distinct from the Spirit’s initial work of regeneration and incorporation into the body of Christ at conversion and whether this two-stage process is normative for the church. This belief in a second baptism is particularly prominent in Pentecostal traditions.

Examples such as Acts 2; 8; 10; 19 are commonly used to support the view of a second and subsequent experience of Spirit baptism. In Acts 2 the disciples are already converted and wait for the Spirit, who comes to them at Pentecost. In Acts 8 the Samaritans first respond to Philip’s preaching and receive water baptism. However, they receive the Spirit only after Peter and John come from Jerusalem and pray for them to receive the Holy Spirit. In Acts 10 Cornelius is a God-fearing Gentile, and after Peter visits him, the Spirit falls on his household. In Acts 19 Paul finds some disciples in Ephesus. After he lays hands on them, the Holy Spirit comes upon them, and they begin to speak in tongues and prophesy.

In understanding these experiences, it must be remembered that Acts describes a transitional period for the church. Acts 2 in particular recounts the initial giving of the Spirit under the new covenant. It is possible, then, to see the events in Acts 8; 10 as the coming of the Spirit upon two other people groups, the Samaritans and the Gentiles. Acts 2:38 and 5:32 indicate that the apostles expected the reception of the Spirit to accompany conversion, and this appears to be the case in the rest of the book. Acts 19 narrates an incomplete conversion, where the people had only experienced John’s baptism and receive the Spirit after Paul baptizes them “in the name of the Lord Jesus.”

Filled with the Spirit. Although the NT does not support a theology of a second Spirit baptism, it does commonly mention an experience of being “filled” with the Spirit. The concept of being “filled with the Spirit” frequently occurs in contexts referring to spiritual growth, such as in Eph. 5:18, where Paul exhorts, “Do not get drunk on wine, which leads to debauchery. Instead, be filled with the Spirit.” Apparently, this filling can occur numerous times. It can lead to worship of and thanksgiving to God (Eph. 5:19–20). It can also result in empowerment for ministry.

The immediate consequence of the disciples’ filling in Acts 2:4 is speaking in tongues to the various Jews gathered in Jerusalem, and in 4:31 they are empowered to speak “the word of God boldly.” Fullness of the Spirit can also be a characteristic of a believer’s life, such as in Acts 6:3, where the seven men chosen to look after the widows were to be men “known to be full of the Spirit.”

According to 1 Pet. 3:18–20 (NIV 1984), Christ “made proclamation to the imprisoned spirits—to those who were disobedient long ago . . . in the days of Noah while the ark was being built.” The identity of the “imprisoned spirits,” or “spirits in prison,” has long puzzled interpreters and is bound up with the larger issue of the nature of Christ’s preaching. Historically, several explanations presuppose that the “spirits in prison” are the souls of dead humans. Theologians have disagreed regarding several issues. Did Christ preach to them while they were still living (in the days of Noah) or after they had died and were in “prison”? If the latter, was this preaching between Christ’s death and resurrection, during the crucifixion, or after the ascension? Did Christ preach to the spirits of all who died prior to the incarnation of Christ, only to the righteous, only to the unrighteous, or even only to the generation that was alive at the time of Noah? Each of these possibilities has its proponents.

Another approach to the problem proceeds from the insight that the word “spirits” (Gk. pneumata) does not usually describe dead humans in the NT, nor does “prison” (Gk. phylakē) describe the abode of the dead. Based on these observations, it has been proposed that the “spirits in prison” are malevolent supernatural beings (nonhuman). This theory finds support, not explicitly in the NT, but in well-attested contemporary Jewish traditions, according to which the flood itself was caused by the malfeasance of such beings (see Gen. 6:1–6; cf. Luke 10:17–20). See also Descent into Hades.

The concept of Israel is a complex one in the Bible. It consists of political, ethnic, and spiritual aspects. In distinction from Israel as a political state (the northern kingdom) or as an ethnic nation (sons of Israel, also known as Hebrews or Jews), Israel may also represent a group of people with whom God has established a special relationship. The nature of that relationship is that Yahweh will be their God, and they will be his people (e.g., Exod. 6:7; Lev. 26:12).

“Israel” as a word representing the people of God emerges because of God’s dealings with humankind. It begins with God’s choice of ethnic Israel. He chooses Israel as he delivers it from Egypt to Canaan. At first, his choice of Israel is a result of his relationship with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Israel) and the covenant that he made with them (see Exod. 3:6–10). At Sinai, God invites the nation of Israel to a covenant in which it will be a treasured possession, a kingdom of priests, and a holy nation (Exod. 19:5–6). The nation accepts but quickly breaks the covenant, and so God threatens to destroy the nation completely (Exod. 32). On the plains of Moab, immediately preceding the conquest of Canaan, Moses and the priests warn the nation that it has become the people of God and so must obey all that God has commanded (Deut. 27:9). Because of the special relationship that God establishes with ethnic Israel, the word “Israel” is extended to represent the people of God.

Since the Israelites were the people of Yahweh, he was to be their God. This aspect of God’s relationship with ethnic Israel is clear from the start. In Exod. 6:7 Yahweh promises to make Israel his people and to be their God. At the end of a long list of blessings for Israel’s obedience, Lev. 26:12 reads as follows: “I will walk among you and be your God, and you will be my people.” As the people of Yahweh, they were expected to obey what he commanded (Deut. 27:9). However, Israel would not obey. The biblical portrait of Israel’s history is marked by widespread disobedience, with few exceptions.

Against this background of disobedience, the prophets spoke about the future for the people of God. Hosea prophesies against Israel because the people have abandoned Yahweh as their God, who therefore calls them “not my people” (Hos. 1:9–10); but one day those who are called “not my people” will be God’s people (Hos. 2:23). Jeremiah predicts a day in the future in which Israel will be Yahweh’s people, and he will be their God (Jer. 24:7; 30:22; 31:1, 33). Ezekiel likewise speaks of such a day in the future (Ezek. 11:20; 14:11; 36:28; 37:23, 27). Even though Israel is often called “the people of God” in Jeremiah and Ezekiel, these passages show that there is some distinction made between all ethnic Israel and Israel as the people of God.

Paul picks up on the distinction between ethnic Israel and Israel as the people of God when he states that not all those who are ethnic Israel (descended from Israel) are Israel (Rom. 9:6). In other words, being a member of ethnic Israel does not guarantee that a person is a member of the people of God. Paul states instead that there is a remnant of ethnic Israel that belongs to the people of God, along with some from the Gentiles (9:23–29). As Paul elaborates further, the people of God are comprised of those who have attained the righteousness that comes from God through faith (9:30–10:13).

The precise relationship of ethnic Israel to spiritual Israel is a topic of much debate. The issue has far-reaching implications for the interpretation of prophecy, the future of ethnic Israel, and the relationship between the OT and the NT. Important passages to examine include Rom. 9:6; 11:1; Gal. 6:16; 1 Pet. 2:1–10. In these passages both ethnic Israel (Rom. 11:1) and the church are regarded as God’s people (Gal. 6:16; 1 Pet. 2:1–10).

Spirituality is the outward working of inward devotion, the living expression of our spiritual nature. Spirituality is offering our bodies to God as our “spiritual service of worship” (Rom. 12:1 NASB), the acknowledgment of God in our daily living.

As part of our spiritual nature, we dedicate or devote portions of our lives to God, allowing all parts of our lives to become informed by our faith. We choose to examine the world in the light of Scripture and do our best not to conform to this world, but to be transformed by the renewing of our minds (Rom. 12:2).

Practical activities such as attending church, reading the Bible, praying, and witnessing are spiritual expressions. So are choices of dressing, eating, drinking, observing holidays, and so forth. Church service, in particular, is about spirituality: kneeling, standing, singing, raising hands, tithing, and so forth reflect our inward devotion.

Spirituality also involves broader demonstrations. For example, the observance of Lent is an expression of spirituality; wearing certain clothing is another.

Spirituality is not about salvation; it is about working out our salvation with “fear and trembling” (Phil. 2:12). We intentionally choose or reject life choices as a reaction to our faith, not in seeking salvation.

Under the Mosaic law, the spit of certain sick persons caused ritual uncleanness to others if it contacted them (Lev. 15:8), and the inability to control one’s own saliva indicated insanity (1 Sam. 21:13). Jesus’ use of saliva in healings (Mark 7:33; 8:23; John 9:6) reflects Jewish and Hellenistic belief in the curative nature of saliva. His mixing it with clay was viewed by his opponents as breaking the Sabbath law (John 9:16). Spitting in the face was a deliberate, contemptuous insult (Num. 12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10). Isaiah and Jesus himself prophesied the humiliation of the Messiah being spat upon (Isa. 50:6; Mark 10:34; Luke 18:32; cf. Matt. 26:67; 27:30; Mark 15:19; Luke 18:32).

Under the Mosaic law, the spit of certain sick persons caused ritual uncleanness to others if it contacted them (Lev. 15:8), and the inability to control one’s own saliva indicated insanity (1 Sam. 21:13). Jesus’ use of saliva in healings (Mark 7:33; 8:23; John 9:6) reflects Jewish and Hellenistic belief in the curative nature of saliva. His mixing it with clay was viewed by his opponents as breaking the Sabbath law (John 9:16). Spitting in the face was a deliberate, contemptuous insult (Num. 12:14; Deut. 25:9; Job 17:6; 30:10). Isaiah and Jesus himself prophesied the humiliation of the Messiah being spat upon (Isa. 50:6; Mark 10:34; Luke 18:32; cf. Matt. 26:67; 27:30; Mark 15:19; Luke 18:32).

Persons, animals, or objects of value taken from a defeated enemy by the victor after a battle or war (Exod. 15:9; Num. 31:11–12, 27, 32; Judg. 5:30; Ps. 119:162; Isa. 33:23; 53:12; Jer. 30:16; Luke 11:22). In Num. 31 God gives lengthy and specific instructions to Moses on how spoils taken in “holy war” from the defeated Midianites are to be distributed and used by the victorious Israelites.

The porous, flexible skeleton of a certain marine animal, common along the Palestinian coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Its liquid-absorbing quality made it useful as a drinking vessel. Jesus was offered a vinegar-filled sponge to quench his thirst (Matt. 27:48; Mark 15:36; John 19:29).

The KJV translates the Hebrew word kap as “spoon” (NIV: “dish”), referring to a small, shallow, golden incense bowl shaped like the hollow of the hand (e.g., Exod. 25:29; Num. 4:7; 7:14; 1 Kings 7:50; 2 Chron. 24:14; Jer. 52:18–19). A wooden pipe attached to the hollow handles allowed air to be blown through it, keeping the incense burning.

The word “sport” appears infrequently among various English translations and is used with the following specific meanings: (1) In Gen. 26:8 it is a euphemism for consensual sexual activity (KJV: “to sport with”; NIV: “caress”; the Hebrew word forms a wordplay with the name “Isaac,” both coming from the root for “to laugh, mock”). In Gen. 39:14, 17 it expresses the feigned humiliation of Potiphar’s wife and her court at Joseph’s alleged sexual advances (NIV: “to make sport of”). (2) To ridicule, mock, deride, humiliate—for example, “to make sport of” (Ps. 69:11; cf. NRSV, RSV of 1 Sam. 31:4; 1 Chron. 10:4; Job 30:1; Hab. 1:10). (3) Amusement or revelry without a specific athletic connotation—for example, “for sport,” “like sport” (Judg. 16:25, 27; Prov. 10:23; 2 Pet. 2:13 KJV; cf. RSV).

Although athletic competition was found across the ancient world, sports receive little to no attention in the OT. Be it archery (1 Sam. 20:20), chariotry (1 Kings 9:22), slinging (1 Chron. 12:2), or running (1 Kings 1:5), no instance occurs in a demonstrably athletic context but rather refers to military activity. This likely includes Jacob’s wrestling with a divine stranger (Gen. 32:24; see too Abner’s challenge to Joab’s men in 2 Sam. 2:14, where a physical competition among some soldiers eventually breaks into combat). Athletic imagery seems to be used in Jer. 12:5, where God reasons with Jeremiah using racing metaphors (see also the mention of a ball in Isa. 22:18, which may have athletic connotations).

With the conquest of Palestine by Alexander the Great in 332 BC, Hellenistic customs began to influence the native Jewish population, including an affinity for sports. Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175–164 BC) introduced Jerusalem’s first gymnasium, a Greek cultural center that held many athletic events. Athletes in Greek society competed naked, and events always honored pagan deities. Because of this and the reminder of foreign occupation, many Jews despised the gymnasium. But Greco-Roman athletics still pervaded the culture, as evidenced in the NT. Paul and the author of Hebrews are the only NT authors to refer to sports. The best example is Paul’s use of imagery from running, boxing, and athletic discipline when writing to the church at Corinth, the city of the famed Isthmian games (1 Cor. 9:24–27). Paul refers to running no less than five more times in his letters (Gal. 2:2; 5:7; Phil. 2:16; 3:12–14; 2 Tim. 4:7–8). The author of Hebrews also uses running imagery in Heb. 12:1–2.

A flaw or blemish causing a person or object to be cultically impure in some way. Certain white or reddish spots on a person’s body could indicate an infectious skin disease, rendering an Israelite ritually unclean (Lev. 13). Only animals without defect were acceptable as offerings to God (Exod. 12:5; Num. 19:2; Deut. 17:1). Figuratively, Christ’s followers are to be “spotless,” morally pure and thus qualified for fellowship with God (2 Pet. 3:14) and a pure church, free from “stain or wrinkle or any other blemish” (Eph. 5:27). Jesus “offered himself unblemished to God” (Heb. 9:14), the perfect sacrifice for sin as “a lamb without blemish or defect” (1 Pet. 1:19).

Spousal abuse is most succinctly defined as mistreatment of one’s marriage partner through physical or emotional means. The source of abuse can be traced to the fall, as both partners struggle for control of the relationship (Gen. 3:16b). As such, abuse is an expression of a relational problem with God as well as with one’s spouse.

Because abuse is rooted in the desire to exploit another, it can never be understood as consistent with the biblical understanding of marriage. Marriage is expressed in Scripture as a covenant between two individuals who were intended to work together as persons who “correspond” to each other and are “one flesh” (Gen. 2:18 NET; 2:24). The exploitation inherent in abuse is also counter to the ideas of mutual submission and of each person in a marriage belonging to the other. Neither person is to be driven by selfish motivations (1 Cor. 7:3–5; Eph. 5:21). Ultimately, abuse is counter to the Christian message because it cannot be an expression of the nature of love (1 Cor. 13) or the fruits of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22–23). Although abuse can be perpetrated upon either the husband or the wife, Scripture takes special care to instruct the husband to be gentle in relation to his wife, calling on him to treat her as Christ does the church and to be mindful of his significant role for the wife’s well-being (Eph. 5:28–31; 1 Pet. 3:7).

The surface egression of underground water, a good source of water. Since water was scarce in the ancient Near East, spring locations determined human activities (cf. Gen. 24:13; Josh. 15:19; Judg. 7:1; Song 1:14). Owing to their perennial gushing, springs are also called “living waters” (Jer. 2:13 ESV). God applies the imagery of a spring’s dependability to himself (Jer. 17:13), and Jesus likens a spring’s ceaseless flow to the Spirit’s life-giving indwelling of the believer (John 4:10–14; 7:38).

In Acts 12:4 the partial translation of the Greek word tetradion, which means “squad of four soldiers” and refers to a small military tactical unit.

The word “stable” is not found in many English translations of the Bible; instead, the word “stall” is used (1 Kings 4:26). Archaeological evidence has brought to light numerous tripartite buildings from the Solomonic period (c. 950 BC) and subsequent periods that likely functioned as stables. The best known are at Megiddo and Hazor. These structures located throughout Israel likely functioned as military outposts where the king’s chariots were stationed awaiting deployment.

Luke 2:7 (also vv. 12 and 16) refers to a “manger” where the infant Jesus lay “because there was no guest room available for them.” The Greek word for “manger,” phatnē, refers to a feeding trough. Such a setting suggests that Jesus was born in a stable, though that is not made explicit. Traditionally, the cave underlying the Church of the Nativity is understood to be the aforementioned stable.

A believer at the church in Rome whom Paul greets as “my dear friend” (Rom. 16:9).

Gum is a sticky, elastic substance formed from the breakdown of certain elements in the cell wall of plants. To harvest it, the bark of certain trees was cut and removed, which allowed the gum to exude and be collected. As can be seen from the contents of the Ishmaelite caravan (Gen. 37:25 NASB, ESV; NIV: “spices”), gum was an important trade commodity in the ancient Near East. Gum is similar to resin, and together they create a type of gum resin, of which frankincense is the most prominent biblical example. Referred to in the KJV and several other versions as “stacte,” gum resin (Heb. natap) was used in the priestly perfume (Exod. 30:34). This perfume symbolized the presence of God in the sanctuary, and its abuse was punishable by ostracism (Exod. 30:38).

A wooden walking stick that could have various functions. In ancient times, people did considerable amounts of walking. The ground in Israel is very uneven and rocky, making a walking stick a useful item (Gen. 32:10; Matt. 10:10). It is likely that walking sticks were customized so that they could serve as identification (Gen. 38:25).

Besides their utilitarian purpose, a rod or staff also came to denote an office and/or one’s authority. Military figures carried staffs that indicated their status (Judg. 5:14), and Gen. 49:10 predicts that the ruler’s staff will not depart from the tribe of Judah. Shepherds also carried a staff (Ps. 23:4; Mic. 7:14).

Sometimes a staff signified the presence of God with an individual. It was symbolic of the tree from which it was made, and a tree sometimes symbolically represented God. For this reason, some divine signs are associated with a raised staff. This was the case of Aaron’s staff. The Red Sea split after Moses extended his rod, and the Israelites had the better of the Amalekites on the battlefield as long as Moses kept the rod above his head. See also Aaron’s Rod.

Wooden stairs built against the outside wall of a Palestinian home gave access to the roof, where many family activities took place, while a flight of stairs inside the home led to the second story. In the city, broad stone steps led from one level of the street to another (Neh. 12:37), into deep cisterns, and were found at theaters. “Winding stairs” of the temple are mentioned in 1 Kings 6:8 (KJV, NASB). Stairs are mentioned in Neh. 9:4 as the place where the Levites stood while leading Israel in a confession of sins. Ezekiel’s vision of a future temple also refers to stairs (Ezek. 40:6; 43:17). The stairs of the City of David are rock-cut steps on the hill possibly leading to the Fountain Gate (Neh. 3:15).

In the OT, a wooden tent support (Isa. 33:20; 54:2). In the NT, the Greek word stauros, translated in English versions as “cross,” literally refers to an upright stake or pole, to which a horizontal beam was attached to form a cross for execution of persons by crucifixion (e.g., Matt. 27:32; John 19:17).

The word “stable” is not found in many English translations of the Bible; instead, the word “stall” is used (1 Kings 4:26). Archaeological evidence has brought to light numerous tripartite buildings from the Solomonic period (c. 950 BC) and subsequent periods that likely functioned as stables. The best known are at Megiddo and Hazor. These structures located throughout Israel likely functioned as military outposts where the king’s chariots were stationed awaiting deployment.

Luke 2:7 (also vv. 12 and 16) refers to a “manger” where the infant Jesus lay “because there was no guest room available for them.” The Greek word for “manger,” phatnē, refers to a feeding trough. Such a setting suggests that Jesus was born in a stable, though that is not made explicit. Traditionally, the cave underlying the Church of the Nativity is understood to be the aforementioned stable.

A person who studies the stars and their supposed effect on human personality and history. Such individuals were well known in both Mesopotamia and Egypt, though the former is more represented in the biblical texts.

In several places the OT prophets either ridicule or attack astrologers and their practice (Isa. 47:13; Dan. 2:27; 4:7; 5:7, 11; Amos 5:26), and the practice is strictly forbidden in the law codes (Deut. 4:19). Although there are several texts that may apply to astrology in the NT, the only explicit mention of the practice is in connection with the magi (Matt. 2) and Simon, Bar-jesus, and Elymas (Acts 8:9; 13:6, 8). However, in light of admonitions against astrology and the fact that it is an affront to faith in God, the birth narrative of Jesus should not be read as an approval of the practice but rather as an extraordinary event in which the heavens themselves proclaim the coming of the one born “king of the Jews” (Matt. 2:2).

A KJV phrase used to describe the heavenly bodies or heavenly beings. The NIV prefers “starry host(s),” “multitudes of heaven,” or “stars in the heavens/sky,” but “host of the heavens” does occur in Dan. 8:10. The Hebrew phrase, tseba’ hashamayim, means literally “army of the heavens.” The connection between the celestial elements and an army comes in conjunction with God’s role as the commander of the Israelite forces (Josh. 5:13–15; Judg. 5:23). There are times when the Bible portrays the celestial elements as part of God’s military retinue, fighting on his behalf. The stars fight from heaven against Sisera (Judg. 5:20), and in the Israelites’ battle against the Amorites, the sun and the moon are commanded to stand still (Josh. 10:12–13; cf. Hab. 3:11). Based on these passages, the phrase may have had some military background, but it is also understood in other ways.

Perhaps one of the more enigmatic uses of the phrase occurs in 1 Kings 22:19 (cf. 2 Chron. 18:18; NIV: “multitudes of heaven”), where it describes God’s council. There are other biblical phrases used with more frequency to describe the heavenly council surrounding God. Other names for these beings include the “seraphim” of Isa. 6:2 and the “sons of God” in Job 1:6; 2:1; Pss. 29:1; 89:6. The connection between God’s council and the celestial elements likely comes, as noted above, through the heavenly bodies’ association with God in battle. Further solidifying this connection is Job 38:7, where the “sons of God” parallel the “morning stars.” Exactly what these heavenly beings are is debated, and many interpreters suggest the answer lies in the polytheistic context of Israel’s neighbors. Another possible explanation is to view these beings as the messengers or angels of God. The Bible portrays them as inferior beings (Deut. 3:24; 10:17; Jer. 10:6), and they function to serve and worship Yahweh (Pss. 29:1; 103:21; 148:2–3; Isa. 6:2). The angels who appear to the shepherds at Jesus’ birth are described as the “heavenly host” (Luke 2:13).

The last and most frequent use of the phrase “host of heaven” is to describe a condemned object of Israelite worship. It is likely that from their association with God’s council, these celestial elements gained an independent status and were worshiped apart from God. At times the “host of heaven” appears to refer to the stars alone; the NIV therefore translates it as “stars in the sky” (Deut. 17:3; Jer. 33:22; cf. Jer. 8:2) or “starry hosts” (2 Kings 23:5). At other times the phrase refers to the totality of the heavenly bodies (Deut. 4:19 [NIV: “heavenly array”]; cf. 2 Kings 21:3, 5). Based on the distribution of the phrase, and its occurrence primarily in documents narrating the Assyrian period (2 Kings 17:16; 21:3, 5; 23:4–5; Jer. 19:13; Zeph. 1:5), there is likely a direct correlation between the worship of the host of heaven and Israel’s Assyrian vassalage in the seventh century BC. The extent of Assyrian impact on Israelite religion is debated, but it is likely that astral worship—that is, worship of the starry hosts—flourished in this period due to the influence of the Assyrians, a culture entrenched in worship of the astral powers.

The word “star” is used in the Bible to refer to any bright point of light in the night sky; no linguistic distinction is made between stars and planets (cf. 2 Pet. 1:19; Rev. 2:28; 22:16).

Stars often are used to illustrate the scope of God’s promises (Gen. 15:5; 22:17; 26:4; Deut. 10:22). They were used throughout the ancient Near East to represent the king, an association also evident in the OT (Num. 24:17; Isa. 14:12). Stars also were named, and some were objects of worship, a practice condemned in Israel (Amos 5:26; cf. Deut. 4:19). Stars were subject to study by foreign sages who sought to predict the future based on their observations, although their efficacy is denied (Isa. 47:13). Nonetheless, the arrival of the Messiah is heralded by a star in the service of its creator (Matt. 2:2–10). The falling (Rev. 6:13) and the darkening of stars (Joel 2:10; 3:15) are used to depict the coming of the day of the Lord in judgment.

Either one’s physical height (1 Sam. 16:7; 1 Chron. 11:23; Isa. 45:14; Luke 19:3 NRSV) or one’s repute or status in the eyes of others. Samuel grew in “stature and in favor with the Lord and with people” (1 Sam. 2:26). In the same way, Jesus grew in “wisdom and stature, and in favor with God and man” (Luke 2:52). The term can be used figuratively concerning length of life (Matt. 6:27 KJV) or refer to spiritual growth (Eph. 4:13 NRSV).

A law, rule, or commandment. Statutes could be issued from God (Ps. 119:2; 122:4) or an earthly ruler (1 Sam 30:25; Mic. 6:16). The same Hebrew terms translated as “statute” are sometimes translated as “decree,” “policy,” or “ordinance.”

Steadfastness is the quality of firmness or stability. Paul told the Colossians that he was delighted to see their discipline and steadfastness in the faith (Col. 2:5 [KJV: “stedfastness”]). The term is also used in 2 Pet. 3:17 KJV, warning the readers not to fall away from their steadfastness. A steadfast person is firm in belief and has a solid foundation that cannot be shaken. In the NIV, “steadfast” is a quality of one’s spirit (Ps. 51:10), heart (Pss. 57:7; 108:1; 112:7), ways (Ps. 119:5; Prov. 4:26), or mind (Isa. 23:6). Peter assures his readers that God will make them “strong, firm and steadfast” (1 Pet. 5:10).

Steadfastness is the quality of firmness or stability. Paul told the Colossians that he was delighted to see their discipline and steadfastness in the faith (Col. 2:5 [KJV: “stedfastness”]). The term is also used in 2 Pet. 3:17 KJV, warning the readers not to fall away from their steadfastness. A steadfast person is firm in belief and has a solid foundation that cannot be shaken. In the NIV, “steadfast” is a quality of one’s spirit (Ps. 51:10), heart (Pss. 57:7; 108:1; 112:7), ways (Ps. 119:5; Prov. 4:26), or mind (Isa. 23:6). Peter assures his readers that God will make them “strong, firm and steadfast” (1 Pet. 5:10).

The acquisition of another’s property by force or threat. This crime was perpetrated by bandits (Hos. 7:1), often through ambush (Judg. 9:25). In Jesus’ parable of the good Samaritan, the robbers’ attack leaves the victim half dead (Luke 10:30). The eighth commandment’s prohibition against stealing (Exod. 20:15; Deut. 5:19) certainly includes robbery, which is explicitly condemned in Lev. 19:13. OT law does not distinguish robbery from theft, which is done by stealth or deception, likely because the unlawful seizure of another’s goods was seen as a civil crime and the legal emphasis was on the restitution of property along with some compensation for distress, which varied according to the item stolen and served as a deterrent to thieves (Exod. 22:1, 4; Lev. 6:1–7). If unable to make restitution, the criminal could be sold into slavery to pay the debt (Exod. 22:3). Should the violence of robbery result in injury, laws concerning personal injury applied (Exod. 21:23–25; Lev. 24:19–20). In fact, under certain conditions, the law addresses an injured thief as the victim and not the perpetrator of violence (Exod. 22:2–3). The two men crucified with Jesus are traditionally described as “robbers” (Matt. 27:38; Mark 15:27), though in this case the Greek word (lēstēs) likely refers to rebels or insurrectionists (NLT: “revolutionaries”). This was the Roman authorities’ way of casting them as common criminals rather than as freedom fighters.

God declares his hatred for robbery, contrasting it with justice (Isa. 61:8). Robbery is often an example of injustice, especially when perpetrated upon the poor (Isa. 10:2; Ezek. 22:29). Rescuing a victim from a robber is enjoined as a just action (Jer. 21:12; 22:3), one for which God himself deserves praise (Ps. 35:10). God describes himself as the victim of robbery as he accuses Israel of stealing from him by withholding its tithes (Mal. 3:8–9).

Greek has two different words to distinguish a robber (lēstēs) from a thief (kleptēs). In the NT, robbery appears primarily as a metaphor. Jesus uses it to represent false prophets (John 10:1, 8), his own plunder of Satan’s house (Matt. 12:29; Mark 3:27), and, in a reference from Jer. 7:11, those seeking economic gain in the temple (Matt. 21:13; Mark 11:17; Luke 19:46).

An alloy consisting mostly of iron with a carbon content of between 0.2 percent and 2.1 percent. The oldest known steel production dates to the second millennium BC. The KJV three times translates the Hebrew word nekhushah as “steel” (2 Sam. 22:35; Job 20:24; Ps. 18:34; cf. nekhoshet in Jer. 15:12), although these passages probably refer instead to copper or “bronze” (NIV).

The head of a household in Corinth whose members were the first converts in the region of Achaia (1 Cor. 16:15). They were baptized by Paul (1:16) and became ministers to the Christians in Corinth. They gave themselves to the advance of the gospel and labored diligently (16:16). Paul encouraged the Corinthian Christians to submit to these Christian laborers, including Stephanas himself (16:16, 18). He, along with Fortunatus and Achaicus, probably brought a letter from the Corinthians to Paul (7:1) and may also have carried the letter that we know as 1 Corinthians back to Corinth. The three men refreshed the spirits of both Paul and the congregation there (16:17–18).

Because of rapid growth in the early church, the apostles found it necessary to delegate tasks to others. Stephen was first named and chosen by the Jerusalem church as one of seven men whose task was to help distribute food equitably among the widows, especially the Greek-speaking widows, of the church. He is described as “a man full of faith and of the Holy Spirit” (Acts 6:5) and “full of God’s grace and power” (6:8).

Stephen became the first known Christian martyr after a strange trial in front of the Sanhedrin. His defense focused on a review of Jewish history, climaxing in the claim that Israel had always opposed and persecuted God’s messengers and now had betrayed and murdered their own Messiah, “the Righteous One” (Acts 7:51–53). The Sanhedrin responded in rage and took Stephen out of the city to stone him. As he was being stoned to death, Stephen saw Jesus standing at the right hand of God, asked him to receive his spirit, and then sought forgiveness for his killers in a prayer similar to one that Jesus prayed (Acts 7:59–60; cf. Luke 23:24).

The persecution resulting from Stephen’s stoning scattered the Jerusalem church, providing further opportunities for evangelism. Saul of Tarsus is first mentioned in this account, as witnessing and approving Stephen’s death (Acts 7:58; 8:1).

The management of available resources in the recognition that God is the owner and provider of all things. The Bible is clear that God is the maker and owner of all things. The psalmist wrote, “The earth is the Lord’s, and everything in it, the world, and all who live in it” (Ps. 24:1). God told Job, “Everything under heaven belongs to me” (Job 41:11). In the same way, God says, “The silver is mine and the gold is mine” (Hag. 2:8). Stewardship is based upon the principle that God is the maker of all things. Since God is the creator and owner of all things, God’s followers are charged with managing what he has given.

The term “steward” is used in the OT to refer to Joseph’s steward (Gen. 43:19; 44:1, 4) and to Arza, who was the steward of Baasha’s son Elah, who reigned over Israel (1 Kings 16:9 KJV). The steward was the manager who oversaw all household operations. Having a great deal of responsibility, the slave or servant in this position had to be someone whom the owner trusted. Jesus used similar terms in referring to a household manager in some of his parables (Matt. 20:8; Luke 16:1, 3). The concept of stewardship is applied to the believer as God’s servant. Believers are stewards for God in the sense that they manage God’s resources in this world.

The biblical concept of stewardship begins with Adam and Eve being charged with the responsibility of caring for the creative work of God (Gen. 2:15). In the garden of Eden, humankind was given the responsibility to care for the earth, manage it, and have dominion over it. On an individual level, all that Christians possess is intended to be used for God’s purposes and glory. Biblical stewardship involves more than financial resources, although certainly those are included. Proper stewardship involves managing every resource (time, talent, finances, opportunity) under the leadership of God, who owns it all.

Regarding financial matters, the Bible teaches that a tithe (one-tenth) of one’s income should be returned to God as a reminder that all one has comes from him (Lev. 27:30). The OT concept of the tithe is assumed by Jesus in Matt. 23:23 when he rebukes the scribes and the Pharisees for tithing and yet neglecting more important things such as justice and mercy. However, the tithe is not frequently mentioned in the NT. Rather than focusing on tithing, the NT focuses on the attitude of the believer in giving. Believers are encouraged to give sacrificially (Mark 12:41–44; Acts 2:44–45). In addition, Paul stresses giving in love with generosity (2 Cor. 9:6–8). Giving to others in need is a reflection of trust that God will provide for our own needs as we give to meet the needs of others. God expects that everything that one has will be used in ways that honor him.

A device used for punishment. Stocks are large wooden frames with holes for a person’s arms and legs, which are clamped, thus immobilizing the prisoner. Jeremiah was put into stocks (Jer. 20:2–3; 29:26), and Job uses stocks (shackles) to symbolize suffering (Job 13:27; 33:11). In NT times, Roman stocks had a number of holes designed to force the prisoner’s legs apart. Paul and Silas were imprisoned and put in stocks (Acts 16:24–26).

The philosophy (“love of wisdom”) most familiar to the writers of the NT began in Ionia, among those who attempted to determine the fundamental substance of the universe without recourse to superstition and myth (the pre-Socratics). Platonists, Peripatetics (Aristotelians), Stoics, and Epicureans—all began in Athens, extending the work of Socrates (c. 469–399 BC), who was executed for challenging the status quo and “corrupting the minds of the youth.” But by the first century BC, Hellenistic philosophy had permeated the Mediterranean world. The ontological quest for the nature of being, however, had joined itself to ethics: What is the good life? Therefore, philosophy and the gospel, which also made claims about the “is” and “ought” of the universe, would compete for the hearts of the people. Acts relates that Paul debated with Epicureans and Stoics (17:18).

Epicureanism. Epicurus (c. 341–270 BC) founded a school in his garden. His followers believed that he was divine, possessing answers for all of life’s questions. The founder wrote didactic letters to disseminate his philosophy. By coining maxims and slogans for illiterate people to memorize and pattern their lives by, he became perhaps the first popular philosopher (perhaps the equivalent of a modern “self-help guru”). His disciples were evangelistic, traversing the Roman Empire to win converts. They carefully memorized his teachings and, after his death, preserved his writings, which often were cited in an unchanging canon.

Epicurus preached a “common sense” gospel. The goal of life is personal happiness. The greatest obstacle to happiness is anxiety. He proposed a four-part “cure,” an intellectual appropriation of these truth claims: (1) there are no divine beings who threaten us; (2) there is no next life; (3) what we truly need is easy to get; (4) what makes us suffer is easy to put up with. A fundamental Epicurean conviction is that life on this earth comes with no strings attached. The implicit atheism and selfishness of the system were largely unappealing to Jews and pious pagans.

Stoicism. More influential were the Stoics, who had many leaders and no single source of authority. Zeno (c. 336–264 BC) founded the school, which took its name from the “painted porch” (stoa) on the north side of the Athenian market where he lectured. Like the Epicureans, the Stoics saw the goal of life to be personal happiness, but they embraced providence, the ordering of all things for the best. Therefore, happiness is living virtuously according to nature, which involves a two-part process: (1) we conform our lives to the rational principle guiding the universe, what they called the “Logos,” or “Word”; (2) we resign ourselves completely and without complaint to whatever providence may send us. This is living a life of reason.

The impersonal nature of the Logos and seeming coldness to the human condition made Stoicism difficult for most people to embrace. Perhaps through the mediating reflection of the Jewish philosopher Philo (c. 20 BC–AD 50), who attempted to synthesize Scripture and philosophy, the apostle John interpreted the mystery of the incarnation, in part, by presenting Jesus as the Logos/Word (John 1:1–18; see also Col. 1:15–20).

Other forms of philosophy. Also prominent were Cynics, who embraced the defiance of Socrates, and Neo-Pythagoreans, who extended asceticism to the rejection of wine, marriage, eating meat (and for some, beans), sacrifice, shoes, all clothing except that made of linen, shaving, and dancing. The singular reference to philosophy in the Bible is negative (Col. 2:8; cf. Acts 17:18–21). The context suggests that Paul’s opponents were influenced by Neo-Pythagoreans (Col. 2:6–23; see also 1 Tim. 4:1–5; 5:23).

The early church did not embrace a singular position on philosophy. Tertullian (c. AD 160–240) famously asks, “What is there in common between Athens and Jerusalem? What between the Academy and the Church?” (Praescr. 7). But Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 150–215) claims, “For God is the source of all good things. . . . Thus philosophy was a preparation, paving the way towards perfection in Christ” (Strom. 1.5.28). The church fathers appropriated the precision of philosophical vocabulary in their attempt to rationalize the mysteries of the Christian faith.

A mineral cluster or rock. Although the terms “rock” and “stone” are occasionally used synonymously, “rock” usually refers to a large geological formation such as a cliff, cave, outcropping, or bedrock, while “stone” is preferred when the rock is small enough to be fashioned or handled by human beings. “Stone” can also function as an adjective, referring to a material made of stone, or as a verb, referring to the casting of stones.

Rocks and stones were found naturally on the ground (Job 8:17; Ps. 91:12; Isa. 5:2; Mark 5:5; Luke 3:8). They could be heaped or piled up as a sign of disgrace (Josh. 7:26; 8:29; 2 Sam. 18:17), as a marker or memorial (Gen. 31:46–50), or as an altar (Exod. 20:25). A single rock or stone could also be used as a place marker (Gen. 28:22; 35:14, 20; 1 Sam. 7:12), especially standing stones (Deut. 27:2–8; Josh. 4:3–9). Large stones could also be used to cover a well (Gen. 29:2–3) or to seal a cave or tomb, such as at the tombs of Lazarus (John 11:38–39) and of Jesus (Matt. 27:60; Mark 16:3–4).

Stone was used as a construction material, particularly for the temple (1 Kings 5:15–18; 1 Chron. 2:22; Ezra 5:8; Hag. 2:15; Mark 13:1–2). Stone was used in a building’s foundation and for the cornerstone or capstone (1 Kings 5:17; Jer. 51:26; Isa. 28:16), as well as for the walls (Hab. 2:11). Psalm 118:22 refers metaphorically to the stone rejected by the builders becoming the cornerstone. In the NT, this is interpreted as referring to Jesus (Matt. 21:42; Mark 12:10; Luke 20:17; Acts 4:11; 1 Pet. 2:7; cf. Eph. 2:20). Stone could also function as a writing material (Josh. 8:32), such as the tablets on which the Ten Commandments were inscribed (Exod. 24:12; Deut. 9:9–11; 1 Kings 8:9; cf. 2 Cor. 3:3, 7). Stone was also carved, although at Sinai the Israelites are instructed not to use cut or “dressed” stones when constructing an altar (Exod. 20:25; cf. Josh. 8:31). The phrase “carved stone” refers specifically to idols, since stone was one material used for crafting false gods (Lev. 26:1; cf. Deut. 4:28; 29:17; 2 Kings 19:18; Isa. 37:19; Rev. 9:20); the term “stone” itself can therefore be used to refer to an idol, especially in the phrase “wood and stone” (Jer. 3:9; Ezek. 20:32).

Stones were used as a weapon or instrument of destruction, whether thrown by hand (Num. 35:17, 23) or flung with a sling (Judg. 20:16; 1 Sam. 17:40, 49–50; Prov. 26:8). The verb “to stone” refers to the throwing of stones at an individual, which typically functioned as an official manner of execution (Exod. 19:13; 21:28–29; Deut. 21:20–21; 1 Kings 21:13–15; John 8:5; Acts 7:58–59), although it was at times the action of an angry crowd (Exod. 17:4; 1 Kings 12:18; cf. John 8:59).

The phrases “precious stones” and “costly stones” refer to gems (2 Sam. 12:30; Esther 1:6; Isa. 54:12; 1 Cor. 3:12). Gems were used as a display of wealth or honor (1 Kings 10:2, 10–11; 2 Chron. 32:27; Ezek. 27:22) and for decoration (1 Chron. 3:6; Rev. 17:4; 18:16). The two stones on the high priest’s ephod and the twelve precious stones on his breastpiece represented the twelve tribes (Exod. 25:7; 28:9–12, 17–21), a symbolism echoed in the twelve types of precious stones adorning the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20).

Rocks and stones are used often in metaphors or similes (e.g., hard as a rock, still as a stone). They can represent something that is common (1 Kings 10:27; Job 5:23; Matt. 3:9; 4:3), strong (Job 6:12), hard (Job 38:30; 41:24), heavy (Exod. 15:5; Prov. 27:3), motionless (Exod. 15:16), or immovable (Zech. 12:3). A “heart of stone” describes coldheartedness (Ezek. 11:19; 36:26). A “stumbling stone,” which is literally a stone that causes one to stumble (Isa. 8:14), is used in the NT as a metaphor for an obstacle to faith in Jesus (Rom. 9:32–33; 1 Pet. 2:8).

A boundary marker on the south boundary of the territory of the tribe of Benjamin and on the northern border of the territory of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:6; 18:17). The exact location of the stone is unknown, although it was most likely west of the Jordan River because the boundary between the tribes of Judah and Benjamin ran west from the Jordan River and the Dead Sea. Although the texts in Joshua have “the Stone of Bohan son of Reuben,” Bohan is not mentioned in the genealogies of Reuben.

A site named in the battle of Ai (Josh. 7:5). Literally meaning “broken places,” the name may refer to some broken terrain a few miles southeast of Ai. Most translations simply transliterate the Hebrew word as this place name, but the NIV translates it as “stone quarries.”

Stoning is the most common method of capital punishment in the OT and is often prescribed by the law (Lev. 20:2; Num. 15:32–36; Deut. 13:1–10; 17:2–5; 22:24). It requires that the primary witnesses against the accused be the first to take up stones, although often the “entire assembly” participates in the stoning (Lev. 24:14, 16; cf. Deut. 21:21). In the NT, Jesus uses the attempted stoning of a woman caught in adultery as an object lesson in mercy (John 7:53–8:11). While the Romans used crucifixion as a means of execution, the Jewish authorities continued to use stoning, as in the case of Stephen (Acts 7:54–60). See also Capital Punishment; Crimes and Punishments.

Exodus 1:16 refers to a “delivery stool” (NIV), a translation of the Hebrew ’obnayim. This may refer to an object or an arrangement of stones or blocks set side by side on which a woman sat to give birth. The same Hebrew word in Jer. 18:3 refers to a potter’s wheel. The “footstool” is associated with thrones of ancient rulers and symbolized power or authority (Isa. 66:1; Heb. 10:13). In 2 Kings 4:10 the stool is a simple chair.

City Towns or cities where royal tribute or taxes (paid in kind), provisions, and weapons were stored for use by the government or at the government’s discretion, especially in time of famine or war. Storage cities are a hallmark of centralized government, as seen during Israel’s monarchy (1000–586 BC). Over thirty-five tripartite pillared buildings have been discovered at over twelve different archaeological sites within the Levant, including Hazor, Megiddo, Tel Beersheba, and Beth Shemesh. These buildings probably were used as storehouses, though other theories exist. Over 150 pottery vessels were recovered in such buildings at Tel Beersheba, and similar buildings uncovered at Beth Shemesh were identified by the Grant excavations as Iron Age storehouses. Pithom and Rameses were two of Pharaoh’s storage cities in Egypt (Exod. 1:11). During the united monarchy, Solomon had storage cities throughout Israel (1 Kings 9:19; 2 Chron. 8:4–6). Storehouses in Naphtali were destroyed by Ben-Hadad I (2 Chron. 16:4). Jehoshaphat built storage cities throughout Judah (2 Chron. 17:12), and Hezekiah’s storage cities helped him to prepare for ensuing war (32:28). Storage jars with the stamped inscription lmlk (“to/for the king”) have been found throughout Judah, likely remnants of the provisions that once filled Hezekiah’s storehouses.

City Towns or cities where royal tribute or taxes (paid in kind), provisions, and weapons were stored for use by the government or at the government’s discretion, especially in time of famine or war. Storage cities are a hallmark of centralized government, as seen during Israel’s monarchy (1000–586 BC). Over thirty-five tripartite pillared buildings have been discovered at over twelve different archaeological sites within the Levant, including Hazor, Megiddo, Tel Beersheba, and Beth Shemesh. These buildings probably were used as storehouses, though other theories exist. Over 150 pottery vessels were recovered in such buildings at Tel Beersheba, and similar buildings uncovered at Beth Shemesh were identified by the Grant excavations as Iron Age storehouses. Pithom and Rameses were two of Pharaoh’s storage cities in Egypt (Exod. 1:11). During the united monarchy, Solomon had storage cities throughout Israel (1 Kings 9:19; 2 Chron. 8:4–6). Storehouses in Naphtali were destroyed by Ben-Hadad I (2 Chron. 16:4). Jehoshaphat built storage cities throughout Judah (2 Chron. 17:12), and Hezekiah’s storage cities helped him to prepare for ensuing war (32:28). Storage jars with the stamped inscription lmlk (“to/for the king”) have been found throughout Judah, likely remnants of the provisions that once filled Hezekiah’s storehouses.

A long-legged, long-necked, long-billed bird, over three feet tall, that nests high up in trees or on ledges (Ps. 104:17). The stork is a strong flyer (Job 39:13; Zech. 5:9), and two species, the white stork and the black stork, migrate over Israel (Jer. 8:7). Job 39:13–17 could also refer to the stork’s care for its young; the Hebrew word for “stork,” khasidah, may be derived from khesed, “kindness” or “faithfulness.” Storks are listed as unclean birds (Lev. 11:19; Deut. 14:18).

After Saul was blinded by light from heaven, he stayed in the house of Judas on Straight Street in Damascus (Acts 9:3–9, 11). There Ananias, sent by the risen Christ, laid his hands on Saul, who regained his sight (9:10–18). The general course of Straight Street is still identifiable in modern Damascus.