The third son of Ezer, and a grandson of Seir (1 Chron. 1:42). The parallel genealogy in Gen. 36:27 lists him as “Akan,” which the NIV uses in both places. See also Akan; Bene Jaakan.
A place of unknown location to which the Israelites traveled during their wilderness journey (Deut. 10:6 ESV, NASB [cf. NRSV]; NIV: “the wells of Bene Jaakan”; cf. Num. 33:31–32). See also Bene Jaakan.
One of the tribal leaders of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:36).
An ancestor of a family that belonged to the “servants of Solomon” (Ezra 2:55–56; Neh. 7:57–58) and returned from Babylonian exile with Zerubbabel around 539 BC. Little is known about this group except that it likely performed menial functions at the temple, as it is grouped with the “temple servants” (see Nethinim). The name of the group suggests that it was formed during the period of Solomon, though it could have been so named because Solomon built the first temple.
The second of three sons born to Esau by Oholibamah, one of his Canaanite wives (Gen. 36:5, 14; 1 Chron. 1:35). Jalam became the tribal chief of an Edomite clan (Gen. 36:18).
A Gadite living in Bashan who served under the command of the clan chief Joel (1 Chron. 5:12).
A place about ten miles west of Jerusalem (Ps. 132:6) whose name means “forest.” The description “fields of Jaar” refers to Kiriath Jearim (“Jearim” is the plural of “Jaar”), where the ark of the covenant, after its time with the Philistines, lay for twenty years before David brought it to Jerusalem (see 1 Sam. 6:21–7:2; 1 Chron. 13:6).
A transliteration of the Hebrew phrase ya’are ’oregim, which occurs in 2 Sam. 21:19 (NIV mg.). If it is a personal name, then he is the Bethlehemite father of Elhanan, who is said to have killed Goliath. If it is a scribal error, then the parallel passage in 1 Chron. 20:5 may be viewed as the corrected reading, stating that “Elhanan son of Jair killed Lahmi the brother of Goliath.” Since both accounts agree that the shaft of Goliath’s spear was “like a weaver’s rod,” it is probable that the scribe of Samuel mistakenly repeated the word ’oregim (“weavers”) from the end of the verse and connected it with the name “Jair.”
An individual named in the genealogy of King Saul the Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:27). He was the fourth of Jeroham’s six sons.
One of the descendants of the priests listed in Ezra who were guilty of marrying a foreign wife (Ezra 10:37). The KJV has the name as “Jaasau,” and the NKJV as “Jaasai.” The variant spellings result from the MT text having different Kethib (what is written) and Qere (what is read) forms of the name.
One of the descendants of the priests listed in Ezra who were guilty of marrying a foreign wife (Ezra 10:37). The KJV has the name as “Jaasau,” and the NKJV as “Jaasai.” The variant spellings result from the MT text having different Kethib (what is written) and Qere (what is read) forms of the name.
(1) The son of Abner (the general who defected from Saul to David), Jaasiel was one of David’s army officers who was in charge of a militia provided by the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 27:21). (2) One of David’s thirty mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:47). It is possible that these two men are the same person.
One of the descendants of the priests listed in Ezra who were guilty of marrying a foreign wife (Ezra 10:37). The KJV has the name as “Jaasau,” and the NKJV as “Jaasai.” The variant spellings result from the MT text having different Kethib (what is written) and Qere (what is read) forms of the name.
(1) The son of the Maakathite and one of the army officers of Judah who pledged his support to Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, after Jerusalem’s defeat by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians. Jaazaniah apparently fled to Egypt after the assassination of Gedaliah because he feared retribution by the Babylonians (2 Kings 25:22–26; Jer. 40:7–14). (2) A clan leader of the Rekabites (Jer. 35:3). The Rekabites refused to drink wine and have vineyards, fields, or crops and lived in tents as a sign of their piety to their ancestors. The prophet Jeremiah uses them as an example of the kind of obedience that God desires of all the people of Judah (Jer. 35). (3) The son of Shaphan, he was one of the seventy elders of Israel who in Ezekiel’s vision were guilty of offering incense to idols that had been placed in the Jerusalem temple (Ezek. 8:11). (4) The son of Azzur, he was one of the leaders whom Ezekiel prophesies against when they try to comfort the people and downplay their sin (Ezek. 11:1).
Variant spelling of the place and regional name “Jazer” (Num. 21:32; 32:35 KJV).
A Levite who was the son of Merari and the father of Beno, Shoham, Zakkur, and Ibri (1 Chron. 24:26–27).
One of the Levitical musicians who was part of the celebration and procession when the ark of the covenant was brought into Jerusalem by David (1 Chron. 15:18).
The son of Lamech and Adah, and the brother of Jubal (also born to Adah) and Tubal-Cain (born to Lamech and Zillah). Jabel is identified as “the father of those who live in tents and raise livestock” (Gen. 4:20).
A key tributary of the Jordan River, flowing about thirty-seven miles. The name “Jabbok” (Heb. yabboq) may come from the Hebrew word baqaq, describing the “gurgling” sound of the water. The Jabbok is the modern Wadi Zarqa, so named for its blue water. Located in the Transjordan, where ancient cities populate the region (e.g., Adam, Gerasa, Mahanaim, Penuel), it rises in springs near Amman and flows north, then turns northwest and then due west, finally emptying into the Jordan near Adam, about twenty miles north of the Dead Sea. Famously, Jacob wrestled with “a man” at the Jabbok (Gen. 32:22–27), memorialized by the narrator’s wordplays: “Jabbok” ( yabboq), “Jacob” ( ya’aqob), and “he wrestled” ( ye’abeq).
The exact location of the town Jabesh Gilead is unknown, but biblical descriptions place it in the northwest Gilead region. It may have been located near the Wadi Yabis. Both Tell el-Maqlub and Tell Abu Kharaz have been suggested as possible sites. Jabesh Gilead played prominent, if tragic, roles in three biblical events. Judges 19–20 records how the gross immorality of some men from Benjamin resulted in the other Israelite tribes attacking and nearly destroying the tribe of Benjamin. Because the people of Jabesh Gilead failed to assemble with the Israelite tribes at Mizpah (Judg. 21:8), all of its people were killed except for four hundred virgins, who were given as wives to the surviving Benjamites. Years later, 1 Sam. 11 records Saul, a Benjamite, saving Jabesh Gilead from the Ammonites. When the people of Jabesh Gilead heard that the Philistines had hung the corpses of Saul and his sons on the wall of Beth Shan, their warriors traveled all night to retrieve them and give them an honorable burial at Jabesh (1 Sam. 31:11–12). David blessed them for their bravery and kindness to Saul (2 Sam. 2:4–6).
(1) Called “more honorable than his brothers,” Jabez was granted his request that God bless and protect him (1 Chron. 4:9–10). The incident was highlighted to show that God answers prayer. (2) In 1 Chron. 2:55 a town known as the residence of clans of the “scribes” (NIV; cf. LXX) or the “Sopherites” (NIV mg.; cf. NAB).
The name “Jabin” is most likely a royal dynastic name at the city of Hazor (similar to “Ramesses” in Egypt or “Henry” in England). The name appears as early as the seventeenth century BC in the Mari archives, where Hazor’s king is Yabni-Addu (meaning “[the god] Addu built/created”). In the Bible, Jabin appears to be the name of two different rulers. (1) The king of Hazor during Joshua’s “northern campaign.” He formed a coalition of Canaanite kings who battled the Israelites at the Waters of Merom (Josh. 11:1–5). God gave victory to the Israelites, Jabin was killed, and Hazor was burned (Josh. 11:6–14). (2) The “king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor” during the war of Deborah (Judg. 4:2). He was defeated, and his commander, Sisera, was killed by Jael (Judg. 4:14–23).
(1) A town near the Mediterranean Sea marking the western end of the northern boundary of land allocated to Judah after the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 15:11). It probably is identical with Jabneh (2 Chron. 26:6), a Philistine city whose walls were destroyed by king Uzziah. Known as Jamnia in the Maccabean period, it became an important center of Judaism after AD 70. (2) A town marking the southern boundary of Naphtali (Josh. 19:33). The site may be Tel Yinam, near the Sea of Galilee.
A leader from the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:13). See also Akan.
A leader from the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:13). See also Akan.
(1) A son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15) and the ancestor of the Jakinite clan (Num. 26:12). (2) A priest who returned from the exile (1 Chron. 9:10; Neh. 11:10). (3) A priest in the line of Aaron (1 Chron. 24:17). (4) One of two pillars erected by Solomon and Hiram in the temple (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Chron. 3:17). Together with the other pillar, Boaz, the names form a prayer: “May he [the Lord] establish strength in him [Solomon]” (“Jakin” means “he establishes,” and “Boaz” means “may strength be in him”). The pillars did not support anything; thus, they appear to be symbolic and to demonstrate that the temple belonged to Yahweh. See also Boaz.
(1) A son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15) and the ancestor of the Jakinite clan (Num. 26:12). (2) A priest who returned from the exile (1 Chron. 9:10; Neh. 11:10). (3) A priest in the line of Aaron (1 Chron. 24:17). (4) One of two pillars erected by Solomon and Hiram in the temple (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Chron. 3:17). Together with the other pillar, Boaz, the names form a prayer: “May he [the Lord] establish strength in him [Solomon]” (“Jakin” means “he establishes,” and “Boaz” means “may strength be in him”). The pillars did not support anything; thus, they appear to be symbolic and to demonstrate that the temple belonged to Yahweh. See also Boaz.
A gem that has a reddish, orange, or brown tint. It is listed as one of the twelve gems mounted on the high priest’s breastpiece, although its exact identification is uncertain (Exod. 28:19; 39:12). One of the twelve foundations of the “Holy City, Jerusalem,” described in Rev. 21:20 is decorated with jacinth.
About the size of a large dog, the wolflike golden jackal (Canis aureus) is a scavenging predator native to Israel, still widely found there. Jackals are primarily but not exclusively carnivorous. They consume carrion, dig dens, are aggressive, and have a distinctive howl (Mic. 1:8). Jackals prowl in packs, favoring dry, barren terrain. They are strongly associated with ruins in the OT (Isa. 13:22; 34:13; Jer. 9:11). The NT does not specifically refer to jackals.
In the OT, the English translation “jackal” generally represents one of two Hebrew words: tan is consistently translated “jackal,” while shu’al is usually translated “fox” but can also mean “jackal.” Instances of the latter include Ps. 63:10; Lam. 5:18; Ezek. 13:4. Jackals and foxes can occupy the same general area, but foxes are loners and prefer a wooded habitat. Thus, it has been argued that the foxes of Judg. 15:4–5 are better understood to have been jackals.
Nehemiah “went out through the Valley Gate toward the Jackal Well and the Dung Gate” to inspect the ruined walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 2:13). The Hebrew phrase (’en hattannin) has been variously translated as “Dragon’s Well” (NASB), “Dragon’s Spring” (NRSV), “Serpent’s Well” (HCSB), and “Snake Fountain” (GW). The LXX renders it as “fountain of the figs.” Most scholars identify the location with En Rogel, outside the Dung Gate, where the Hinnom and Kidron Valleys meet.
(1) Renamed “Israel” by God (Gen. 32:28), he was the son of Isaac and Rebekah and was the father of twelve sons, whose descendants became the twelve tribes. Half the book of Genesis (25:19–49:33) narrates his story and that of his sons. The middle chapters of Genesis focus on his struggles with his brother, Esau, and with his uncle Laban, and the later chapters focus on his children Dinah, Judah, and particularly Joseph during his time in Egypt.
According to the Genesis narrative, Jacob’s mother, Rebekah, was barren, but God heard Isaac’s prayer, and she gave birth to twins, Esau the older and Jacob the younger (25:21–26). He was named “Jacob,” which means “supplanter,” because he gripped Esau’s heel during their birth. Isaac favored Esau, but Jacob was, so to speak, a “mama’s boy” (25:27–28). Jacob supplanted Esau twice, initially when Esau sold Jacob his birthright as firstborn son for some stew and later when Jacob pretended to be Esau, tricking his elderly father into giving him Esau’s blessing (25:29–34; 27:1–29). After the second incident, Esau swore to kill his brother, so Jacob fled to Harran, where his uncle Laban lived (27:41–28:5).
En route to Harran, Jacob had a dream of a stairway to heaven, and God spoke to him, repeating the Abrahamic promise of land, blessing, many descendants, and divine presence (28:10–22). He named the place “Bethel” (“house of God”) and made a vow to God. Upon his arrival in Harran, he fell in love with Laban’s younger daughter, Rachel, and agreed to work seven years to marry her (29:9–30). When the wedding night came, Laban replaced Rachel with her older sister, Leah, and somehow Jacob did not notice until the next day. Jacob then agreed to work seven more years for both daughters.
The text records the births of Jacob’s thirteen children (29:31–30:24). Since Jacob loved Rachel more than her sister, God blessed Leah with four sons (Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah), while Rachel remained barren. Following the precedent set by Sarah with Hagar, Rachel offered to Jacob her maidservant Bilhah, who gave birth to two more sons (Dan and Naphtali). Leah then offered her maidservant Zilpah, with whom Jacob fathered two more sons (Gad and Asher). Leah gave birth to two more sons (Issachar and Zebulun) and one daughter (Dinah). Finally, God opened Rachel’s womb, and she gave birth to Jacob’s last sons, Joseph and Benjamin, but she died when the latter was born (35:16–19).
Jacob ended up working for Laban a total of twenty years, during which God blessed both of them. God eventually told Jacob to return to the land of his ancestors, but Jacob did not tell Laban because he was worried that Laban would not allow Jacob to take his daughters to a distant land. Laban pursued Jacob, and eventually they made a covenant of peace (31:22–55).
After departing from Laban, Jacob received word that Esau was coming to meet him with four hundred men (32:1–6). Jacob was fearful and prayed for deliverance from his brother, reminding God of the promise to give him descendants as numerous as “the sand of the sea” (32:7–12). Jacob spent the night alone, and his prayers were answered in an unusual way in the form of a wrestler whom the text describes as both human and divine (32:22–32). The wrestler could not defeat Jacob, but he did put Jacob’s hip out of joint. The wrestler asked Jacob his name, but he had the authority to change it to “Israel” (“wrestles with God”). Jacob named the site “Peniel” (“face of God”) because he survived his face-to-face meeting with God. The next day, Jacob and Esau met not as foes but as friends, and Jacob told Esau that meeting him was like seeing the face of God (33:1–11).
The family crises that characterized Jacob’s life continued in Canaan. His daughter Dinah was raped by the Canaanite Shechem, so her older brothers Simeon and Levi retaliated and killed all the males of his city (chap. 34). After Jacob’s favorite son, Joseph, told his brothers about his two dreams in which their sheaves and stars bowed down to him, they sold him into slavery and told Jacob that a wild animal had killed Joseph, prompting Jacob to mourn for many days (chap. 37). Over twenty years later, during a famine in Canaan, Jacob learned that Egypt had grain, so he sent ten of his sons (but not Benjamin) there to purchase grain (42:1–5). When they arrived, the brothers did not recognize the official in charge of grain storage, Joseph, and bowed to him, fulfilling his dreams (42:6–9). When all eleven of the brothers later returned for more food, Joseph orchestrated a test to see if they would allow his younger brother, Benjamin, also to be enslaved, but when Judah sacrificially offered to be enslaved instead, Joseph broke down, revealed his identity, and wept (43:1–45:15).
Joseph told his brothers to bring Jacob and their families to Egypt because the famine would continue for five more years. Joseph rode his chariot out to the land of Goshen to be reunited with his father (46:28–34). In Egypt, Jacob blessed Pharaoh (47:7–10) and Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh (chap. 48), and also uttered his final testament, involving blessings and curses on his twelve sons (49:1–28). He died in Egypt at the age of 147, but Joseph buried him in Canaan (47:28; 49:29–50:14).
Jacob is mentioned throughout the OT as a forefather to the nation of Israel (Exod. 2:24; 3:16; Deut. 1:8; 2 Kings 13:23) as well as in Psalms and prophetic literature as a synonym for the nation Israel (Pss. 22:23; 105:23; Isa. 41:8; Jer. 2:4). In the NT, he appears in the genealogies of Jesus (Matt. 1:2; Luke 3:34), alongside Abraham and Isaac (Matt. 8:11; Acts 3:13), and among the heroes of faith (Heb. 11:9, 20–21).
(2) The father of Joseph, who was the husband of Mary the mother of Jesus (Matt. 1:15–16).
At this site Jesus asked a Samaritan woman for a drink (John 4:7). Tradition associates the well with Jacob’s camp near Shechem (Gen. 33:18). Today it is often identified as Bir Ya’qub (“the well of Jacob”), near the site of ancient Shechem.
A son of Onam, he was a descendant of Jerahmeel, the firstborn son of Hezron (1 Chron. 2:28, 32).
A descendant of Saul, the son of Ahaz and father of Alemeth (1 Chron. 9:42), according to some Hebrew manuscripts and the LXX. The MT has “Jarah” (followed by NRSV, NET, KJV). In a parallel list he is named as “Jehoaddah” (1 Chron. 8:36 [KJV: “Jehoadah”]). See also Jarah; Jehoaddah.
A member of the family of Nebo who had taken a foreign wife during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:43).
A member of the family of Nebo who had taken a foreign wife during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:43).
(1) One of the “leaders of the people” who sealed the renewal of the covenant with God following Ezra’s public reading of the law (Neh. 10:21). (2) A high priest in the postexilic period (Neh. 12:11, 22). Jaddua is also known to Josephus (Ant. 11.306).
A man from the town of Meronoth who assisted Nehemiah in rebuilding the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:7).
A Kenite woman, the wife of Heber. The Kenites were allied with the Canaanites, whose king was Jabin and whose chief commander was Sisera. God raised up Deborah as a judge to initiate the overthrow of the Canaanites, who were oppressing his people. Barak, Israel’s chief military officer, should have received the glory, but because of his reluctance to take on the job alone, God promised the glory to a woman (Judg. 4:9). That woman turned out to be Jael, a non-Israelite woman, whose people had friendly relationships with the Canaanites. As Sisera fled after being defeated on the battlefield, he sought refuge in the tent of Jael, who lured him to sleep and then killed him with a tent peg (Judg. 4:17–22). In the victory song sung by Deborah and Barak, she is praised for this act (Judg. 5:24–27).
A town that was part of the tribe of Judah’s traditional territorial allotment. It was located in the southern part of Judah, in the Negev (Josh. 15:21).
In Ps. 68:4 the KJV renders the Hebrew word yah as “Jah,” a shortened form of the divine name “Yahweh.” It often is part of theophoric names (e.g., “Nehemiah” = “Yah comforts”) and is the direct object in the well-known praise word hallelujah (Heb. halelu-yah), meaning “praise the Lord.”
(1) The son of Reaiah of the Zoharite clan from the tribe of Judah, he was the father of Ahumai and Lahad (1 Chron. 4:2). (2) The son of Gershon and a grandson of Levi, forefathers of Asaph the temple musician (1 Chron. 6:43). (3) A Levite, the firstborn son of Shimei from the Gershonite clan (1 Chron. 23:10–11). (4) A Levite, a son of Shelomoth from the Izharite clan (1 Chron. 24:22). (5) A Levite descended from Merari, he and Obadiah supervised the work of repairing and restoring the temple during King Josiah’s reforms (2 Chron. 34:12).
A town east of the Jordan where the Israelites defeated Sihon king of the Amorites and took over all his territories (Num. 21:23; Deut. 2:32). The Hebrew name appears as both yahats and yahetsah and is translated variously as “Jahaz,” “Jahazah,” and “Jahzah.” This town appears to have belonged to the Moabites before they were conquered by Sihon (Num. 21:23–26). It was part of the land allotted to the tribe of Reuben and was given to the Levitical family of Merari (Josh. 13:18; 1 Chron. 6:63). This town was later repossessed by the Moabites. It is referred to on the Moabite Stone (lines 18–21) as a place that an Israelite king had fortified and occupied while fighting against Mesha king of Moab. However, Mesha defeated Israel and took over this city for the Moabites. In prophecies against Moab, both Isaiah and Jeremiah refer to this Moabite town (Isa. 15:4; Jer. 48:34). Although the exact location remains uncertain, several modern locations have been suggested: Libb, Aleiyan, Khirbet el-Medeiyineh, and Khirbet Iskander.
A town east of the Jordan where the Israelites defeated Sihon king of the Amorites and took over all his territories (Num. 21:23; Deut. 2:32). The Hebrew name appears as both yahats and yahetsah and is translated variously as “Jahaz,” “Jahazah,” and “Jahzah.” This town appears to have belonged to the Moabites before they were conquered by Sihon (Num. 21:23–26). It was part of the land allotted to the tribe of Reuben and was given to the Levitical family of Merari (Josh. 13:18; 1 Chron. 6:63). This town was later repossessed by the Moabites. It is referred to on the Moabite Stone (lines 18–21) as a place that an Israelite king had fortified and occupied while fighting against Mesha king of Moab. However, Mesha defeated Israel and took over this city for the Moabites. In prophecies against Moab, both Isaiah and Jeremiah refer to this Moabite town (Isa. 15:4; Jer. 48:34). Although the exact location remains uncertain, several modern locations have been suggested: Libb, Aleiyan, Khirbet el-Medeiyineh, and Khirbet Iskander.
The son of Tikvah, he, along with a few others, apparently opposed Ezra’s call to divorce foreign wives (Ezra 10:15 [KJV: “Jahaziah”]). However, the text may also be understood as rendered in 1 Esd. 9:14, “Jonathan the son of Asahel and Jahzeiah the son of Tikvah undertook the matter on these terms, and Meshullam and Levi and Shabbethai served with them as judges,” thereby suggesting positive actions from Jahzeiah.
(1) One of the Benjamite warriors related to Saul who joined David at Ziklag and supported him against their own kinsmen (1 Chron. 12:4). (2) One of the two priests appointed to blow the trumpet regularly before the ark of the covenant (1 Chron. 16:6). (3) A Levite, the third son of Hebron from the Kohathite clan (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23). (4) A Levite, the son of Zechariah, and a descendant of Asaph the temple musician from the Gershonite clan. He prophesied before the people of Judah and King Jehoshaphat an oracle of victory over the coalition of the Moabites and the Ammonites (2 Chron. 20:14–17, 20–23). (5) The father of Shekaniah, who was the leader of the family of Zattu when they returned with Ezra from exile (Ezra 8:5; 1 Esd. 8:32).
A Calebite, the father of six sons (1 Chron. 2:47).
One of the seven mighty warriors and family clan leaders from the half-tribe of Manasseh in the Transjordan (1 Chron. 5:24). Their worship of local deities led to Yahweh sending the Assyrians against Manasseh and taking the tribe into exile.
A Gadite, the son of Buz (1 Chron. 5:14).
The third son of Zebulun and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:14), he was the ancestor of the Jahleelite clan in the tribe of Zebulun (Num. 26:26).
The third son of Zebulun and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:14), he was the ancestor of the Jahleelite clan in the tribe of Zebulun (Num. 26:26).
A son of Tola, he was one of the family heads and mighty warriors of Tola’s family clan from the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:2).
Known as the Tetragrammaton (“four letters”), these four consonants comprise the personal name of God. Most English versions gloss this name in small capital letters as “Lord” (see Gen. 15:1) or “God” (see Gen. 15:2 KJV, RSV, NRSV, NASB). “Lord” without the small-capital format signifies a title, not a personal name, in Hebrew: ’adonay. In the intertestamental period, reverent Jews became reluctant to speak the divine name, and so they substituted ’adonay or some title for “YHWH.” In the Middle Ages, when vowels were introduced to the Hebrew text, those belonging to ’adonay were inserted into “YHWH,” reminding readers to speak the title rather than the name. English speakers, however, substituting J for the Y, vocalizing W with a V sound (both under the influence of German), and reading the consonants and vowels together, invented from this an artificial word that no ancient had ever pronounced: “Jehovah” (see Gen. 15:2 ASV).
Many derive “YHWH” from the Hebrew verb “to be” (hayah) and understand the meaning of the name to be “He Is,” though this is debated. Such an etymology is found in Exod. 3:13–14, where Moses asked God his name, and God replied, “I am who I am. This is what you are to say to the Israelites: ‘I am has sent me to you.’ ” Passing by Moses on Mount Sinai, God declared the meaning of this name, revealing God’s nature as being compassionate, gracious, patient, loving, forgiving, and just (Exod. 34:5–7). Jesus claims this name for himself in John 8:58: “Before Abraham was born, I am.” Christians baptize in the singular name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). See also Lord.
A town east of the Jordan where the Israelites defeated Sihon king of the Amorites and took over all his territories (Num. 21:23; Deut. 2:32). The Hebrew name appears as both yahats and yahetsah and is translated variously as “Jahaz,” “Jahazah,” and “Jahzah.” This town appears to have belonged to the Moabites before they were conquered by Sihon (Num. 21:23–26). It was part of the land allotted to the tribe of Reuben and was given to the Levitical family of Merari (Josh. 13:18; 1 Chron. 6:63). This town was later repossessed by the Moabites. It is referred to on the Moabite Stone (lines 18–21) as a place that an Israelite king had fortified and occupied while fighting against Mesha king of Moab. However, Mesha defeated Israel and took over this city for the Moabites. In prophecies against Moab, both Isaiah and Jeremiah refer to this Moabite town (Isa. 15:4; Jer. 48:34). Although the exact location remains uncertain, several modern locations have been suggested: Libb, Aleiyan, Khirbet el-Medeiyineh, and Khirbet Iskander.
The first son of Naphtali and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:24 [“Jahziel”]), he was the ancestor of the Jahzeelite clan in the tribe of Naphtali (Num. 26:48).
The first son of Naphtali and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:24 [“Jahziel”]), he was the ancestor of the Jahzeelite clan in the tribe of Naphtali (Num. 26:48).
The son of Tikvah, he, along with a few others, apparently opposed Ezra’s call to divorce foreign wives (Ezra 10:15 [KJV: “Jahaziah”]). However, the text may also be understood as rendered in 1 Esd. 9:14, “Jonathan the son of Asahel and Jahzeiah the son of Tikvah undertook the matter on these terms, and Meshullam and Levi and Shabbethai served with them as judges,” thereby suggesting positive actions from Jahzeiah.
The father of Adiel and grandfather to Maasai, one of the priests and family heads who returned from exile (1 Chron. 9:12).
The first son of Naphtali and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:24 [“Jahziel”]), he was the ancestor of the Jahzeelite clan in the tribe of Naphtali (Num. 26:48).
Imprisonment of Criminals
In comparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is important to acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modern societies. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregating dangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so that they can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration.
The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph was falsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’s wife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of a predetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of the king (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himself hundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Joseph imprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen. 42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
Political Imprisonment
In a number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what we would today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson was imprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that he had wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents (Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. Several Israelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamian overlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt, including Hoshea (2 Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2 Kings 25:27–29), Manasseh (2 Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer. 52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal and involved torture (2 Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachin was later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivity in some comfort (2 Kings 25:27–29).
In the NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbas was imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating in an insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number of Christians, apparently without what we would today recognize as any criminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod for political gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned for disturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonment of Prophets
A special case of political incarceration is the imprisonment of prophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophets were imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who did not want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power, imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinions that could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment of dissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John the Baptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediate execution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers toward controversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move about freely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet that prevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed to confront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was a certain level of tolerance for them even when they were not supportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed to the use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahab imprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorable oracle (1 Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani the seer (2 Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that such treatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer. 37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned for delivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
Theological Significance
In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7: “The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6; 107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1 Pet. 3:19; Rev. 20:7).
Imprisonment of Criminals
In comparing modern society to that of biblical times, it is important to acknowledge what is distinctive about prisons in many modern societies. Prisons serve multiple functions, including imposing incarceration as punishment for crimes committed, segregating dangerous criminals from the larger population, deterring crime by imposing a negative incentive, and rehabilitating offenders so that they can eventually return to society. In many cases where modern law imposes incarceration as the penalty for crime, ancient and biblical law imposed economic penalties (such as fines), corporal punishment (beatings), and capital punishment (death). In addition, many of the biblical references to prisons and prisoners involve what in modern society would be considered political rather than criminal incarceration.
The story of Joseph prominently features an Egyptian prison. Joseph was falsely put in prison for the crime of molesting his master’s wife (Gen. 39:19–20), while his companions were imprisoned for the otherwise unspecified crime of causing offense to the king (40:1). As this story illustrates, the sentences were not of a predetermined duration, and release depended on the goodwill of the king (Gen. 40:13), a situation in which Paul also found himself hundreds of years later during Roman times (Acts 24:27). When Joseph imprisoned his brothers, it was on a presumption of guilt for the crime of espionage (Gen. 42:16). In Roman times, in contrast, certain prisoners had a right to be put on trial eventually, if not quickly (Acts 25:27; see also 16:37). Imprisonment could also be imposed for failure to pay a debt (Matt. 18:30). Joseph kept Simeon in prison as a guarantee that his brothers would fulfill a prior agreement (Gen. 42:19, 24). In addition to specialized dungeons, prisoners could also be confined in houses (Jer. 37:15; Acts 28:16) and pits (Zech. 9:11).
Political Imprisonment
In a number of biblical stories individuals are imprisoned for what we would today describe as political or ideological reasons. Samson was imprisoned by the Philistines in retaliation for the havoc that he had wreaked in their land and probably to prevent further incidents (Judg. 16:21). While in prison, Samson was enslaved. Several Israelite and Judean kings were imprisoned by their Mesopotamian overlords for offenses ranging from failure to pay taxes to revolt, including Hoshea (2 Kings 17:4), Jehoiachin (2 Kings 25:27–29), Manasseh (2 Chron. 33:11), and Zedekiah (Jer. 52:11). In some cases, the imprisonment of such elites was brutal and involved torture (2 Chron. 33:11; Jer. 52:11), though Jehoiachin was later released from prison and allowed to live out his captivity in some comfort (2 Kings 25:27–29).
In the NT, individuals were also imprisoned for such crimes. Barabbas was imprisoned by the Roman government of Judea for participating in an insurrection (Mark 15:7). Saul of Tarsus imprisoned a number of Christians, apparently without what we would today recognize as any criminal offense (Acts 8:3). Peter was imprisoned by Herod for political gain (Acts 12:4). Paul and Silas were imprisoned for disturbing the peace of Philippi (Acts 16:23).
Imprisonment of Prophets
A special case of political incarceration is the imprisonment of prophets. From the point of view of the biblical writers, prophets were imprisoned for speaking the truth to a powerful person who did not want to hear it. From the point of view of those in power, imprisoning dissenters was an important way of suppressing opinions that could undermine the regime. In some cases, the imprisonment of dissenters or troublemakers was a prelude to execution (John the Baptist and Jesus). The practice of imprisonment instead of immediate execution may reflect the ambivalent attitude of rulers toward controversial prophets: they could not be allowed to move about freely in society, but they had some status or right as prophet that prevented their execution. In some cases, prophets managed to confront a king without being punished, suggesting that there was a certain level of tolerance for them even when they were not supportive of royal power, a tolerance that might have contributed to the use of imprisonment instead of execution.
Ahab imprisoned Micaiah son of Imlah after he delivered an unfavorable oracle (1 Kings 22:27). Similarly, Asa imprisoned Hanani the seer (2 Chron. 16:10). These kings may have hoped that such treatment would coerce better news in the future. Jeremiah (Jer. 37:15) and John the Baptist (Mark 6:17) were also imprisoned for delivering unwelcome messages to those in power.
Theological Significance
In both Testaments, release from prison is a symbol of God’s salvation. The theme is prominent in the psalms, as in Ps. 146:7: “The Lord sets prisoners free” (see also Pss. 68:6; 107:10; 142:7). In Acts 12:7 Peter is freed from prison by a divinely sent messenger. Paul wrote a number of letters from prison and identified himself as a prisoner of Christ (Eph. 3:1; Col. 4:10; 2 Tim. 1:8; Philem. 1). Some texts refer in mythological terms to a prison that confines spirits or Satan (1 Pet. 3:19; Rev. 20:7).
(1) A descendant of Manasseh through Makir. He took control of the territory in Gilead that had been given by Moses to Makir. He called the towns, located in the region of Bashan, “Havvoth Jair,” which means “villages of Jair” (Num. 32:41; Deut. 3:14; Josh. 13:30; 1 Kings 4:13; 1 Chron. 2:22). (2) A Gileadite who judged Israel for twenty-two years following Tola (Judg. 10:3–5). He had thirty sons, each of whom controlled his own city in Havvoth Jair. His Gileadite lineage and occupation of Havvoth Jair make his association with the Jair of Num. 32:41 likely. (3) A Benjamite and the father of Mordecai, the cousin of Esther (Esther 2:5). (4) The father of Elhanan, who killed Lahmi the brother of Goliath (1 Chron. 20:5). He is referred to as “Jaare-Oregim” in 2 Sam. 21:19 (NIV mg.). See also Jaare-Oregim.
A word denoting ethnic origins in 2 Sam. 20:26 describing Ira, David’s priest. It either refers to the son of Manasseh (e.g., Num. 32:41) or is a scribal error for “Jattirite.”
The father of a twelve-year-old girl whom Jesus raised from the dead (Matt. 9:18–26; Mark 5:21–43; Luke 8:40–56). All three Synoptic accounts of this story record that Jesus, on his way to Jairus’s house, healed a woman who had suffered with a hemorrhage for twelve years. Only Mark and Luke name Jairus and identify him as a synagogue leader; Matthew, who shortens the story in several respects to include only the basic elements, merely calls him “a synagogue leader.”
A leader from the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:13). See also Akan.
(1) A Benjamite in the ancestry of Saul (1 Chron. 8:19). (2) A Levite at the time of David who was assigned priestly duties by lot (1 Chron. 24:12).
(1) A son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15) and the ancestor of the Jakinite clan (Num. 26:12). (2) A priest who returned from the exile (1 Chron. 9:10; Neh. 11:10). (3) A priest in the line of Aaron (1 Chron. 24:17). (4) One of two pillars erected by Solomon and Hiram in the temple (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Chron. 3:17). Together with the other pillar, Boaz, the names form a prayer: “May he [the Lord] establish strength in him [Solomon]” (“Jakin” means “he establishes,” and “Boaz” means “may strength be in him”). The pillars did not support anything; thus, they appear to be symbolic and to demonstrate that the temple belonged to Yahweh. See also Boaz.
(1) A son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15) and the ancestor of the Jakinite clan (Num. 26:12). (2) A priest who returned from the exile (1 Chron. 9:10; Neh. 11:10). (3) A priest in the line of Aaron (1 Chron. 24:17). (4) One of two pillars erected by Solomon and Hiram in the temple (1 Kings 7:21; 2 Chron. 3:17). Together with the other pillar, Boaz, the names form a prayer: “May he [the Lord] establish strength in him [Solomon]” (“Jakin” means “he establishes,” and “Boaz” means “may strength be in him”). The pillars did not support anything; thus, they appear to be symbolic and to demonstrate that the temple belonged to Yahweh. See also Boaz.
The second of three sons born to Esau by Oholibamah, one of his Canaanite wives (Gen. 36:5, 14; 1 Chron. 1:35). Jalam became the tribal chief of an Edomite clan (Gen. 36:18).
A son of Ezrah (1 Chron. 4:17), he is one of many descendants of Judah whose genealogical record is given prominence in Chronicles to emphasize the importance of the Davidic line (1 Chron. 2:3–4:23).
Jewish tradition identifies Jannes and Jambres as the magicians who opposed Moses in his early encounters with Pharaoh (Exod. 7:11–12, 22). The author of 2 Timothy mentions their names in connection with Moses as examples of false teachers who oppose the truth (3:8). Although this is the only verse in the Bible that mentions the two, parts of their story have been preserved in nonbiblical Christian and Jewish literature (e.g., the pseudepigraphal book of Jannes and Jambres [dated between the first and third centuries AD]). The name “Jannes” is found among the DSS (CD-A 5:17–19), and both names are found in a Targum (Tg. Ps.-J. to Exod. 1:15). It is notable that the name “Jannes” is of Hebrew origin, which adds an interesting twist to the Moses narrative.
The name “James” is a form of the name “Jacob” (Heb. Ya’aqob; Gk. Iakōbos), which was very popular in the first century. In the NT there are five individuals named “James.”
(1) James the son of Zebedee and the older brother of John. He was martyred by Herod Agrippa I in AD 40 (Mark 1:19; 3:17; Acts 12:2). Eusebius records a tradition from Clement of Alexandria that the individual who brought James before Herod was so moved by James’s testimony that he converted on the spot and was martyred along with James (Hist. eccl. 2.9).
(2) James the son of Alphaeus we know very little about other than that he is consistently listed among the disciples (Mark 3:18; Matt. 10:3; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13).
(3) James “the younger” (Mark 15:40), whose mother, named “Mary,” appears in Mark 16:1 just as the “mother of James.” In church tradition, he is sometimes identified with James the son of Alphaeus.
(4) James the father of Judas (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) is mentioned only to distinguish this Judas from Judas Iscariot.
(5) James the brother of Jesus was an early leader of the Jerusalem church (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3; Acts 12:17; 15:13–31; 21:18; 1 Cor. 15:7; Gal. 1:19; 2:9, 12; Jude 1). A number of Jesus’ family members became prominent leaders in the early Christian movement in Palestine, James being the most prominent.
Although he was not one of the twelve disciples and likely did not accept Jesus as the Messiah until after the resurrection (cf. John 7:5; Acts 1:14), James quickly emerged as a key leader in the Jerusalem church, where he served until his death in AD 62. Because the Jerusalem church was the parent of all churches and thus granted a central authority by early Christians, James played an important role by giving leadership and direction to the movement. According to Paul’s account, Jesus singled James out following the resurrection (1 Cor. 15:7), and in Luke’s narrative James is described as the leader of the church (Acts 12:17; 15:13; 21:18)—a depiction confirmed by Paul’s description of James as one of the three “pillars” of the church in Jerusalem (Gal. 2:9). During Paul’s first visit to Jerusalem, James’s standing was such that Paul felt it necessary to name him along with Peter as having seen him there (Gal. 1:19).
From the influential position of leadership in the Jerusalem church, James wrote two letters that shaped the contours of early Christian life. According to Luke, after the pivotal meeting and decision regarding circumcision in Acts 15, James, along with the “apostles and elders” (Acts 15:23), wrote to the Gentile believers to inform them that they would not have to follow the practice of circumcision in order to become followers of Jesus Christ. During the negotiations James provided a key exegetical argument from the OT (Amos 9:11–12 and Jer. 12:15, recorded in Acts 15:16–17) advocating the inclusion of Gentiles in the church. In the Letter of James, he wrote from this position of central authority in Jerusalem to Jewish Christians throughout the Diaspora. Here James again demonstrates his exceptional abilities as an interpreter of the OT regarding Jewish legal (Lev. 19) and wisdom (Prov. 3:34) traditions through the lens of Christ in order to call his readers to wholehearted living.
Memories of James were preserved well into the second century because he was viewed as the model of a pious person. Eusebius cites Hegesippus, a second-century Jewish believer from Jerusalem, who recounts how James was so often found kneeling in prayer for the people that his knees grew hard like a camel’s, and that “because of his unsurpassable righteousness” he was called “the Just” (Hist. eccl. 2.23.4–7). The same passage records that because of his confession of Christ before the Jews, James was thrown from the parapet of the temple, stoned, and finally killed by a blow from a fuller’s club (Hist. eccl. 2.23.16–18). In addition to these traditions there is a substantial body of apocryphal Christian writings composed in the name of James by individuals during the second and third centuries. These, mainly gnostic, texts promote an almost legendary man of piety and ascetic lifestyle (e.g., First Apocalypse of James, Second Apocalypse of James, Apocryphon of James).
(1) The second son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; 1 Chron. 4:24) and a grandson of Jacob, he is also the ancestor of the Jaminite clan (Num. 26:12). (2) The second son of Ram and a grandson of Jerahmeel of Judah (1 Chron. 2:27). (3) One of the thirteen Levites who read and interpreted the law so that the people could understand after Ezra read it (Neh. 8:7–8). It is debated whether they simply explained the law or translated it from Hebrew into Aramaic. For example, in Neh. 8:8 the NIV text has these Levites “making it [the Book of the Law] clear,” while the NIV margin has them “translating” it.
(1) The second son of Simeon (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; 1 Chron. 4:24) and a grandson of Jacob, he is also the ancestor of the Jaminite clan (Num. 26:12). (2) The second son of Ram and a grandson of Jerahmeel of Judah (1 Chron. 2:27). (3) One of the thirteen Levites who read and interpreted the law so that the people could understand after Ezra read it (Neh. 8:7–8). It is debated whether they simply explained the law or translated it from Hebrew into Aramaic. For example, in Neh. 8:8 the NIV text has these Levites “making it [the Book of the Law] clear,” while the NIV margin has them “translating” it.
A clan leader descended from Simeon (1 Chron. 4:34).
A Gadite living in Bashan who served under the command of the clan chief Joel (1 Chron. 5:12).
A town in the hill country of Judah near Hebron. It is listed with nine other towns to form an administrative district within Judah following the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 15:53).
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:24 as a grandson of Mattathias, son of Joseph, and father of Melki.
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:24 as a grandson of Mattathias, son of Joseph, and father of Melki.
Jewish tradition identifies Jannes and Jambres as the magicians who opposed Moses in his early encounters with Pharaoh (Exod. 7:11–12, 22). The author of 2 Timothy mentions their names in connection with Moses as examples of false teachers who oppose the truth (3:8). Although this is the only verse in the Bible that mentions the two, parts of their story have been preserved in nonbiblical Christian and Jewish literature (e.g., the pseudepigraphal book of Jannes and Jambres [dated between the first and third centuries AD]). The name “Jannes” is found among the DSS (CD-A 5:17–19), and both names are found in a Targum (Tg. Ps.-J. to Exod. 1:15). It is notable that the name “Jannes” is of Hebrew origin, which adds an interesting twist to the Moses narrative.
(1) A town marking part of the northern boundary of the hill country allocated to Ephraim after the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 16:6–7). The site has been identified as Khirbet Yanun, about seven miles southeast of Shechem. (2) A town in upper Galilee, listed together with Ijon, Abel Beth Maakah, Kedesh, and Hazor, conquered by Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria during his campaigns in 733–732 BC (2 Kings 15:29). These defeats signaled God’s judgment on Israel. Based on its position in the biblical list of towns, the site may be just south of Kibbutz Kefar Giladi in the Hula Valley.
(1) A town marking part of the northern boundary of the hill country allocated to Ephraim after the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 16:6–7). The site has been identified as Khirbet Yanun, about seven miles southeast of Shechem. (2) A town in upper Galilee, listed together with Ijon, Abel Beth Maakah, Kedesh, and Hazor, conquered by Tiglath-pileser III of Assyria during his campaigns in 733–732 BC (2 Kings 15:29). These defeats signaled God’s judgment on Israel. Based on its position in the biblical list of towns, the site may be just south of Kibbutz Kefar Giladi in the Hula Valley.
A town in the hill country of Judah near Hebron. It is listed with nine other towns to form an administrative district within Judah following the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 15:53).
One of the sons of Noah, listed last in most lists (Gen. 9:18; 10:1) but also listed as the older brother of Shem (Gen. 10:21; or younger [see NIV mg.]). The third son, Ham, is said to be the youngest (Gen. 9:24). Along with his wife, Japheth was one of eight persons saved on Noah’s ark (1 Pet. 3:20). After Japheth acted nobly with his brother Shem by covering up his sleeping and naked father, Noah gave a blessing to Japheth, asking God to extend his territory and bless his offspring. His name means “widespread” or “God will enlarge.” Japheth had seven sons, and it is suggested that his descendants settled in eastern Europe and northern Asia (Gen. 10:2–5).
(1) The king of Lachish during the conquest. He joined a coalition headed by Adoni-Zedek king of Jerusalem and three other Canaanite kings, which was defeated by Joshua during the famous battle where God caused the sun to stand still in the sky (Josh. 10:1–15). (2) A son of David born to an unnamed wife during the time he reigned from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5:15; 1 Chron. 3:7; 14:6). (3) A border town of the tribe of Zebulun (Josh. 19:12). It can be identified as the modern site of Jaffa, a mile and a half southwest of Nazareth. Its earliest mention is in the fourteenth-century BC Amarna tablets.
A son of Heber of the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. 7:32). He had three sons: Pasak, Bimhal, and Ashvath (1 Chron. 7:33).
An unknown clan whose territory formed a section of the southern boundary of land given to Joseph’s sons at the conquest (Josh. 16:3 [KJV: “Japhleti”]). This should not be confused with Japhlet, a descendant of Asher (1 Chron. 7:32–33).
A seaport along the Mediterranean coast just south of the modern city of Tel Aviv that served the Israelites and others during the periods covered by both Testaments. As with most of the ports located along the Mediterranean south of Mount Carmel, Joppa (or Jaffa) offered only a relatively small place to harbor boats. The anchorage was formed by a series of large rocks that create a breakwater at the foot of a promontory that juts out into the Mediterranean. Despite its small size, the harbor at Joppa was the most important port in the region until Herod the Great completed Caesarea Maritima, around 10 BC, approximately thirty miles farther north.
Joppa’s importance is reflected in ancient historical sources, including the Bible. Egyptian and Assyrian texts describe the city’s conquest in the fifteenth and eighth centuries BC respectively. Joppa was located within the tribal allotment of Dan (Josh. 19:46) but probably did not come under Israelite control at least until the conquests of David. David’s son Solomon used Joppa to import materials from Phoenicia for the temple (2 Chron. 2:16); Jonah (1:3) boarded a ship at Joppa apparently heading to the western Mediterranean; the returnees from exile imported building materials through Joppa to rebuild the temple (Ezra 3:7)—all indicating the port’s continued importance from the time of the united monarchy through the postexilic periods. The Greeks colonized Joppa in the intertestamental period, and the Hasmoneans recaptured the port for the Jews in the second century BC.
The NT contains several references to Joppa (all in Acts), even after Caesarea had been completed and began to serve as the region’s primary port. The early Christian community was present in Joppa, as indicated by the stories of Peter raising Tabitha from the dead (Acts 9:36–43) and of Peter’s vision at the home of Simon the tanner in Joppa that led him to preach to Cornelius the centurion at Caesarea (Acts 10:1–11:18).
Joppa was destroyed during the revolt against Rome in the first century AD, but it continued as a port city under various governments, including Roman, Arab, Crusader, French, Turkish, and British. The British built a railway between Joppa and Jerusalem in 1892, the first in Palestine, to serve the tourists and pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land via Joppa.
Archaeological excavations at Joppa have yielded at least seven occupational levels, dating from the seventeenth century BC to the first century AD. Opportunities to excavate are limited by continued habitation at the site. Today Joppa forms a sort of historic, artistic suburb of Tel Aviv, and the port continues to service small boats.
Pottery in the Bible
The Bible contains numerous references to pottery, pottery making, and potters. Clay pottery was the most common and easiest way to cook food and to carry liquids throughout biblical times. Only pots used for very special occasions and locations (such as the temple) were made out of a material (usually some metal) other than clay (Exod. 38:3). Clay was the preferable material because it was freely obtained, easy to manipulate, and required little technology to make. The downside of pottery is that it is easily broken and thus rendered useless. Evidence of the abundance and affordability of pottery is seen in the instructions to break ceremonially unclean pottery rather than wash it (Lev. 15:12). Although cooking was the primary purpose for pottery, it could be used for a variety of applications, including storing items, carrying water, making lamps, and forming idols.
Pottery and the manufacture of pottery occasionally took on symbolic connotations in the Bible. For example, in the psalms broken pottery symbolizes the life of the psalmist as he cries to God for help (Ps. 31:12). In another psalm the psalmist envisions God destroying the nations that plot against God like someone who shatters pottery (2:9). Isaiah likens Egypt’s strength, in which Judah trusts more than in God, to pottery ready to be shattered (Isa. 30:14). Similarly, Jeremiah says that the leaders of Judah will be punished and will “fall and be shattered like fine pottery” (Jer. 25:34 NIV mg.). Isaiah also uses several other metaphors related to pottery. He says that God treads on rulers like a potter treads on clay, getting it soft and prepared for making pottery (Isa. 41:25). Isaiah also likens those who complain to God to pieces of broken pottery trying to tell the potter how to make pots (45:9).
Both Isaiah and Jeremiah liken people to clay in God’s hand. Isaiah says, “We are the clay, you are the potter; we are all the work of your hand” (Isa. 64:8). Jeremiah says essentially the same thing, but instead of using Isaiah’s positive tone, he sees the human molding process to be a difficult and dangerous one that can result in the potter rejecting the creation (Jer. 18:1–10). Jeremiah buys a pot, takes it to a gate in the city, the Potsherd Gate (a potsherd is a broken and useless piece of pottery), and smashes the pot symbolically to demonstrate how God feels about Judah (Jer. 19). Jeremiah’s choice of the Potsherd Gate was also part of the symbolism, as it is likely that most of the pottery in Jerusalem was made near or at the Potsherd Gate. The apostle Paul creates a similar metaphor, describing how a potter is able to take the same lump of clay and make different kinds of pots, some of which have special uses, and others common uses. Paul implies that God has the right to determine how and for what purpose he creates humans because he is like the potter with the clay (Rom. 9:21). Paul also refers to humans as clay jars with treasure in them (2 Cor. 4:7).
In another example, after the destruction of Jerusalem the people in captivity lament that they are simply like earthen pots before God (Lam. 4:2), suggesting that they are ready to receive the punishment that God has chosen for them to endure. Job also wonders if God has molded him like clay only then to turn him back into dust (Job 10:9).
Manufacture of Pottery
Preparing the clay. Before any pottery can be made, the clay must be gathered and prepared for use. Clay collected from different geographical areas will have different levels of pure clay and other earthen materials. Pure clay is very difficult to work with, but it produces some of the smoothest and strongest pots. Most of the clay used in Palestine was not of superior quality, and so most often imperfections developed in the pots as they were being made. We also know that during the time of the late monarchy, potters in Israel tended to mix clay with different kinds of sand to produce better results. With today’s advanced forensic technology, it often can be determined where the clay used to make a pot was harvested. Because it was generally impractical to transport clay any long distance, this sort of analysis can also be helpful in determining the origin of the pot. Once the clay was harvested, depending on its quality and use, it was often necessary to prepare the clay by kneading or treading it. This process was vital for removing any impurities in the clay as well as making it malleable.
Shaping. Historically, the first pottery molded was made by hand and dried in the sun. Nothing is known about the role of these early potters and whether they were highly regarded in society. Many scholars believe that early pottery was made by women, to be used for very practical purposes such as cooking and carrying water. It is fairly easy to determine the gender of the potter by measuring the natural hand and finger marks left in the clay and comparing their size in relationship to the average size of both men’s and women’s hands. These rudimentary pots usually were made by laying coils of clay one upon another.
Although it is not certain, the profession of being a potter likely did not develop until the invention of the potter’s wheel. The potter’s wheel allowed the potter to create more-sophisticated pottery and also gave the potter the ability to mass-produce pots. Several examples of potter’s wheels have been excavated dating to around 3500–3000 BC in Sumer and Ur. Most potter’s wheels during biblical times consisted of two wheels. A larger and heavier wheel was placed close to the ground, with a pole in the center of this wheel going up to a second, smaller, and lighter wheel supported by a table. The potter used his or her foot to move the larger wheel, which turned the smaller wheel. It is also possible that an apprentice turned the larger wheel. As the technology developed, sometimes two potter’s wheels were connected to one larger wheel so that two pots could be created at the same time.
Another method for making clay items was the use of press molds. Press molds were used to fashion clay by pushing the clay into the mold and then allowing it to dry. As the clay dried, it shrank and pulled away from the mold and could easily be removed from the mold. This method was used for molding figurines (most often used as household idols) and small oil lamps, which often were made of two molded pieces fused together.
Decorating and firing. Once a pot was finished being shaped, either on a wheel or in a mold, it often was decorated. The pot often was painted with pigment made from earth. Different painting styles can help in identifying a pot’s place of origin. Another common decoration method was to imprint the pot with different seals, symbols, or patterns. This was done by using a wooden or metal tool and pressing it into the wet clay. Examples of this method include several pots found at Gibeon stamped with what appear to be royal seals, which likely indicate that the pots and their contents belonged to the king. Much of the pottery from in and around Jerusalem has a red burnish applied to seal the pot and to add a smooth finish to the outside. By the time of the monarchy, potters were very sophisticated in their choice of materials and often had some of the materials, such as special sands, imported from a considerable distance. These sands added to the smoothness of the fired pot by creating a glaze on it.
Once the decoration of the pot was finished, the pot was dried in order to reveal any imperfections. If any imperfections were observed during drying, the pot was discarded. If no imperfections were seen, the pot was then fired. Depending on the potter’s resources and the technology the potter knew, the firing process could be as simple as placing the pot in a hot fire or could include the use of sophisticated kilns capable of producing extremely high and even heat. Firing a pot was extremely difficult, because ideally the heat is kept at a constant temperature throughout the process, which was not an easy task when using an open flame for the heating source. Because the process of firing pots was a well-guarded trade secret, we know few details of how pots were fired during biblical times.
Types of Pottery
There are several general categories of pottery, which are based on their characteristics and intended uses. Of course, for some extant examples of pottery from archaeological digs, their usage cannot be determined. Tableware included cups, plates, bowls, and jugs. These items tended to be more decorated than other pottery, much like tableware today tends to be more decorative than cooking pots. Cooking pots included pots with small, narrow rims and flat, open pans for frying and uncovered cooking. Storage vessels came in all sizes: pithoi, jars (two-handled), jugs (one-handled), smaller jugs (with no handles), and very small vessels for perfumes and other valuable liquids. Also, it is not unusual to find various sizes of lamps.
Importance of Pottery for Archaeology
Pottery has become an important dating tool for archaeologists. While written texts do provide more archaeological data than pottery and religious or cultural artifacts can be more visually interesting, it is pottery that helps the archaeologist piece all the information together.
History of dating pottery. While doing archaeological work in Egypt, Flinders Petrie noticed that for different time periods of Egyptian history there were different kinds of pottery, with very distinct and identifiable characteristics. These identifiable pottery characteristics included things such as the thickness of the wall of the pot, the type of rim or lip on the pot, the pot’s handles, and any special decorative elements. These characteristics, Petrie discovered, could be used to date sites that had no other dating information. Petrie carefully logged each piece of pottery found at each site and over time developed an extensive catalog of pottery types and their respective dating. Later, while digging at Tell el-Hesi in Palestine, Petrie noticed that each layer, or stratum, of the tell (archaeological mound) had a different type of pottery, much like the different kinds of pottery he had noticed in Egypt. Because of his careful and painstaking work in Egypt, Petrie also noticed that the different types of pottery in Palestine were similar to those that he had uncovered in Egypt. As a result, Petrie was able to develop a chronology of pottery that could be used to date different archaeological digs and strata in the entire ancient Near East. Later, W. F. Albright expanded on Petrie’s work by adding several sublayers and further refining the dating of each time period of pottery.
To help explain this significant discovery, L. E. Stager uses the example of how bottles for soft drinks have changed over the years. For example, he notes that when soda bottles were first mass-marketed, the writing on the bottle was part of the glass with raised letters. Over time the bottle changed and evolved; different types of writing were used on glass bottles until ultimately the bottles were smooth and the words were painted on them. In more recent years soda bottles have been made of plastic. This evolution of the soda bottle can roughly illustrate the changes in pottery over time. Because this method of dating depends on a catalog of documented pottery, it requires that all pottery found, no matter how insignificant, be cataloged and recorded so that others can compare the pottery finds from one place with those in other places.
Time periods. In the dating of ancient Near Eastern pottery, history is divided into broad time periods that are then further subdivided. The Middle Bronze Age (c. 2200–1550 BC) encompasses the time of the earliest biblical stories, including perhaps the stories of the patriarchs. During this period and the Early Bronze Age (c. 3300–2200 BC), the artisanship evident in the pottery was limited, and pots had little or no decoration; however, the skill applied to the vessels had improved dramatically from the prior period, the Chalcolithic (4500–3300 BC). These vessels show thin walls and evidence of mass production.
The Late Bronze Age (c. 1550–1200 BC), which likely includes the time of Moses and perhaps Joshua, shows an unusual and dramatic decrease in the quality of local Canaanite pottery. There is no known explanation for this deterioration, but it is evident. At the same time, pottery from other coastal regions, especially Mycenaean Greece and Crete, is very common, and pots from these locations are quite sophisticated and highly decorated. This indicates that during this time there was a strong cultural influence from these areas. Some have suggested that this is due to the colonization of parts of Palestine by the Sea Peoples, who perhaps are the Philistines of biblical history.
The Iron Age (c. 1200–586 BC), which encompasses the time period from the Israelite conquest and settlement through the monarchy, demonstrates more low-quality pottery, especially early in this period. In contrast with the examples of pottery manufactured locally at Israelite sites, Philistine pottery is quite sophisticated, highly decorated with red and black duotones in geometric patterns. The later pottery of the monarchy shows much more skill and sophistication.
The Persian (539–332 BC), Hellenistic (332–63 BC), and Roman periods (after 63 BC) conclude the biblical periods. Each of these periods is dominated by the aesthetics and quality of the invading countries’ pottery. By this time, trade routes were strongly established, and so the invaders, it appears, flooded the markets with their pottery, often to the detriment of the local potters.
A son of Ahaz of the tribe of Benjamin and a descendant of King Saul (1 Chron. 9:42). Some Hebrew manuscripts and the LXX have “Jadah” (followed by the NIV). In a parallel list he is named as “Jehoaddah” (1 Chron. 8:36 [KJV: “Jehoadah”]). See also Jadah; Jehoaddah.
A transliteration of the Hebrew word yareb, either the personal name of an unidentified Assyrian king (Hos. 5:13; 10:6 KJV) or, more probably, a royal title ascribed to the same king (NIV: “great king”). Hosea, prophesying to the northern kingdom in the second half of the eighth century BC, warns Israel to see Assyria not as an ally but rather as an enemy whom God will use to take it into exile on account of its persistent idolatry. The unidentified “great king” could be Tiglath-pileser III (also called “Pul” in 2 Kings 15:19) or one of his weaker predecessors.
Grandson of Cainan (or Kenan), son of Mahalalel, and father of Enoch (Gen. 5:15–20; 1 Chron. 1:2), he is listed in the ancestry of Jesus (Luke 3:37).
An individual named in the genealogy of King Saul the Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:27). He was the fourth of Jeroham’s six sons.
An Egyptian servant in the household of Sheshan, who was descended from Jerahmeel in the tribe of Judah. Sheshan had daughters but no sons. Jarha married one of Sheshan’s daughters and fathered Attai to continue the family line (1 Chron. 2:34–35).
(1) A son of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:24). In other lists of Simeon’s descendants, he is named “Jakin” (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15; Num. 26:12 [KJV: “Jachin”]). (2) One of the leaders of the exilic community summoned by Ezra and sent to Kasiphia to find Levites for service in the temple (Ezra 8:16). (3) One of the priests who disobeyed the word of God and married a foreign wife (Ezra 10:18).
(1) A city in the Judean foothills situated approximately sixteen miles west of Jerusalem. The Canaanite king of Jarmuth joined the ill-fated coalition against the invading Israelites (Josh. 10:3–23; 12:11), and Jarmuth was subsequently allotted to Judah (Josh. 15:35). Following the exile it was again populated by Judeans (Neh. 11:29). The modern site of Tel Yarmut, three miles south of Beth Shemesh, makes a logical candidate for Jarmuth. Impressive Early Bronze Age (3300–2200 BC) remains testify to an earlier, large Canaanite city, but the site was abandoned and resettled on a much smaller scale during the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200 BC) period, around the time of the conquest. (2) A Levitical town in Issachar (Josh. 21:29; cf. Remeth in Josh. 19:21 and Ramoth in 1 Chron. 6:73), possibly at the site of Belvoir, the later Crusader castle overlooking the Jordan Valley.
A son of Gilead from the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:14).
The ancestor of two of David’s thirty mighty warriors (2 Sam. 23:32); elsewhere his name is given as “Hashem” the Gizonite (1 Chron. 11:34).
Also known as Josheb-Basshebeth (2 Sam. 23:8), he was chief of David’s officers (1 Chron. 11:11 [so the Qere, followed by NIV, KJV, NKJV; the Kethib reads “the Thirty,” followed by NASB; based on 2 Sam. 23:8, NLT, ESV, NRSV make him head of “the Three”]). Chronicles calls him a “Hakmonite” (“Tahkemonite” in 2 Sam. 23:8), suggesting that he was a descendant of Hakmoni and thus from a family closely associated with David (1 Chron. 27:32). The MT and some LXX manuscripts of 2 Sam. 23:8 could suggest that he was also known as Adino the Eznite (so NASB), but this probably is a textual corruption. He is noted for his success in battle, though Samuel and Chronicles differ over whether he killed eight hundred (2 Sam. 23:8) or three hundred (1 Chron. 11:11) at one time. Hebrew roots associated with the number three are so common in the list of David’s mighty warriors that it is more likely that Chronicles has unintentionally conformed its number to the rest of the list, though it is also likely that this number includes those slain under his command.
(1) One of the four sons of Issachar (Gen. 46:13; Num. 26:24; 1 Chron. 7:1). The inclusion of the relatively unknown Jashub among Jacob’s extended family together with many other near-forgotten names indicates, among other things, the fulfilling of God’s promise of descendants to Abraham (Gen. 15:5). (2) One of the returned exiles who, as a result of the reforms introduced by Ezra, was listed as having taken a foreign wife (Ezra 10:29). (3) A partial name of one of Isaiah’s sons (Isa. 7:3). See also Shear-Jashub.
A place ruled by the clan of Shelah (1 Chron. 4:22 [the TEV follows an emended text to read “settled in Bethlehem”]). The KJV understands it to be the name of one of Shelah’s sons, from the tribe of Judah.
A clan of the tribe of Issachar descended from Jashub that was counted during the second census during the wilderness wandering (Num. 26:24).
(1) The son of Abner (the general who defected from Saul to David), Jaasiel was one of David’s army officers who was in charge of a militia provided by the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 27:21). (2) One of David’s thirty mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:47). It is possible that these two men are the same person.
Earliest known from Greek myth as the name of the Argonauts’ leader (Apollonius Rhodius, Argonautica), the name “Jason” was also used by Hellenistic Jews as an alternative to “Jesus/Joshua” (Josephus, Ant. 12.239). In the Bible it refers to two persons. (1) A Thessalonian who was likely a Hellenistic Jew converted under Paul’s preaching. He hosted Paul and was consequently taken into custody and posted bond (Acts 17:1–9). (2) A Jewish Christian present with Paul in Corinth when he wrote Romans (Rom. 16:21). The association of Jason with Sosipater (Rom. 16:21) and of Sopater (= Sosipater) with Thessalonica (Acts 20:4) makes it likely that he is the same Jason as in Acts 17:1–9.
A precious stone, translucent in appearance (Rev. 21:11: “clear as crystal”). It is mentioned in several biblical contexts. In Exodus it is listed as one of the twelve stones (third stone in the fourth row) mounted on the high priest’s breastpiece, symbolizing the twelve tribes of Israel (Exod. 28:20; 39:13). Job mentions it as a gemstone of little worth compared to the excellence of divine wisdom (Job 28:18). The stone’s beauty illustrates the glory of the king of Tyre, whose wealth became a source of pride and eventual downfall (Ezek. 28:13). In Revelation jasper, along with other precious stones, is used to depict the glory of God (Rev. 4:3) and to describe the brilliant appearance of the walls and foundations of the new Jerusalem (21:11, 18–19).
The fourth son of Meshelemiah, he was a priestly gatekeeper (1 Chron. 26:2).
A Levitical town located in the southern hill country of Judah (Josh. 15:48; 21:14; 1 Chron. 6:57). David sent gifts to Jattir from the spoils of his victory over the Amalekite raiders who had looted Ziklag (1 Sam. 30:27). The site may be Khirbet ’Attir, thirteen miles southwest of Hebron.
In the Table of Nations, a genealogy of the three sons of Noah that reflects later nations and languages, Javan is a son of Japheth and the father of Elishah, Tarshish, the Kittites, and the Rodanites (or Dodanites) (Gen. 10:2, 4; see also 1 Chron. 1:5, 7). Javan is considered the ancestor of the Greeks, a people who lived on the Ionian Peninsula and in western Asia Minor. The prophets use “Javan” to refer to the Greeks (Isa. 66:19; Ezek. 27:13, 19 NRSV).
Human and animal jawbones are employed both figuratively and literally. At Ramath Lehi (“Jawbone Hill”), Samson uses a fresh donkey jawbone to slay a Philistine contingent and make them into “donkeys”/“heaps” (Judg. 15:15–17; see NIV footnote). Both fishhooks and bits are set in jaws (Job 41:2; Ezek. 29:4; 38:4; Isa. 30:28), and enemies are struck on the jaw (Ps. 3:7). Elihu sees Job’s distress as God’s wooing him from “the jaws of distress” (Job 36:16), and Agur speaks of jaws “set with knives” to devour the poor (Prov. 30:14).
An Amorite town whose exact location is disputed but lies toward the Ammonite border, east of the Jordan River and opposite Jericho. After receiving intelligence from spies, Moses took Jazer, together with its rich pasturelands, from the Amorites (Num. 21:32). The town was allotted to the tribe of Gad (Num. 32:1, 3, 35; Josh. 13:25) and given to Levites (Josh. 21:39; 1 Chron. 6:81). Jazer was included in the census of the fighting men of Israel (2 Sam. 24:5), and it provided a plentiful supply of capable men for David’s civil administration (1 Chron. 26:31). The town subsequently came under the control of Moab and is mentioned in oracles of judgment against that nation (Isa. 16:8–9; Jer. 48:32).
A Hagrite who was in charge of the flocks during David’s reign (1 Chron. 27:31).
Jealousy has both positive and negative connotations in the Bible. Positively, jealousy is an attribute of God, who desires the exclusive worship of his people: “Do not worship any other god, for the Lord, whose name is Jealous, is a jealous God” (Exod. 34:14; cf. Exod. 20:5; Deut. 4:24; 1 Cor. 10:22). Chief among the acts that provoke God to jealousy is the worship of idols (Deut. 32:16; Ps. 78:58), to which God responds with anger and fury (Nah. 1:2; Zeph. 1:18). God’s jealousy for his people (Joel 2:18; Zech. 1:14) is conceptually akin to the love of a husband for his wife (2 Cor. 11:2). Moreover, the language of jealousy is closely related to pious “zeal” (Num. 25:11; 1 Kings 19:10). Negatively, jealousy is a human vice. Paul lists jealousy among the “acts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19–20; cf. 1 Cor. 3:3; Rom. 13:13). Biblical antagonists are often depicted as the victims of jealousy, including Joseph (Gen. 37:11; Acts 7:9) and Paul (Acts 17:5).
A mountain forming part of the northern boundary of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah at the time of the conquest (Josh. 15:10). In the same passage it is identified with Kesalon, or modern Kesla, ten miles west of Jerusalem.
A Gershonite listed among the postexilic Levites in the genealogies of Chronicles (1 Chron. 6:21 [KJV: “Jeaterai”]).
A Gershonite listed among the postexilic Levites in the genealogies of Chronicles (1 Chron. 6:21 [KJV: “Jeaterai”]).
The father of Zechariah, who served as a witness to Isaiah’s act of naming his son (Isa. 8:2).
The father of Zechariah, who served as a witness to Isaiah’s act of naming his son (Isa. 8:2).
The chief city of the Jebusites, descendants of Noah’s grandson Canaan. It was renamed “Jerusalem” after its occupation by Israel. The city was burned during the early conquest (Judg. 1:8), but the Jebusites reoccupied it (Judg. 19:10–11) until David recaptured it (1 Chron. 11:4–5).
A people group who dwelled in the land of Canaan. They were descended from Canaan (Gen. 10:15–16). God wished to destroy them when Israel invaded (Exod. 23:23). They occupied the hills and Jerusalem, also called “Jebus,” in the central region of Canaan (Josh. 15:63; Judg. 1:21). Their king, Adoni-Zedek, organized a coalition of kings to attack Gibeon and Israel (Josh. 10). Though victorious, the Israelites were never able to drive out the Jebusites. They remained in control of Jerusalem until it was conquered by David’s men (2 Sam. 5:6–9). Araunah, a Jebusite, sold David his threshing floor so that David could build an altar there (2 Sam. 24:18). The Jebusites were made slave laborers by Solomon (1 Kings 9:20–21).
(1) One of the sons of King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) of Judah, who was taken into Babylonian captivity (1 Chron. 3:18). (2) A descendant of Jerahmeel in the genealogy of Judah, he was the son of Shallum and the father of Elishama (1 Chron. 2:41).
The wife of King Amaziah of Judah and the mother of King Uzziah (also known as Azariah) of Judah. She was from Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:2; 2 Chron. 26:3).
The wife of King Amaziah of Judah and the mother of King Uzziah (also known as Azariah) of Judah. She was from Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:2; 2 Chron. 26:3).
This name, found in the genealogy in Matt. 1:11–12, is a variant of the name “Jehoiachin,” referring to one of the kings of Judah.
This name, found in the genealogy in Matt. 1:11–12, is a variant of the name “Jehoiachin,” referring to one of the kings of Judah.
The wife of King Amaziah of Judah and the mother of King Uzziah (also known as Azariah) of Judah. She was from Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:2; 2 Chron. 26:3).
This name, found in the genealogy in Matt. 1:11–12, is a variant of the name “Jehoiachin,” referring to one of the kings of Judah.
(1) A clan leader and member of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:37). (2) A priest and clan leader who was among the first people to resettle in Jerusalem after returning from the Babylonian captivity with Zerubbabel (1 Chron. 9:10; Ezra 2:36; Neh. 7:39; 12:7). (3) Another priest and clan leader among the first people to resettle in Jerusalem after returning with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:6). (4) A descendant of Aaron, and one of the priests during the reign of David (1 Chron. 24:7). (5) A person who worked on a section of the wall under the direction of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:10). (6) The son of Joiarib (Neh. 11:10). He may be the same person as in 1 Chron. 9:10; Ezra 2:36; Neh. 7:39; 12:7. (7) A priest working in the temple during the time of Zechariah (Zech. 6:9–15).
(1) A son of Benjamin and a patriarch of the tribe (1 Chron. 7:6, 10–11). (2) One of David’s thirty mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:45). (3) One of the men of Manasseh (1 Chron. 12:20). This person may be the same as in 1 Chron. 11:45. (4) A Levitical gatekeeper of the ark of the covenant (1 Chron. 26:2).
The daughter of Adaiah, wife of King Amon, and mother of King Josiah of Judah (2 Kings 22:1). She was from the town of Bozkath, which according to Josh. 15:39 is in the western foothills of Judah.
Through the prophet Nathan, God gave the name “Jedidiah” to Solomon (2 Sam. 12:25). This additional name, meaning “loved by the Lord,” unquestionably established Solomon’s favored status as one to succeed David as king and become an ancestor of Jesus. It may also have communicated God’s comfort to Bathsheba following the death of her first son by David and confirmed forgiveness to David after his adultery and murder of Uriah.
A Levite musician stationed at the tent where the ark of the covenant was placed during David’s reign (1 Chron. 16:38–41; 25:1–6). He also played instruments at the temple dedication (2 Chron. 5:12). His son Obed-Edom was one of the gatekeepers for the tent. He was an ancestor of Levites who helped Hezekiah purify the temple (2 Chron. 29:14), of Levites present during Josiah’s rededication of the temple (where he is listed as David’s seer [2 Chron. 35:15]), as well as of some of those who resettled in Judah after the exile (1 Chron. 9:16; Neh. 11:16). The superscriptions of Pss. 39; 62; 77 mention a Jeduthun who is the director of music, likely this same person.
A son of Gilead, one of the clans of Manasseh (Num. 26:30). He is the ancestor of the Iezerites. The name is probably a variant of “Abiezer” (see Josh. 17:2). See also Abiezer.
A son of Gilead, one of the clans of Manasseh (Num. 26:30). He is the ancestor of the Iezerites. The name is probably a variant of “Abiezer” (see Josh. 17:2). See also Abiezer.
An Aramaic term meaning “(stone) heap of testimony.” Jacob’s father-in-law, Laban, chose “Jegar Sahadutha” as the name for the pile of stones erected as a memorial of the covenant between Laban and Jacob. The Hebrew-speaking Jacob used the equivalent Hebrew term Galeed instead (Gen. 31:44–53; see Gen. 31:47 NIV mg.).
(1) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:16). (2) The Merarite ancestor of Kish who was one of the Levites who purified and consecrated the temple at the behest of King Hezekiah (2 Chron. 29:12).
(1) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:16). (2) The Merarite ancestor of Kish who was one of the Levites who purified and consecrated the temple at the behest of King Hezekiah (2 Chron. 29:12).
(1) A descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:16). (2) The Merarite ancestor of Kish who was one of the Levites who purified and consecrated the temple at the behest of King Hezekiah (2 Chron. 29:12).
(1) The son of Reaiah of the Zoharite clan from the tribe of Judah, he was the father of Ahumai and Lahad (1 Chron. 4:2). (2) The son of Gershon and a grandson of Levi, forefathers of Asaph the temple musician (1 Chron. 6:43). (3) A Levite, the firstborn son of Shimei from the Gershonite clan (1 Chron. 23:10–11). (4) A Levite, a son of Shelomoth from the Izharite clan (1 Chron. 24:22). (5) A Levite descended from Merari, he and Obadiah supervised the work of repairing and restoring the temple during King Josiah’s reforms (2 Chron. 34:12).
(1) One of the Benjamite warriors related to Saul who joined David at Ziklag and supported him against their own kinsmen (1 Chron. 12:4). (2) One of the two priests appointed to blow the trumpet regularly before the ark of the covenant (1 Chron. 16:6). (3) A Levite, the third son of Hebron from the Kohathite clan (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23). (4) A Levite, the son of Zechariah, and a descendant of Asaph the temple musician from the Gershonite clan. He prophesied before the people of Judah and King Jehoshaphat an oracle of victory over the coalition of the Moabites and the Ammonites (2 Chron. 20:14–17, 20–23). (5) The father of Shekaniah, who was the leader of the family of Zattu when they returned with Ezra from exile (Ezra 8:5; 1 Esd. 8:32).
(1) One of the Levites appointed by lots to serve during the time of King David (1 Chron. 24:20). (2) A Meronothite who was in charge of caring for King David’s donkeys (1 Chron. 27:30).
One of the heads of a priestly clan that was chosen to be part of the ministry in the temple during the time of King David (1 Chron. 24:16).
One of the heads of a priestly clan that was chosen to be part of the ministry in the temple during the time of King David (1 Chron. 24:16).
A Levite commissioned to be a doorkeeper for the celebration of the ark of the covenant’s entrance into the city of Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:24).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
Jehizkiah was among the leaders of Ephraim who told returning soldiers from Israel that they must not keep the plunder and slaves collected from defeated Judah. These leaders witnessed the release of the prisoners and were also responsible for making sure that those in need were taken care of before they were returned (2 Chron. 28:12).
A descendant of King Saul and the Benjamites. His father was Ahaz, and his son was Alemeth (1 Chron. 8:36 [KJV: “Jehoadah”]). In a parallel list he is named as “Jadah” (1 Chron. 9:42 [KJV: “Jarah”]). See also Jadah; Jarah.
A descendant of King Saul and the Benjamites. His father was Ahaz, and his son was Alemeth (1 Chron. 8:36 [KJV: “Jehoadah”]). In a parallel list he is named as “Jadah” (1 Chron. 9:42 [KJV: “Jarah”]). See also Jadah; Jarah.
The mother of King Amaziah (2 Chron. 25:1; 2 Kings 14:2). Although the Bible does not record it, she must have been married to Joash, Amaziah’s father. She was one of three queen mothers from Jerusalem mentioned in the Bible.
The mother of King Amaziah (2 Chron. 25:1; 2 Kings 14:2). Although the Bible does not record it, she must have been married to Joash, Amaziah’s father. She was one of three queen mothers from Jerusalem mentioned in the Bible.
(1) King of Israel (r. 814–800 BC), the son of King Jehu (2 Kings 10:35). He apparently did not worship Baal, but he did not completely eradicate idolatry from Israel during his reign (2 Kings 13:2). For much of his reign he was subject to the Aramean kings and had a pitifully small army (2 Kings 13:7). His deliverance from Aram did not substantially change his attitude toward God. (2) A son of King Josiah and Hamutal, he became king of Judah in 609 BC after Pharaoh Necho of Egypt killed Josiah at Meggido. Jehoahaz, who “did evil in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kings 23:32), reigned for three months before Necho took him as prisoner to Egypt, where he died (2 Kings 23:29–35; 2 Chron. 36:1–4). He is also known as Shallum (1 Chron. 3:15).
Jehoahaz’s son and a king of Israel (2 Kings 13:10–25; 14:8–16; 2 Chron. 25:17–24 [KJV: “Joash”]). The Bible records him as a king unfaithful to God who followed the sins of Jeroboam. He had an encounter with the dying Elisha in which he failed to follow the prophet’s directions carefully and was granted only a partial victory over Hazael of Aram. He also went to war with King Amaziah of Judah and attacked Jerusalem, sacking the temple and destroying a large part of Jerusalem’s wall. The Chronicler attributes Amaziah’s defeat to his disobedience of God.
(1) The son (or grandson) of Eliashib who provided Ezra with a room during his fasting and prayer concerning Jewish intermarrying with foreigners (Ezra 10:6). The names “Eliashib” and “Jehohanan” are common enough that this person may simply be a private citizen. However, if he is the same person as the one in Neh. 12:22, then he is the grandson of the high priest Eliashib. This is significant for the chronology of Ezra-Nehemiah because it would suggest, based on certain Elephantine papyri, that Ezra, a contemporary of Jehohanan, is chronologically after Nehemiah the governor. It is also possible, however, that the room or chamber to which Ezra retired got its name after the historical event and was simply called this by the author of Ezra.
(2) A Levite and grandson of Asaph, he was one of the temple gatekeepers appointed by David (1 Chron. 26:3). (3) One of Jehoshaphat’s army leaders from Judah who was a “commander of units of 1,000.” He commanded 280,000 men (2 Chron. 17:14–15). Based on the reference in v. 14 to “families,” he may have been a tribal leader of Jehoshaphat’s conscripted army rather than a career military person. (4) The father of Ishmael, who was one of the “commanders of units of a hundred” that supported the high priest Jehoiada in his removal of the queen Athaliah and the successful placing of Joash on the throne (2 Chron. 23:1). It is possible that this is the same person as in 2 Chron. 17:15.
(5) An Ephraimite leader who encouraged Israel’s victorious army to release its Judahite prisoners of war because of the prophet Oded’s warning that Israel had committed the same sins for which Judah had just been punished (2 Chron. 28:12). (6) One of the descendants of Bebai named among the Israelites guilty of marrying a foreign wife during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:28). (7) The son of Tobiah the Ammonite, who opposed Nehemiah in building the wall (Neh. 6:18). He was married to the Jewish daughter of Meshullam, who had helped Nehemiah build the wall. (8) One of the priestly heads of family during the time of Joiada. He was the head of Amariah’s family (Neh. 12:13). (9) One of the priests who celebrated the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:42).
The nineteenth of the twenty monarchs of Judah (r. 597 BC), he was a grandson of Josiah and an ancestor of Jesus (Matt. 1:11–12: “Jeconiah”). His brief reign is recorded in 2 Kings 24:8–17; 2 Chron. 36:8–10. He became ruler at age eighteen, and, like many other ruling members of his family (uncles Jehoahaz and Zedekiah, and father Jehoiakim), he “did evil in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kings 24:9). He reigned only three months before being exiled to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar in 597 BC. During this deportation Nebuchadnezzar exiled many Judeans and looted the temple, fulfilling the prophecy of Isaiah to Hezekiah over a hundred years earlier (2 Kings 20:17–18). Jeremiah prophesied the end of Jehoiachin’s reign and dynasty (Jer. 22:24–30 [MT: “Coniah”]). He was finally released from imprisonment in 562 BC by Awel-Marduk of Babylon (2 Kings 25:27–30; Jer. 52:31–34). Babylonian tablets record prison rations for him and his sons during his exile.
(1) The high priest who organized the revolt that placed Joash, the last living male heir of the time in the line of David and the rightful king, on the throne (r. 836–798 BC). According to 2 Chron. 22:11, Jehoiada was married to Joash’s aunt Jehosheba; thus Jehoiada was Joash’s uncle. Jehosheba saved Joash during an attempt by Queen Athaliah, Joash’s grandmother, to kill all other members of the royal family and secure her own claim to the throne. Jehoiada organized the coup d’état by using the temple guard, who killed Athaliah when she came to investigate the noise made by the guards and the people as Jehoiada crowned Joash king and charged him to follow the covenant (2 Kings 11; 2 Chron. 22–23).
It is possible that Jehoiada served as a coregent during the rest of his life. According to 2 Kings 12:2, Joash remained faithful to God all the years that Jehoiada was alive. Jehoiada also managed the temple restoration work under the order of Joash. In order to fund the temple restoration, he installed a collection box at the temple, collected the mandated tithe, and distributed this money to the workers. He was also involved in the purging of Baal worship from the kingdom.
(2) The father of Benaiah, who was the military leader of the Kerethites and Pelethites during the reign of David, the best of David’s “Thirty,” and the head of David’s bodyguard (2 Sam. 8:18; 23:20–23). This Jehoiada may be the same person who joined David at Hebron (1 Chron. 12:27). If so, the Chronicler emphasizes his pedigree from the line of Aaron the priest (1 Chron. 27:5).
(3) The son of Benaiah, who was David’s bodyguard commander (2 Sam. 23:20–23), he became David’s counselor after Ahithophel committed suicide (1 Chron. 27:34). Some have suggested that this is the same Johoiada listed as the father of Benaiah in 2 Sam. 8:18; 23:20, and that the Chronicler mistakenly identifies him as the son of Benaiah.
(4) A priest during Jeremiah’s time who was replaced by Zephaniah (Jer. 29:26).
The second of King Josiah’s sons to rule over Judah (r. 609–598 BC), his mother was Zebidah. He “did evil in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kings 23:37), and his eleven-year reign is recorded in 2 Kings 23:34–24:6; 2 Chron. 36:4–8. He was twenty-five when Pharaoh Necho of Egypt deposed his brother Jehoahaz and made him king, changing his birth name, “Eliakim,” to “Jehoiakim.” He initially gave tribute to Egypt, but he became a Babylonian vassal when Nebuchadnezzar defeated Necho in 605 BC. Jeremiah prophesied exile and death because of his greed and oppression of the poor (Jer. 22:13–19). Jehoiakim burned Jeremiah’s scroll and attempted to arrest the prophet, but God thwarted him (Jer. 36:20–26). He did, however, kill the prophet Uriah (Jer. 26:20–23). Jehoiakim ignored Jeremiah’s advice and rebelled against Babylon, so Nebuchadnezzar retaliated first by sending small military bands, then besieging Jerusalem and capturing Jehoiakim. He probably died in exile.
(1) One of the returning priests from the Babylonian exile and presumably one of the heads of a priestly family (1 Chron. 9:9–11). He is listed as part of the tribe of Benjamin. He may be the same person as Joiarib in Neh. 11:10; 12:6, 19, based on the genealogies given there. (2) The head of a division of priests during the time of David. He was a descendant of Eleazar, one of Aaron’s four sons (1 Chron. 24:7).
The son of Rekab, he joined with Jehu in the purge of Ahab’s family during Jehu’s coup d’état. He also helped Jehu kill all the priests of Baal in the temple of Baal in Samaria (2 Kings 10:15, 23). Although it is historically unverifiable, he apparently is the founder of the Rekabite community. They refused to drink wine with Jeremiah because they had vowed to follow the instructions of their ancestor Jehonadab to refrain from drinking wine, building houses, sowing seed, and planting vineyards (Jer. 35 [NRSV: “Jonadab”; here the name is spelled as both yonadab and yehonadab in Hebrew]). Jeremiah’s oracle uses them as an example of faithfulness, while he condemns Judah for its unfaithfulness. See also Jonadab.
(1) One of the Levites commissioned by King Jehoshaphat to teach the “Book of the Law of the Lord” to the people of Judah (2 Chron. 17:8–9), which apparently was part of Jehoshaphat’s reform and restoration of Yahweh worship in Judah (cf. 2 Chron. 19:4–11). (2) One of the heads of a priestly family during the high priesthood of Joiakim and the governorship of Nehemiah (Neh. 12:18). (3) An official in charge of the storehouses during the reign of David (1 Chron. 27:25 KJV [NIV, NRSV: “Jonathan”]).
(1) An alternate name for Joram, king of Israel, Ahab’s son (r. 851–842 BC). (2) King of Judah (r. 846–843 BC), Jehoshaphat’s son. It is likely that he served as coregent with his father early in his reign. He was married to Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and Jezebel. This marriage likely sealed a treaty with Israel established by his father. He was also noted for his apostasy and his inability to subjugate Edom. He was not given the traditional honorable burial reserved for kings (2 Kings 8:16–24; 2 Chron. 21:4–20). (3) One of two priests commissioned by King Jehoshaphat to teach “the Book of the Law of the Lord” throughout Judah (2 Chron. 17:8–9). See also Joram.
Daughter of Jehoram, king of Judah (r. 846–843 BC); sister of Ahaziah, king of Judah; and wife of Jehoiada the priest. Jehosheba saved the infant Joash from the massacre of Ahaziah’s sons by his mother, Athaliah. Jehosheba hid Joash for six years, until he was revealed by Jehoiada and crowned the rightful king of Judah (2 Kings 11:1–12). In the parallel account (2 Chron. 22:11) in the NRSV, her name is “Jehoshabeath.”
(1) The son of Ahilud, he was an official, a recorder, during the time of David and Solomon (2 Sam. 8:16; 20:24; 1 Kings 4:3). (2) The son of Paruah, he was an official in Issachar responsible for supplying Solomon’s palace (1 Kings 4:17).
(3) The fourth king of Judah (r. 867–846 BC), coming to the throne on the death of his father, Asa (1 Kings 22:1–50; 2 Kings 3:1–27; 2 Chron. 17:1–21:1). He was a good king who loved God, but not a perfect king. He removed most, but not all, forms of false worship from the land of Judah. He entered into a formal treaty with King Ahab of Israel and sealed it with a marriage between his son Jehoram and Athaliah daughter of Ahab. From a religious point of view, this alliance was not healthy, because although Jehoshaphat remained faithful, his son came under the influence of the Baal worship favored by Ahab and his family. From a political point of view, Jehoshaphat was the junior partner of this relationship (vassal) and often had to lend his support to Ahab against his enemies, particularly the Arameans.
Even so, Jehoshaphat did many good things pleasing to God. He supported those who taught the law of God (2 Chron. 17:7–9), and he also promoted justice in the land when he created a system of judges after being challenged to do so by the prophet Jehu (2 Chron. 19). He also depended on God during war. When he fought a coalition from Ammon, Moab, and elsewhere, he preached to the army before the battle (2 Chron. 20). When he supported Ahab in his war against the Arameans, he was the one who insisted that a prophet of Yahweh be consulted (1 Kings 22).
(4) A valley symbolically mentioned in Joel 3:2, 12 (see Jehoshaphat, Valley of). (5) The son of Nimshi and the father of King Jehu of Israel (2 Kings 9:2, 14).
Daughter of Jehoram, king of Judah (r. 846–843 BC); sister of Ahaziah, king of Judah; and wife of Jehoiada the priest. Jehosheba saved the infant Joash from the massacre of Ahaziah’s sons by his mother, Athaliah. Jehosheba hid Joash for six years, until he was revealed by Jehoiada and crowned the rightful king of Judah (2 Kings 11:1–12). In the parallel account (2 Chron. 22:11) in the NRSV, her name is “Jehoshabeath.”
(1) The son of Nun and the servant of Moses. Joshua appears thirty-three times in Exodus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Judges. He is the principal human character of the OT book that bears his name.
As a military commander, Joshua fought against the Amalekites (Exod. 17:8–13). He became an assistant to Moses and accompanied him up and then down the mountain of God (24:13; 32:17). Joshua also kept watch over the tent of meeting (33:11).
Moses sent Joshua, Caleb, and ten others as spies to explore the land of Canaan (Num. 13). At this point, Moses also changed his name from “Hoshea” to “Joshua” (13:8, 16). Because Joshua and Caleb trusted that God would help Israel conquer Canaan, God vowed that only these two of that rebellious generation would enter the promised land (14:30). God also commanded Moses to commission Joshua as his successor. So in the presence of all Israel Moses laid his hands upon Joshua and set him apart for the task (27:15–23).
God commanded Moses to strengthen and encourage Joshua (Deut. 1:38; 3:28). Later, Moses charged Joshua with the specific task of bringing the people into the promised land (31:7, 23). Since Moses had laid his hands upon him, and he was filled with the spirit of wisdom, the children of Israel agreed to obey Joshua (34:9).
Joshua’s character as a leader is demonstrated throughout the book that bears his name. Among other things, Joshua served as a brilliant military leader (Josh. 1–12), an administrator (Josh. 13–21), and a religious leader (Josh. 24). He led the Israelites across the Jordan and presided at the allotment of land. In all of this, Joshua was “strong and courageous” (1:6), just as God and the people encouraged him to be (1:6–7, 9, 18). At the end of his life he was called, like Moses, “the servant of the Lord” (24:29). The people served God throughout the lifetime of Joshua (Judg. 2:7).
(2) The owner of the field in Beth Shemesh where the ark stopped after it returned from the Philistines (1 Sam. 6:14).
(3) The governor of Jerusalem during Josiah’s reign (2 Kings 23:8).
(4) A high priest and one of the leaders of Israel who survived the Babylonian captivity and was permitted by an edict of Cyrus to return to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7). He was a contemporary of Haggai and Zechariah. In many Bible versions, he is referred to as “Jeshua son of Jozadak” in Ezra and Nehemiah (e.g., Ezra 3:2; Neh. 12:26) and “Joshua son of Jehozadak” in Haggai and Zechariah (e.g., Hag. 1:1; Zech. 6:11) (the NIV standardizes his name to “Joshua son of Jozadak” throughout).
Together with Zerubbabel, Joshua helped to restore worship for the returned exiles (Ezra 3:2) and with the sometimes hazardous work of rebuilding the temple (Ezra 3:8–9; 4:3; 5:2). The high priests descended from him are listed in Neh. 12:10, but other descendants are named as guilty of intermarriage with foreign wives (Ezra 10:18). In the book of Zechariah he is the subject of two visions where he serves as a representative of Israel (Zech. 3:1–10) and as a type of Christ (6:9–15).
(5) An ancestor of Jesus in Luke’s genealogy (Luke 3:29).
In Gen. 22:1–19 Abraham obeys God and prepares to sacrifice his son Isaac, but an angel of the Lord intervenes and provides a ram as a substitute for Isaac. As a result, Abraham names the place “Jehovah Jireh” (Heb. yhwh yir’eh), meaning “Yahweh provides” (v. 14 [NIV: “The Lord Will Provide”]).
After Joshua and the Israelites defeated the Amalekites in Rephidim, Moses erected an altar and called it “Jehovah Nissi” (Heb. yhwh nissi), meaning “Yahweh is my banner” (Exod. 17:15 [NIV: “The Lord is my Banner”]). The suggestion is that the people should rally around God as an army gathers around its banner.
After Gideon was terrified at seeing an angel of the Lord, God said to him, “Peace! Do not be afraid” (Judg. 6:23). In response, Gideon built an altar in Ophrah and named it “Jehovah Shalom” (Heb. yhwh shalom), meaning “Yahweh is peace” (Judg. 6:24 [NIV: “The Lord Is Peace”]). It is equivalent to “Yahweh is well disposed.”
In Ezekiel’s vision of the new Jerusalem, restored and glorified, the city is called “Jehovah Shammah” (Heb. yhwh shammah) (Ezek. 48:35; cf. Rev. 21:3). It means “Yahweh is there” (NIV: “The Lord Is There”) and emphasizes the importance of God’s presence in the midst of his people when he returns to the forsaken temple.
According to Jeremiah, the “righteous Branch” of David will be known by the name “Jehovah Tsidqenu” (Heb. yhwh tsidqenu), meaning “Yahweh (is) our righteousness” (Jer. 23:6; 33:16 [NIV: “The Lord Our Righteous Savior”]). In his days “Judah will be saved and Israel/Jerusalem will live in safety.” This symbolic name of the messianic king contrasts with that of the last king of Judah, Zedekiah (“Yahweh is righteousness”), who was an unworthy bearer of that name.
(1) The son of Shomer (or “Shimrith,” the variant in 2 Chron. 24:26), he, with Jozabad son of Shimeath, murdered King Joash of Judah (2 Kings 12:21). (2) A Korahite gatekeeper, son of Obed-Edom (1 Chron. 26:4). (3) A Benjamite commander in King Jehoshaphat’s army (2 Chron. 17:18).
A priest deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar (1 Chron. 6:14–15; Hag. 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; Zech. 6:11). His father, the high priest Seraiah, was executed by Nebuchad-nez-zar following the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:18–21). Nevertheless, Jozadak’s son Joshua (sometimes called “Jeshua”) returned from the Babylonian captivity, became high priest, and played a significant role in the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh. 12:26; Zech. 6:11). Jozadak is also called “Jehozadak” (e.g., Hag. 1:1; Zech. 6:11 ESV, NASB) and in some versions “Josedech” (KJV).
(1) King of Israel, son of Jehoshaphat (r. 842–814 BC). He carried out a bloody purge of the Omride dynasty, killing Joram, Ahaziah, Jezebel, and around seventy other individuals associated with Omri’s family and administration (2 Kings 9:1–10:27). Although he had great influence in ending Baal worship in Israel (2 Kings 10:28), his methods are identified in Scripture as being overzealous and therefore against the will of Yahweh (Hos. 1:4). He also failed to distance himself from the sins of his predecessors and retained the golden calves of Dan and Bethel (2 Kings 10:28–31). He is known from archaeology by the inclusion of his likeness on the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III, which ironically identifies him as “Jehu, son of Omri.”
(2) A prophet in the time of King Baasha of Israel, he foretold and then witnessed the demise of Baasha (1 Kings 16:1–12). He also apparently interacted with King Jehoshaphat of Judah and charged him with sin for his alliance with Ahab (2 Chron. 19:2–3). It is also reported that the prophet functioned as a sort of court recorder for the kingdom of Jehoshaphat, and that his work served as a source for the Chronicler (2 Chron. 20:34).
(3) An otherwise unknown Judean who was the son of Obed and the father of Azariah (1 Chron. 2:38). (4) A Simeonite, the son of Joshibiah, he was considered significant by the Chronicler as one of the leaders of a clan during the time of King Hezekiah of Judah (1 Chron. 4:35). (5) A Benjamite warrior from Anathoth who allied with David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:3). His actions were significant because they demonstrated that even within Saul’s own tribe there were those who would align themselves with David.
A descendant of Asher through Shomer (1 Chron. 7:34). Some English versions (KJV, NASB, ESV) render his name “Jehubbah,” following the Kethib reading yakhbah. The LXX supports “Hubbah.”
The son of Shelemiah, he was an official in the administration of King Zedekiah (Jer. 37:1–3). Jehukal was commissioned to persuade Jeremiah to pray on behalf of Judah. Later, Jehukal was part of a group of officials who wanted to have Jeremiah put to death (38:1–4).
A town that was part of the tribe of Dan’s traditional territorial allotment (Josh. 19:45). Its precise modern-day location is uncertain.
One of King Jehoiakim’s court officials, he heard Jeremiah’s message through Jeremiah’s scribe, Baruch. After hearing the oracle, he along with other officials decided that the king needed to hear the warnings. Thus, he secured a safe location for Jeremiah and then read the scroll to the king. After Jehudi had read the scroll, the king proceeded to burn it, section by section, and he refused to heed its warnings (Jer. 36:14, 21, 23).
In 1 Chron. 4:18 the KJV mistranslates the Hebrew word yehudiyah as a proper name, “Jehudijah.” The NIV translates this word as “his wife from the tribe of Judah,” which distinguishes Mered’s sons of Judean birth from those of Egyptian birth.
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
The son of Shelemiah, he was an official in the administration of King Zedekiah (Jer. 37:1–3). Jehukal was commissioned to persuade Jeremiah to pray on behalf of Judah. Later, Jehukal was part of a group of officials who wanted to have Jeremiah put to death (38:1–4).
(1) The first of three sons born to Esau and Oholibamah (Gen. 36:5, 14, 18). (2) The first of seven sons of Bilhan in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:10). (3) A warrior, the second of three sons of Eshek in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:39). (4) The third of four sons of Shimei, a Levite (1 Chron. 23:10). (5) The first of three sons born to King Rehoboam of Judah and Mahalath (2 Chron. 11:19).
(1) A descendant of Reuben and a leader of his tribe, he was a relative of Beerah, who had been carried off to exile by Tiglath-pileser of Assyria (1 Chron. 5:6–7). (2) A Benjamite patriarch who lived in Gibeon, and the husband of Maakah (1 Chron. 9:35; 8:29). He was the father of Ner, grandfather of Kish, and thus great-grandfather of King Saul (1 Chron. 9:35–39). The MT of 1 Chron. 8:29 lacks “Jeiel,” but it appears in some LXX manuscripts, and modern versions supply it there. The addition in those LXX texts may well be an assimilation to the parallel, 1 Chron. 9:35. (3) A son of Hotham the Aroerite, he is noted as one of the mighty warriors of David (1 Chron. 11:44).
(4) A Levite and gatekeeper for the tabernacle, he was appointed to play the lyre at the tabernacle; thus he played when the ark of God was brought back into the tent (1 Chron. 15:18, 21; 16:5). (5) A great-grandfather of Jahaziel, the prophet who prophesied the victory of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 20:14–17). He was from the tribe of Levi and perhaps is the same individual as in 1 Chron. 15:18, 21; 16:5. (6) A scribe who compiled the rolls of soldiers by division in the reign of King Uzziah (2 Chron. 26:11). (7) A descendant of Elizaphan, he offered cleansing sacrifices at the reopening and reparation of the temple under the direction of King Hezekiah (2 Chron. 29:13).
(8) An official of the Levites who willingly contributed to the sacrifice from the flocks at the reformation Passover undertaken by King Josiah (2 Chron. 35:9). (9) One of the last group of descendants from the family of Adonikam in Babylon, he returned to Judah with Ezra under King Artaxerxes (Ezra 8:13 KJV [NIV: “Jeuel”]). (10) One of the sons of Nebo who is noted as having taken a foreign wife (Ezra 10:43).
A town in the south of Judah that was reoccupied by the returned exiles (Neh. 11:25). In earlier times Kabzeel, as it was then known, was a prominent town in the Negev district of Judah (Josh. 15:21). It was the birthplace of Benaiah, son of Jehoiada, one of David’s valiant fighting men (2 Sam. 23:20; 1 Chron. 11:22). Khirbet Gharreh, halfway between Beersheba and Arad, has been suggested as its likely location. See also Kabzeel.
A Levite of the Kohathite clan who served during the reign of David (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23).
(1) One of the sons of King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) of Judah, who was taken into Babylonian captivity (1 Chron. 3:18). (2) A descendant of Jerahmeel in the genealogy of Judah, he was the son of Shallum and the father of Elishama (1 Chron. 2:41).
The wife of King Amaziah of Judah and the mother of King Uzziah (also known as Azariah) of Judah. She was from Jerusalem (2 Kings 15:2; 2 Chron. 26:3).
One of the three sons born to Mered by his Judean wife, and the father of Zanoah (1 Chron. 4:18).
The first of three daughters born to Job after his ordeal had ended and God restored him (Job 42:14). The daughters were famed for their beauty, and Job granted them, as well as their brothers, an inheritance. The name “Jemimah” probably is related to an Arabic word meaning “dove” or “turtledove.”
A son of Simeon and a grandson of Jacob (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15). The variant name “Nemuel” is found in other family lists (Num. 26:12; 1 Chron. 4:24). See also Nemuel.
In Heb. 11:32 the KJV transliterates the Greek name Iephthae as “Jephthae.” More-recent versions render it as “Jephthah.” See also Jephthah.
The son of Gilead, he judged Israel for six years (Judg. 11:1–12:7). Like David, he was a military hero, surrounded by outlaws, and descended from a prostitute. After the people of Gilead convinced Jephthah to lead them in battle, he first attempted to establish a truce by reminding the king of Ammon that Israel took the Ammonites’ land only after they had attacked Israel first. His message was ignored, so Jephthah vowed that if God gave him victory over Ammon, he would sacrifice whatever he first saw coming out from his house on his return home. After his victory, out to greet him first was his daughter, his only child. Since she allowed herself to be sacrificed as the only child of her father, parallels can be drawn between her, Isaac, and Jesus. Jephthah is mentioned alongside other heroic judges in Samuel’s farewell address (1 Sam. 12:11) and in the book of Hebrews’ hall of faith (Heb. 11:32).
(1) The father of Caleb the spy, he is variously linked with Judah (Num. 13:6) and the Kenizzites, an Edomite tribe that apparently merged with Judah before the exodus (Num. 32:12; Josh. 14:6). (2) An Asherite, one of the sons of Jether (1 Chron. 7:38).
A descendant of Shem, he was one of the sons of Joktan (Gen. 10:26; 1 Chron. 1:20).
(1) A son of Hezron from the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:9). Hezron and his son Ram, the brother of Jerahmeel, were in the direct ancestral line to King David. Jerahmeel’s third brother was Caleb. Jerahmeel had six sons (1 Chron. 2:25–26). (2) The son of Kish, he was among the Levites who ministered in the temple (1 Chron. 24:29). (3) A son of King Jehoiakim of Judah, he was one of three men instructed to arrest Jeremiah and his scribe Baruch, but they could not do so because God had hidden them (Jer. 36:26).
A clan that lived in the Negev and was part of the tribe of Judah (1 Sam. 30:29; cf. 1 Chron. 2:9, 25). When David was living with the Philistines to avoid Saul, he would go on raids, after which he would tell Achish, the Philistine king, that he had attacked the Jerahmeelites and others, when in fact he was attacking the Philistines and their allies (1 Sam. 27:8–12). See also Jerahmeel.
An ancient city located on the east side of the Jordan River, known today as Jerash. This largely Hellenistic city was located on the strategically vital north-south King’s Highway. Gerasa was annexed by Roman Syria and later joined to the Decapolis. Josephus locates the city on the eastern border of Perea (J.W. 3.47). Jesus healed a demoniac in this region (Matt. 8:28–34; Mark 5:1–20; Luke 8:26–39). The problem with the miracle story is that Gerasa is some forty miles southeast of the Sea of Galilee, which is too distant from the shoreline where the events transpired. Mark and Luke probably mean the “region of Gerasa,” and the event could have transpired in Gadara (Matt. 8:28) or Gergesa (according to some manuscripts), which are closer to the Sea of Galilee. See also Gadarenes.
The REB translates the Hebrew word ’akbar as “jerboa,” a desert-dwelling rodent pronounced unclean in Lev. 11:29 (NIV: “rat”; NRSV: “mouse”).
Grandson of Cainan (or Kenan), son of Mahalalel, and father of Enoch (Gen. 5:15–20; 1 Chron. 1:2), he is listed in the ancestry of Jesus (Luke 3:37).
One of the descendants of Hashum who had taken a foreign wife during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:33).
(1) A leader of the half-tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 5:24). (2, 3, 4) Three warriors in David’s army (1 Chron. 12:4, 10, 13).
(5) A major prophet who lived to see Judah exiled to Babylon. Jeremiah is one of the most colorful and transparent figures in the Bible. Not only does the book that bears his name describe his actions against the backdrop of the great events of his day, but also the prophet himself shares his emotions with depth and passion. He is known to many as the “weeping prophet” because of the grief he feels over the sin and judgment of his people. He could also be called the “angry prophet” because of his reaction to the harsh treatment he received at the hands of the people of Judah. He was also in turmoil in his relationship with God, upset that God made him the messenger of hard news to his compatriots (Jer. 20:1–18).
Jeremiah was a priest who grew up in the priestly town of Anathoth, about four miles northeast of Jerusalem. The superscription to the book does not tell us when he was born, but it does say that he began his prophetic ministry in the thirteenth year of Josiah (626 BC), and that it continued until the eleventh year of Zedekiah (586 BC), which we also know as the year that the Babylonians defeated the city of Jerusalem. We do have stories associated with Jeremiah after that time into the period of the exile (Jer. 40–44).
Jeremiah was commissioned as a prophet (Jer. 1:4–10) to bring a message of judgment and restoration to his people and also to the nations. By far most of his recorded oracles are judgment oracles, but at the heart of the book (chaps. 30–33) are important messages of salvation, the section often referred to as the Book of Consolation.
The year of his calling was a pivotal moment. In this year, Babylon, under its king Nabopolassar, initiated a revolt against Assyria, which had dominated it and much of the Near East for many years. In Judah the good king Josiah ruled, and Jeremiah surely supported his religious reforms. Josiah was killed in battle, however, in 609 BC, and he was replaced by kings who did not care about God or the message of the prophet. In particular, Jehoiakim (r. 609–597 BC) and Zedekiah (r. 597–586 BC) were opponents of Jeremiah and the object of many of his prophetic denunciations.
Though warned by the prophet of coming judgment, Judah and its leaders did not repent but continued to resist God. In 586 BC God allowed the Babylonian army to defeat Jerusalem. Nebuchadnezzar exiled many of its leading citizens and destroyed the temple, palace, and walls of the city. He had heard of Jeremiah and the prophet’s teaching that Judah should surrender to Babylon, so he treated him kindly. He allowed Jeremiah to choose whether to go to Babylon or to stay in Judah. Jeremiah chose the latter, supporting the provisional government under the leadership of the Babylonian-appointed Jewish governor Gedaliah, who later was assassinated by Jewish insurgents. A number of the remaining Jews grew frightened of the expected Babylonian reprisal. Against God’s word as mediated through Jeremiah, they fled to Egypt, forcibly taking Jeremiah with them. The Bible does not narrate Jeremiah’s death, but tradition says that he died in Egypt.
(6) The father of Hamutal, the mother of King Jehoahaz (r. 609 BC) and King Zedekiah (r. 597–586 BC) and the wife of King Josiah (r. 640–609 BC), from Libnah (2 Kings 23:31; 24:18). (7) A priest from the time of Zerubbabel (after 539 BC) (Neh. 12:1, 12). (8) A priest from the time of Nehemiah (after 445 BC) (Neh. 10:2; 12:34).
In Matt. 16:14 the KJV transliterates the Greek name Ieremias as “Jeremias.” More-recent versions render the name as “Jeremiah.” See also Jeremiah.
(1) One of the sons of Beker and a grandson of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:8). (2) A descendant of Elpaal (1 Chron. 8:14). (3) Three members of priestly families in the time of Ezra’s leadership who were found guilty of intermarriage with a foreign wife. These individuals promised to divorce their wives and to offer a ram as a guilt offering for their sin (descendant of Elam [Ezra 10:26]; of Zattu [Ezra 10:27]; of Bani [Ezra 10:29]).
In Matt. 2:17; 27:9 the KJV transliterates the Greek name Ieremias as “Jeremy.” More-recent versions render the name as “Jeremiah.” See also Jeremiah.
A family leader of the Levitical clan of Kohath during David’s reign (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23). In 1 Chron. 26:31 the name is spelled “Jerijah” (NRSV, KJV, although some English versions, NIV among them, retain “Jeriah” there).
One of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:46, though here he is one of those not listed in the parallel passage, 2 Sam. 23:24–39).
Jericho, “the city of palm trees” (Deut. 34:3; Judg. 3:13; 2 Chron. 28:15), is located about four miles west of the Jordan River and about ten miles north of the Dead Sea. It is located about 850 feet below sea level on a narrow plain across from one of the major Jordan River crossings. Its location was crucial to protect this important east-west route. Immediately behind the city the land rises quickly into a mountainous region known as the Judean Wilderness. Jericho is located in the present West Bank area and is populated by approximately twenty-five thousand Palestinians. The name “Jericho” appears to be derived from the Hebrew word for “moon” (yareakh) and may have been an early place of worship to the lunar deities, who were thought to control the agricultural seasons. There is a significant spring (Ein es-Sultan), flowing at over a thousand gallons an hour, at the base of Tell es-Sultan (Sultan’s Hill). Another site known as Jericho (i.e., Herodian Jericho; Tulul Abu el-’Alayiq) is about two miles southeast, at the base of Wadi Qelt.
Jericho is possibly the earliest continuously inhabited city in the world, with archaeological finds going back perhaps as early as 9000 BC. From the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A period (c. 8350–7370 BC), there was a significant settlement with a stone wall surrounding the site. A thirty-foot-high stone tower in one of the walls is the oldest structure found to date. Another significant occupation period was during the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1700–1550 BC), with a massive stone wall as part of a system of defenses. Archaeologists have uncovered over twenty-three successive levels of habitation on Tell es-Sultan, which rises to about seventy feet in height and covers an area of only about ten acres.
The archaeological history at Tell es-Sultan is extensive, beginning in 1868 with Charles Warren. Ernest Sellin and Carl Watzinger spent several seasons excavating the site in the years 1907–9 and 1911. John Garstang conducted an even more thorough excavation between 1930 and 1936. However, between 1952 and 1958, Kathleen Kenyon conducted the most extensive excavations, using modern techniques. Since then, limited excavations have been undertaken by Lorenzo Nigro and Nicolo Marchetti in 1997. Bryant Wood visited the site later that year to verify the findings of Nigro and Marchetti.
The name “Jericho” occurs about sixty times in the Bible, but certainly the most important event occurs in the book of Joshua, when Jericho became the first Canaanite city conquered by Israel. Significant debate has occurred concerning the dating of this conquest, with some suggesting a date in the fifteenth-century BC, and others the thirteenth-century BC. The most intense debate centers on the destruction level of City IV at Jericho. In the 1930s John Garstang dated it to the Late Bronze Age I (c. 1400 BC). However, Kathleen Kenyon later redated this destruction level to the Middle Bronze Age (c. 1550 BC) and found no signs of habitation from around 1400 BC. In 1990 Bryant Wood reanalyzed some of Kenyon’s evidence (e.g., potsherds, stratigraphic considerations, scarab evidence, and a radiocarbon dating) and once again dated it to 1400 BC. In 1995 Hendrik J. Bruins and Johannes van der Plicht used a more precise type of radiocarbon dating on six samples of charred cereal grains from the City IV destruction level that resulted in a date closer to 1550 BC, similar to Kenyon’s date. Whether these walls are indeed the walls of the biblical account has even been debated. Bryant Wood found bichrome potsherds by the spring that are commonly dated to about 1400 BC, suggesting some inhabitation at that time.
The third of the six sons of Tola, who was the first son of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:2).
A family leader of the Levitical clan of Kohath during David’s reign (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23). In 1 Chron. 26:31 the name is spelled “Jerijah” (NRSV, KJV, although some English versions, NIV among them, retain “Jeriah” there).
(1) One of the five sons of Bela and a grandson of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:7). (2) A skilled Benjamite warrior who joined David’s forces at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:5). (3) One of the three sons of Mushi, a Levite from the Merarites (1 Chron. 23:23; 24:30). (4) A son of Heman set apart by David for the ministry of prophesying with instrumental accompaniment and to provide music ministry for the temple (1 Chron. 25:4; 25:22). (5) The son of Azriel, he was an officer appointed by David to administer the tribe of Naphtali (1 Chron. 27:19). (6) One of David’s sons whose daughter Mahalath married Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:18). (7) A supervisor of monetary offerings for the temple appointed by King Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:13).
A wife of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:18). The text is unclear, however, and Jerioth could be a concubine wife of Caleb (NIV) or alternatively another name for Azubah. Some English Bibles (NEB, NJB) understand Jerioth to be the child of Caleb and Azubah.
(1) The first ruler of the northern kingdom (r. 928–907 BC) (1 Kings 11:26–14:20). The son of Nebat, he was a hardworking royal servant, so Solomon gave him responsibility over the northern labor force. The prophet Ahijah declared to Jeroboam that to punish Solomon for apostasy, God would give him the ten northern tribes, leaving Solomon’s son Rehoboam with only Judah and Benjamin. When Solomon sought to kill him, Jeroboam fled to Egypt. After Solomon’s death, he returned and requested that Rehoboam reduce the workload for the Israelite laborers. Rehoboam, ignoring the advice of the elders and following the counsel of his peers, rudely refused the request of Jeroboam and the people. The ten northern tribes rebelled and made Jeroboam king, and he reigned for twenty-two years.
Jeroboam set up two golden calves, one in Bethel and one in Dan (for the wilderness parallel, see Exod. 32:4), to prevent the northerners from traveling to the temple in Jerusalem to worship. A man of God condemned the sanctuary at Bethel, prophesying that a future king named “Josiah” would destroy it. When he attempted to seize the prophet, Jeroboam’s hand was stricken, but after the king’s entreaty the prophet restored it. When Jeroboam’s son Abijah became ill, the prophet Ahijah delivered a judgment against his son, who soon died, and against his dynasty. After Jeroboam’s death, his son Nadab ruled for only two years before being killed by the usurper Baasha. Jeroboam’s sanctuaries are mentioned in the condemnation of fifteen other evil northern rulers; they survived the fall of Samaria in 722 BC, but eventually Josiah destroyed the Bethel sanctuary as prophesied (2 Kings 23:15).
(2) The thirteenth ruler of the northern kingdom (r. 784–748 BC; 2 Kings 14:23–29). He was the son of Jehoash and a great-grandson of Jehu. Despite doing “evil in the eyes of the Lord” (v. 24), he received a favorable prophecy from the prophet Jonah, restored the borders of the northern kingdom, and was one of the longest-reigning rulers of Israel or Judah (forty-one years). During his reign, Aramean and Assyrian domination over Israel subsided, which resulted in wealth and prosperity for the upper classes, but oppression and injustice of the marginalized. Amos condemned these practices and prophesied the end of Jeroboam’s house (Amos 7:8–11), which was fulfilled when his son Zechariah was killed by the usurper Shallum after reigning only six months.
(1) Grandfather of Samuel the prophet (1 Sam. 1:1). The genealogical record indicates that he was a Levite and a temple musician (1 Chron. 6:27, 34). (2) The head of a Benjamite family who settled in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 8:27). (3) A Benjamite descendant of Ibneiah, who resettled in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:8). He may be the same person as in 1 Chron. 8:27. (4) A descendant of Adaiah, a priest who resettled in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:12; Neh. 11:12). (5) The father of Joelah and Zebadiah, two men who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:7). (6) The father of Azarel, who became David’s tribal administrator over Dan (1 Chron. 27:22). (7) The father of Azariah, who became the army commander of a hundred who conspired with Jehoiada to overthrow Athaliah (2 Chron. 23:1).
Gideon’s nickname, meaning “let Baal fight [against him].” It was given to him by townspeople after he tore down Baal’s altar (Judg. 6:25–32). See also Gideon.
The second element in this name, meaning “shame” (Heb. boshet), was commonly substituted for the name of the Canaanite deity Baal. Thus, at 2 Sam. 11:21 the name “Jerub-Besheth” replaces “Jerub-Baal,” the nickname given to Gideon by townspeople in Judg. 6:32.
A place of uncertain location in the Judean wilderness somewhere between Tekoa and En Gedi (2 Chron. 20:16). It was here that the prophet Jahaziel prophesied to Jehoshaphat that God would defeat an attacking army of Moabites, Ammonites, and Meunites.
The central city and capital of ancient Israel. The original meaning of the name probably is “founded by [the Canaanite god] Salem.” The Amarna letters refer to a Beth-Shalem, and its first reference in the Bible is Salem (Gen. 14:18). Throughout its history, the city has also been referred to variously as Zion, Jebus, Mount Moriah, and the City of David.
The name “Jerusalem” occurs more than 650 times in the OT, particularly in the history of Israel, and in the NT more than 140 times. The OT prophets used the city as a symbol of God’s dealing with his people and his plan. Jerusalem is viewed collectively as God’s abode, his chosen place, and his sovereignty, while its destruction is also representative of God’s judgment on apostasy among his people (e.g., Jer. 7:1–15; 26:18–19; Mic. 3:12). The rebuilding of the city represents the hope and grace of God (e.g., Isa. 40:1–2; 52:1, 7–8; 60–62; Jer. 30:18–19; 31:38–39; Ezek. 5:5; Hag. 2:6–8; Zech. 8:3–8). Like the writers of the OT, the NT authors spoke of Jerusalem in metaphorical and eschatological terms. Paul used Jerusalem to contrast the old and the new covenants (Gal. 4:24–26), and the writer of Hebrews used it as the place of the new covenant, sealed through the blood of Jesus (Heb. 12:22–24). In Revelation the concept of a new Jerusalem is related to the future kingdom of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:1–22:5).
Jerusalem is located in the Judean hill country, about 2,700 feet above sea level. It borders the Judean desert to the east. The city expanded and contracted in size over various hills and valleys. There are two major ridges (Eastern and Western Hills) separated by the Tyropoeon Valley. The Eastern Hill contains a saddle, the Ophel Hill, and north of this is the traditional site of Mount Moriah, where later the temple was constructed. The Eastern Hill was always occupied, since the only water source is the Gihon Spring, located in the Kidron Valley. Two other ridges were important for the city, as they were used for extramural suburbs, cemeteries, and quarries. To the east is the Mount of Olives, which is separated from the Eastern Hill by the Kidron Valley. To the west of the Western Hill is the Central Ridge Route, separated by the Hinnom Valley.
Early History through the United Monarchy
The earliest occupation was near the Gihon Spring, where Chalcolithic pottery (c. 3500 BC) and structures dating to the Early Bronze Age (c. 3000–2800 BC) were found. The Bronze Age city is mentioned in the Ebla tablets, Execration texts, and the Amarna letters. Melchizedek, the king of Salem, received gifts from Abraham and blessed him (Gen. 14). Abraham was commanded to offer Isaac as a sacrifice on one of the mountains of Mount Moriah (Gen. 22:2), the location where Solomon later built the temple (2 Chron. 3:1). The Jebusite city of the Bronze Age extended over the lower part of the Eastern Hill for about twelve acres, with a population of about one thousand.
After Joshua made a treaty with the Gibeonites, the king of Jerusalem, Adoni-Zedek, formed a coalition of five kings to attack Gibeon. Joshua defeated this coalition and killed the kings (Josh. 10). The Canaanite inhabitants of Jerusalem are referred to as Amorites (Josh. 10:5) and as Jebusites (Judg. 1:21; 1 Chron. 11:4).
When David became king over both Israel and Judah, he made Jerusalem the political, spiritual, and administrative center of his kingdom. Jerusalem became synonymous with David and was called the “City of David.” Transferring the ark to Jerusalem made it the new religious center for the Israelites. David conquered the Jebusite stronghold through the tsinnor, possibly a water tunnel (2 Sam. 5:6–8; 1 Chron. 11:4–7). He took up residence in the city and began an extensive building program, but his vision of Jerusalem as the religious center was not fully realized until his son Solomon became king and built the temple.
Solomon greatly expanded the city by building fortifications, the temple, and the royal palace (1 Kings 7–9). This was the first initial expansion of the city as Solomon extended the city northward along the Eastern Hill, up the Ophel to the site of the present-day Temple Mount. This expanded the city to about thirty-two acres, with a population of around five thousand. During the united monarchy, Jerusalem became the center of Israelite administration and religion. All Israelites were to come to Jerusalem three times a year for religious festivals. Solomonic Jerusalem became the foundation for the imagery bestowed on the city by the psalms (e.g., Pss. 46; 48; 76; 84; 87; 122; 125; 132). Although major excavations were carried out in the 1980s in the City of David, little is known archaeologically about the city of that period.
From the Divided Monarchy to the Exile
During the divided monarchy, Jerusalem was attacked by foreign forces. Jerusalem was attacked by Shishak of Egypt at the end of the tenth century BC (1 Kings 14:25–26), by Syria and northern Israel during the ninth century BC (2 Kings 12:17; 15:37), and by Sennacherib of Assyria during the seventh century BC (2 Kings 18:13). Several Judean kings undertook building projects. Uzziah fortified Jerusalem by adding towers to the city walls (2 Chron. 26:9), and Jotham built the upper gate of the temple (2 Chron. 27:3).
Hezekiah greatly expanded Jerusalem. The city doubled in size during his reign as it extended to the Western Hill (Upper City). The city then encompassed about 125 acres, with a population of about twenty-five thousand. It had expanded due to the influx of immigrants from the north when the capital of Samaria fell to the Assyrians. Hezekiah reinforced the Millo, built and rebuilt walls, and erected towers as he extended the walls to encompass the Western Hill. In preparation for the siege by Sennacherib, he constructed an underground water system to bring water from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam inside the city (2 Kings 20:20; 2 Chron. 32:2–4, 30; Isa. 22:11). Manasseh refortified Jerusalem with the construction of a new outer wall (2 Chron. 33:14). Jerusalem was invaded when Jehoiakim rebelled and was finally destroyed by Babylon in 586 BC. Prophets during the divided monarchy spoke of the destruction of Jerusalem, but also of its exaltation in later times (e.g., Isa. 2:2–4; 24:23; Jer. 7:14; Mic. 3:12).
Archaeological excavations have revealed much about Jerusalem during the time of the later Judean kings. Several walls, towers, and fortifications attributed to Hezekiah have been excavated in the Jewish Quarter. Hezekiah’s tunnel and the Siloam Inscription have been discovered, highlighting the preparations made by Hezekiah for the Assyrian siege. Several quarries and tombs have been found on the slopes of the Mount of Olives and the western slope (Ketef Hinnom) of the Hinnom Valley. In one of the Ketef Hinnom tombs, a silver amulet containing the earliest known biblical text (Num. 6:24–26) was found. Evidence of the Babylonian destruction was found in excavations of the Jewish Quarter and the City of David. A group of bullae (fired clay impressions) was found with the name of “Gemariah ben-Shaphan,” probably the scribe mentioned in Jer. 36.
From Persian to Roman Rule
After the Persian conquest of Babylon (539 BC), Cyrus II allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the temple. Judah became the Persian province Yehud, and Jerusalem was the administrative center. Nehemiah was appointed governor of Judea by Artaxerxes in 445 BC. Nehemiah undertook a hasty rebuilding project against the wishes of the local population (Neh. 2:19; 4:7). The rebuilt city was constricted to the area of the Eastern Hill, comprising some thirty acres, with a population of about forty-five hundred.
Alexander the Great captured Jerusalem in 332 BC. This victory marked the end of Persian rule. Following Alexander’s death, his empire was divided between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids of Syria. Ptolemy I captured Jerusalem in 320 BC, but the Jerusalem temple continued to be the center of local Jewish life and administration. The Seleucids defeated the Ptolemies and annexed Palestine around 201–198 BC. The city and the temple were repaired during their reign. During this period the Jews were struggling with the acceptance of Hellenistic culture. The high priest Jason favored Hellenization and transformed Jerusalem into a Hellenistic polis (a Greek city-state). Jerusalem became known as Antiochia, and the city expanded to the eastern slope of the Western Hill (Upper City). Jason built a gymnasium (1 Macc. 1:11–15; 2 Macc. 4:9–17). The Maccabeans revolted, and Antiochus IV destroyed the walls of Jerusalem, erected a fortress (the Akra), and desecrated the temple. Judas Maccabeus liberated Jerusalem in 164 BC, and the temple was purified and rededicated (1 Macc. 4:36–55). Hasmonean rule lasted from 142 to 63 BC. Hasmonean Jerusalem occupied the Western and Eastern Hills. The Upper City was joined to the Temple Mount by an arched bridge across the Tyropoeon Valley (Wilson’s Arch). A fortress (the Baris) was built northwest of the temple. The Romans conquered Jerusalem in 63 BC under the rule of Pompey and ended Hasmonean rule.
The Time of Jesus and the First Century AD
Jerusalem during the time of Jesus was largely the product of Herod the Great’s policies and building programs. Herod was a Roman vassal and brought Hellenistic culture to the city. He built an amphitheater and a theater. Jerusalem became a city divided between the wealthy of the Upper City and the poor in the Lower City. Herodian Jerusalem’s population was about forty thousand, and the city extended over 230 acres, not including suburbs on the Mount of Olives and west of the city. Herod’s main building activity was the complex on the Temple Mount. Herod built a massive podium over the northern summit of the Eastern Hill. This podium stood forty-five meters high above the bottom of the Kidron Valley. This formed a rectangular platform for the temple that measured 144,000 square meters. Most of the retaining walls are visible today, and the best-known section is the Western Wall. To the south of the Temple Mount complex was the Royal Stoa, and on the northwest corner was the Antonia Fortress.
Archaeological research has uncovered several components and features of NT Jerusalem. The temple rituals needed large amounts of water, and Herod built an elaborate water-delivery and storage system. Remains of both subterranean and surface aqueducts are found from the Bethlehem region to Jerusalem. Large water-storage pools are still visible today, such as the Serpent’s Pool in the Hinnom Valley, the Pool of the Towers of Amygdalon, the Sheep Pools, the Pool of Israel, as well as several other unnamed reservoirs and water-storage features. Several segments of the city fortification walls were found in various archaeological excavations, as well as remains of the Antonia Fortress and Herod’s Upper Palace with its three towers and adjacent Agora. Jewish Quarter excavations have revealed several palatial homes with various luxury goods, evidence of the wealth of the Upper City. These homes contained a courtyard surrounded by rooms and reception halls; several had private ritual baths. Excavations of the southern wall have revealed components of the Temple Mount complex, most notably the southern monumental stairway with the ritual-bath complex building and the two entrances that led up to the Temple Mount. Several tombs and cemeteries have also been excavated in the environs around the city.
Most of Jesus’ ministry was spent in Galilee. He would have come to Jerusalem at least three times each year to attend the major festivals. Of the Gospel writers, Luke most often referred to Jerusalem and the temple as he framed his account of the deeds and teachings of Jesus. Although the events of Passion Week took place in Jerusalem and its environs, the Gospels emphasize the events and teachings of Jesus, not the geography.
The early church started in Jerusalem with the events of Pentecost. Jerusalem was the origin and the center of the early church under the leadership of James. It seemed to serve as the center of the apostles’ authority, but the missionary zeal soon shifted the ministry and focus of the church to the eastern Mediterranean. Jerusalem was destroyed in AD 70 by the Romans under the direction of Titus. Jerusalem has been a central place for the Christian faith, whose followers acknowledge the city as the place of the death and resurrection of Jesus. Jerusalem played a major role throughout history and has always been a center of pilgrimage for Christians.
Often referred to as the Jerusalem council, this is the meeting recorded in Acts 15 between representatives of the church at Antioch (most notably Paul and Barnabas) and of the Jerusalem church (led by James and Peter). The council was convened to address the question of whether Gentile Christians should be required to be circumcised and to keep the Mosaic law. Certain Jewish Christians who were Pharisees had asked that Gentiles observe the law upon coming to faith in Christ. Paul, Barnabas, and others opposed such a move and called for the meeting in Jerusalem. At the meeting, the council members sided in large measure with the position of Paul and Barnabas, concluding that Gentiles need not be circumcised or submit to Mosaic law, though they still asked Gentile believers to abstain from food sacrificed to idols, blood, meat from strangled animals, and sexual immorality (vv. 19–21). Many scholars have suggested that Paul gives his own account of this meeting in Gal. 2:1–10, though others have maintained that he is describing a different occasion than the events of Acts 15. See also Acts of the Apostles.
Temples have always been the domain and house of the gods throughout the ancient Near East. As the abode of the God of Israel, the Jerusalem temple served the same purpose. The temple played an important role in the social, religious, and political life of ancient Israel. No archaeological remains of the actual temple building exist today; nevertheless, the temple has dominated biblical scholarship. The Jerusalem temple was originally built by Solomon in 953 BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar in 586 BC. After the exile, the temple was rebuilt and then rededicated by Zerubbabel in 515 BC (Ezra). Herod the Great significantly expanded and changed the temple, but it was eventually destroyed by the Romans under the direction of Titus in AD 70.
The biblical text refers to the temple in several ways: temple, house of God/Yahweh, and sanctuary/shrine. These terms all refer to the dwelling or house of God and an area of sacredness. The sources for information on the temple are biblical texts, Josephus, and the Mishnah (tractate Middot). The most detailed accounts of the construction of the Solomonic temple are found in 1 Kings 6–8; 2 Chron. 2–4. In addition to these major sections, there are several references to building activities and repairs to the temple throughout the OT. Another major text is Ezek. 40, but it is debated whether this represents the actual temple or an ideal temple. There are several references in the NT that directly or indirectly refer to functions and specific components of the Temple Mount complex.
Archaeological Investigation
The location of the Temple Mount in Jerusalem has been undisputed. Current scholarly opinion locates the temple on the spot of the current Muslim shrine, the Dome of the Rock. Today the larger enclosed area is referred to as the harem esh-sharif (the noble sanctuary). Explorers in the nineteenth century did not attempt archaeological research of the temple itself, although various explorations focused on recording visible features and conducting soundings along the sides of the Temple Mount. Even after the unification of Jerusalem in 1967, with three major excavations in the city, no archaeological investigation of the temple was conducted. Due to the political and religious variables associated with the Muslim holy sites, there are no foreseeable archaeological investigations. A recent renovation of the Mosque of Omar, located on the southern end of the Temple Mount, removed truckloads of earth. Unfortunately, there was no archaeological supervision of the project and no archaeological excavations of the site were conducted.
In spite of the limited archaeological excavations, several popular accounts of alternate locations of the temple have been proposed. Most of these place the temple somewhere other than the Dome of the Rock, but none of these proposals has garnered scholarly support to rival the current location.
First Temple: Temple of Solomon
Throughout the ancient Near East, temples served as monumental edifices that provided divine legitimacy for the king or dynasty. While temples should be considered part of the religious sphere of society, their construction, maintenance, and associated activities are interlinked with the political sphere. The construction of the temple in Jerusalem is also linked to state formation by the Israelites. The Solomonic temple ushered in a new period of religious activity among the ancient Israelites. Previously, Israel had worshiped at various shrines and sanctuaries, and its central religious practice was associated with the tabernacle. With the establishment of the monarchy, dynastic kingship and centralized authority were created. Although the biblical text credits Solomon as the Israelite king who built the temple, the project was initiated under David. David united the Israelite tribes, captured Jerusalem and made it the capital of the kingdom, and built a royal palace. He made Jerusalem the political capital but also the religious center when he brought the holy ark, the visible symbol of Yahweh’s presence, to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 5–6). David intended to build Yahweh a permanent dwelling (2 Sam. 7:2).
Location. The biblical text preserves multiple traditions and accounts of the location and acquisition of land for the temple. In the ancient world the city temple was commonly located on the acropolis (highest point) of the city. The temple is located on the highest point of a ridge where the OT city of Jerusalem is located (Jebusite city, later the City of David). There are two accounts of the purchase of the land: the threshing floors of Araunah (2 Sam. 24:18–25) and of Ornan (1 Chron. 21:15–30; 2 Chron. 3:1 [here the NIV supplies “Araunah,” but see, e.g., the NET, NASB, ESV]). It is possible that Araunah and Ornan were kin, but most likely they are the same person, with Samuel and Chronicles using variant names. However, the two accounts disagree further on the amount paid for the land: fifty silver shekels (2 Sam. 24:24) and six hundred shekels of gold (1 Chron. 21:25). One theory explains this discrepancy as arising from two separate transactions. First, David purchased the threshing floor to build an altar to Yahweh, and he later purchased the whole mountain to build a temple. Later tradition associates the hill where David built an altar with the location where earlier Abraham built an altar to sacrifice Isaac (Mount Moriah).
Construction and dimensions. Solomon started to build during the fourth year of his reign (2 Chron. 3:1), and construction lasted for seven years. The plan of the temple was revealed to Solomon during a night in the sanctuary at Gibeon (2 Chron. 1:7–13). The king obtained building materials, specifically cedar from Lebanon (2 Chron. 2:3–10), and construction and design expertise from Phoenician artisans (1 Kings 7:13–14, 45). The Solomonic temple consisted of a tripartite plan similar to other temples in Syro-Palestine during this period. There are two accounts for the construction and dedication of the first temple (1 Kings 6–8; 2 Chron. 3–7). Both accounts offer similar descriptions but there are some differences in measurements. Most scholars account for these differences by viewing the dimensions in the book of Chronicles as reflecting the temple measurements after Hezekiah’s repair and rebuilding projects.
The basic plan was a rectangle, 70 cubits long (120 ft. 7 in.) and 20 cubits wide (34 ft. 5 in.) on a straight axis facing east; the height was 30 cubits (51 ft. 7 in.). These measurements refer to the inside dimensions (1 cubit = 20.67 in.). The three distinct architectural units formed three distinct rooms where various functions were performed and also reflected levels of holiness. The three units were the ’ulam (“porch” or “vestibule”), the hekal (“cella” or “nave”), and the debir (the innermost sanctuary, the most holy place). In the biblical accounts the whole building is called the “house [bayit] of the Lord,” and the word “temple” is used for the hekal. There was a three-story structure built around the sides and back of the temple (see below).
The porch was 10 cubits (17 ft. 2 in.) by 20 cubits (34 ft. 5 in.). The account in Kings does not provide its height; the account in Chronicles gives the height as 120 cubits. In its description and measurements in the biblical text, the porch is considered separate from the temple (bayit, house). The porch contained two pillars of bronze: yakin (“he will establish”) on the right side and bo’az (“in strength”) on the left (see Boaz; Jakin). The pillars were bronze, 18 cubits (35 cubits in Chronicles) in height, with elaborate double capitals. The bottom capital was 5 cubits, round in shape, and surrounded by nets with pomegranates. Above this was another capital, 4 cubits high, shaped like a lily.
The hekal was 40 cubits long and 20 cubits wide and was the only part with windows (1 Kings 6:4). The debir was a cube, 20 cubits per side. The debir is also called the “holy of holies.” The difference in height (10 cubits shorter than the hekal ) is due to the rise in the bedrock. This measurement is confirmed today in the interior of the Dome of the Rock.
The walls of the house (hekal and debir) were built of whole stones dressed in the quarry, as “no hammer, chisel or any other iron tool was heard at the temple site while it was being built” (1 Kings 6:7). The roof was made of cedar wood (1 Kings 6:10), with crossbeams and intersecting boards. The stone walls were covered from ground to ceiling with boards of cedar wood, and the floor was made of cypress wood, covered with gold (1 Kings 6:30). The wood had carved engravings of cherubim, palm trees, and open flowers. The hekal and the debir were separated by a partition made of olive wood.
The three-story structure surrounding the temple was constructed of cedar wood. Each story was 5 cubits. The width of the first floor was 5 cubits, the middle 6 cubits, and the top 7 cubits. This structure was entered from the right side of the temple, and the floors were connected by openings with ladders. This structure formed chambers and storage for the activities of the priests.
In front of the temple was a courtyard surrounded by a wall. Inside the courtyard was a great bronze basin (known as “the Sea”). This basin rested on the backs of twelve bronze oxen. Ten smaller basins in groups of five were set on elaborate wheeled stands. A large altar also was located in this courtyard.
In the holy of holies stood two large cherubim of olive wood covered with gold. They were 10 cubits in height, with a wingspan of 10 cubits. These cherubim stood over the ark of the covenant. In the hekal were the golden altar, the golden table, and ten lampstands.
History. From Solomon to Zedekiah, the temple was used for political and religious power shifts. Kings of Israel raided the temple treasury to pay off invaders, closed the temple, or placed idols in the temple in periods of apostasy. During periods of reform they repaired and rebuilt the temple and its furnishings.
Under Rehoboam’s reign, Shishak king of Egypt ransacked the temple and removed all its treasures (1 Kings 14:25–28; 2 Chron. 12:9). Asa and his father, Abijah, added to the treasure of the temple with silver, gold, and other vessels (2 Chron. 15:18) but used these to pay Ben-Hadad of Syria to help him fight Baasha king of Israel (16:2–3). Asa’s son Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 17) ruled during a time of prosperity and reform. It was under his rule that the court in front of the temple probably was enlarged (20:5). The sons of Athaliah broke into the temple and worshiped Baal. During the reign of Amaziah the temple was plundered by Jehoash king of Israel (2 Chron. 25). Uzziah ruled for a long period of prosperity (787–736 BC) but attempted to burn incense on the altar in the hekal, a ritual kept solely for the priests. A later king, Jotham, built the Upper Gate of the house of Yahweh (2 Kings 15:35; 2 Chron. 27:3). Jotham’s son Ahaz took the silver and gold from the temple and sent it as a present to the king of Assyria. He moved and changed various vessels of the temple and shut its doors (2 Chron. 28:24).
Hezekiah son of Ahaz ruled during a time of prosperity and revival. He reopened the temple doors (2 Chron. 29), cleaned out the temple, and created a 500-cubit-square mount around the temple. Hezekiah conducted many building projects in Jerusalem and reforms throughout the land. He also “stripped off the gold with which he had covered the doors and doorposts of the temple of the Lord” to pay a ransom to Sennacherib king of Assyria (2 Kings 18:16). Due to his building activities, most scholars attribute major changes to the temple to Hezekiah’s reign. The differences in the temple descriptions in Kings and Chronicles probably reflect two different periods of history concerning the temple (e.g., Kings represents the temple during the period of Solomon, while Chronicles represents the changes to the temple by Hezekiah). Manasseh, Hezekiah’s son, undid the work of his father by building altars in the temple.
The last resurgence of the temple in the life of the people of Israel was under Josiah. He instigated a reform throughout the land and a cleansing of the temple. Hilkiah the high priest found a copy of the “Book of the Law” (2 Kings 22:8). After a reading of the law in the public square, a collection was taken from the people to be given to workers for temple repair. The Babylonians took some of the temple treasure (2 Chron. 36:7) under the rule of Jehoiakim. The last two kings of Judah, Jehoiachin and Zedekiah, also lost temple treasure to Babylon, and eventually the temple was destroyed during the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC (2 Chron. 36).
Second Temple: Zerubbabel and the Temple of Herod the Great
Zerubbabel’s temple. Solomon’s temple was rebuilt by the Jews who returned from exile under the decree of the Persian king Darius (Ezra 6:1–5). The temple was built under the direction of the governor Zerubbabel with the support of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah (Ezra 6:13–18) and was dedicated in 515 BC. This would have been a poorer temple due to the poverty of the inhabitants of Judah. During the Hasmonean period (152–37 BC) a platform and a fortress were constructed. Not much is known about the temple during this period. It would be greatly eclipsed by the work of Herod the Great.
Temple of Herod the Great. Herod invested heavily in building projects throughout his kingdom. He was keen on bringing Hellenistic culture to the Jews but also on upholding traditional Jewish religious practices, especially when it came to the temple. Just as the first temple mimicked the religious architecture of the ancient Near East, the second temple reflected the massive sacred architecture of the classical world. John 2:20 indicates that thus far it had taken forty-six years (beyond Herod’s life) to build. Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple, but he was able to make additions to the outside, alter its outer furnishings, and expand the compound and platform to match the grandeur of Greco-Roman temples. Today scholars refer to all these buildings and the temple as the Temple Mount complex.
Herod expanded the space of the Temple Mount by building a “box” around the mountain. This was a massive wall with varying height due to the topography. This wall is still visible today, especially the current religious site of the Western Wall. This construction allowed for a level platform with various buildings and plazas on the top. The leveling was done by filling in the gaps and building subterranean arches in low areas. One of these areas is located on the southeast corner (the underground arched supports are erroneously called “Solomon’s Stables” today). The whole area was surrounded by a colonnaded portico (Solomon’s Colonnade [John 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12]). On the northwest corner was the Antonia Fortress (Acts 21:35), and the southern end of the complex contained the Royal Stoa, a basilica-style building (four rows of forty columns) that housed the Sanhedrin and had other religious and political functions (Luke 22:66).
This complex became the religious and political center of the city of Jerusalem, and Herod built many auxiliary components. Several entrances and bridges from the Upper City were built. The public entered the complex from the south. A southern complex consisting of monumental stairs (210 feet wide) and entrance and exit gates (Double and Triple Gates) took pedestrians from the outside up through underground tunnels to the top of the temple compound. These stairs became an area for public forums. In addition, several shops (Mark 11:15–17) were built around the complex, as well as a large bathhouse for ritual cleansing. In order to facilitate the many sacrifices, Herod built a complex hydrologic system that brought water into the city. This was accomplished by various aqueducts and storage pools. The Temple Mount had many cisterns and a new pool on the northeast end of the Temple Mount complex, the Pool of Israel. Although Herod could not alter the dimensions of the temple itself, he was able to enlarge the facade, added storage chambers and auxiliary buildings, build a second story above the temple, and construct several courtyards and various buildings associated with them. In keeping with the earlier tripartite level of holiness, these additional temple buildings and courtyards retained the same linear degree of holiness and exclusion.
Josephus called Herod’s temple “a structure more noteworthy than any under the sun” (Ant. 15.412). Herod built a new monumental facade in front of the existing temple and added a second story. Herod’s temple measured 100 cubits (172 ft.) in all three dimensions. It stood on top of a foundation that gave it added height. It had two stories, each one 45 cubits (77.5 ft.) in height. On the roof was a parapet, 3 cubits in height, which contained golden spikes, 1 cubit in height, to prevent birds from perching on the roof’s edge. The temple was decorated with gold overlay. The opening between the ’ulam (“porch”) and the sanctuary was 20 cubits high and 10 cubits wide (34 ft. by 17 ft.). There were two sets of double folding doors. The sanctuary contained the golden menorah, the table of the bread of the Presence, and the altar of incense. Between the sanctuary and the holy of holies was a large tapestry (veil) (Matt. 27:51; Mark 15:38; Luke 23:45). The holy of holies had gold plating on its walls. Around the temple were thirty-eight cells built in three stories (m. Mid. 4:3–4). All of the cells were interconnected by openings between adjoining cells and by one in the ceiling to reach the cell above. To the north, between the outer wall of the temple and the cells, was an inner stairway with access to the top of the temple and the upper chamber (second story of the temple). The upper chamber allowed priests to service the holy of holies. They would be suspended in baskets, covered on three sides, through openings in the floor to clean the gold overlay in the holy of holies.
The temple courtyard was surrounded by various gates and buildings. These were specific entrances and buildings that the priests used for the various functions of the sacrifices and offerings (Mark 13:1–2). These included the Kindling Gate, Wood Chamber, Gate of the Firstlings, Golah Chamber, Water Gate, Chamber of the Hearth, Gate of Jeconiah, Rinsing Chamber, Gate of the Offering-Women, Salt-Parva Chamber, and Gate of the Flame-Singers. In front of the temple were two narrow courts: the court of the priests to the west and the court of the Israelites (men) to the east. Inside the temple court was the altar of burnt offering. During the Second Temple period it was a stationary, square-shaped altar constructed of unhewn stones. According to the Mishnah (m. Mid. 3:1), this altar was 32 cubits square at the base and about 10 cubits in height. A ramp 32 cubits long, also built of unhewn stones, led the priests up to the altar from the south. A laver, the great bronze basin known as “the Sea,” stood west of the altar between the altar and the temple porch (’ulam) for the washing of hands and feet. North of the altar was the place of slaughtering.
The court of the women, 135 cubits square, was in front of the temple to the east. This court had four smaller courts, one at each corner. Women could enter the temple only as far as this court. It was surrounded by a colonnade. Inside these porches (porticoes) were thirteen collection boxes for money. This is where Jesus saw the poor widow donating two copper coins (Luke 21:1–3). The court had four large lampstands nearly half the height of the temple. The Mishnah states that each of the corner chambers was 40 cubits square and roofless. The central area was exposed to the sky, with a portico around each courtyard—typical of Mediterranean buildings. The chamber to the immediate right of the court’s entrance (northeast) was the chamber of the woodshed, where priests examined logs for impurities (e.g., parasites). To the left (southeast) was the chamber of the Nazirites. To the northwest was the chamber of the lepers. A leper who had been healed brought an offering and then bathed in this chamber before coming to the priests for the performance of rituals. In the southwest corner was the chamber of the house of oil. Between the court of the women and the temple court was the Nicanor Gate. Fifteen semicircular steps led up to this gate. It was on these steps that the Levites sang the fifteen Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134).
Surrounding the temple and the court of the women was a balustrade or railing that served as a boundary beyond which no Gentile could enter. Outside this boundary was the court of the Gentiles (see John 12:20–22; Acts 21:27–29). Archaeologists have found an inscription that forbids Gentiles, upon pain of death, to enter any farther. Herod’s temple was destroyed in AD 70. The Temple Mount continued to be used and considered sacred, as Roman temples, Crusader churches, and Muslim shrines marked the sacredness of the location.
Role of the Temple
The temple was the dwelling place of Yahweh. It was the domain of the religious leaders, priests, and Levites. It also represented the relationship/covenant between God and the nation of Israel. Various kings used the temple for their political maneuvering and attempts to shift the religious worship of the nation. The temple was the visible presence of God and embodied the political and religious aspirations of the people. The temple sat on top of a sacred mountain.
During turbulent political times the temple was central to God’s protection and judgment. From the Babylonian and Roman periods, two texts spoke of a future temple. Ezekiel’s vision saw a futuristic temple measuring 500 cubits square surrounded by a massive court measuring 3,000 cubits square (Ezek. 40:1–47:12). Among the DSS, the Temple Scroll also talks about a rebuilt temple. Today many Christians and Jews look to a future rebuilding of the temple.
The wife of King Uzziah of Judah (r. 769–733 BC) and the mother of King Jotham of Judah (r. 758–743 BC). In both 2 Kings 15:33 and 2 Chron. 27:1 she is identified as “Jerusha daughter of Zadok.”
The wife of King Uzziah of Judah (r. 769–733 BC) and the mother of King Jotham of Judah (r. 758–743 BC). In both 2 Kings 15:33 and 2 Chron. 27:1 she is identified as “Jerusha daughter of Zadok.”
The name “Jeshaiah” is a variant of “Isaiah.” (1) A grandson of Zerubbabel, descended from David (1 Chron. 3:21). (2) A son of Jeduthun who received the eighth lot in the music ministry of the temple (1 Chron. 25:3, 15). (3) A Levite who helped administer gifts dedicated to the temple (1 Chron. 26:25). (4) An Elamite family head who returned with Ezra from Babylon to Israel (Ezra 8:7). (5) A Levite recruited by Ezra to serve in the temple (Ezra 8:19). (6) A Benjamite leader who settled in Jerusalem at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:7).
One of the four sons of Asaph appointed by David with the responsibility of the music ministry for the temple (1 Chron. 25:14). The name is a variant of “Asarelah” (1 Chron. 25:2). See also Asarelah.
The name “Jeshaiah” is a variant of “Isaiah.” (1) A grandson of Zerubbabel, descended from David (1 Chron. 3:21). (2) A son of Jeduthun who received the eighth lot in the music ministry of the temple (1 Chron. 25:3, 15). (3) A Levite who helped administer gifts dedicated to the temple (1 Chron. 26:25). (4) An Elamite family head who returned with Ezra from Babylon to Israel (Ezra 8:7). (5) A Levite recruited by Ezra to serve in the temple (Ezra 8:19). (6) A Benjamite leader who settled in Jerusalem at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:7).
A town on the border of Israel and Judah (2 Chron. 13:19). Along with Bethel and Ephron, Jeshanah was captured from Jeroboam I by Abijah king of Judah. See also Jeshanah Gate.
A gate of Jerusalem restored by Nehemiah (Neh. 3:6; 12:39). It was located to the north of the Ephraim Gate and south of the Fish Gate (12:39). This could be the First Gate mentioned in Zech. 14:10.
One of the four sons of Asaph appointed by David with the responsibility of the music ministry for the temple (1 Chron. 25:14). The name is a variant of “Asarelah” (1 Chron. 25:2). See also Asarelah.
A Levite at the time of David who was assigned priestly duties by lot (1 Chron. 24:13).
The first of Caleb’s three sons with his wife Azubah (1 Chron. 2:18).
The Hebrew word yeshimon (“wasteland”) is used in the OT to identify a barren region of land (Deut. 32:10; Pss. 68:7; 78:40; 106:14; 107:4; Isa. 43:19–20). It can also be translated as a proper noun referring to a specific location. Thus, Jeshimon is an area of the hill country of Judah in the Desert of Maon where David and his men hid from the jealous wrath of Saul (1 Sam. 23:19, 24; 26:1, 3). Occasionally it is unclear whether the word is a place name or a general description. For example, the NIV translates the word for the desert land east of the Jordan overlooked by Mount Pisgah and Mount Peor as “wasteland” (Num. 21:20; 23:28), whereas other versions retain the proper name “Jeshimon” (e.g., KJV, GW).
A member of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:14).
A descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:36).
There are difficulties in distinguishing the numerous individuals in the OT named “Jeshua” (see also Joshua), which is also a place name. (1) The head of a Levitical family given by lot the ninth priestly division of temple duties (1 Chron. 24:11). (2) A priest who, during the religious reforms of Hezekiah, helped distribute the freewill offerings for other priests (2 Chron. 31:15). (3) The son of Jozadak, the high priest during the time of Zerubbabel (Ezra 3:2; Neh. 12:26). In many Bible versions, he is referred to as “Jeshua” in Ezra and Nehemiah and “Joshua (son of Jehozadak)” in Haggai and Zechariah (see Hag. 1:1; Zech. 6:11). See Joshua. (4) A key family within the clan of Pahath-Moab, some of whose descendants were officially listed among the returned exiles (Ezra 2:6; Neh. 7:11). (5) A family of priests descended from Jedaiah (Ezra 2:36; Neh. 7:39). (6) A family of Levites descended from Hodaviah (Ezra 2:40; Neh. 7:43; possibly also Neh. 12:8). (7) The father of Jozabad, a Levite (Ezra 8:33). He is perhaps the same person as in 1 Chron. 24:11. (8) The father of Ezer, who ruled Mizpah and helped repair the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:19). (9) A Levite, the son of Azaniah, who helped Ezra explain the law to the people who could not understand the Hebrew language of the Scriptures. He also took part in the signing of a covenant-renewal document (Neh. 8:7; 9:4–5; 10:9). (10) The son of Kadmiel and a leader of the Levites (Neh. 12:24). (11) A village in the south of Judah (Neh. 11:26), perhaps to be identified with Shema (Josh. 15:26) and Sheba (Josh. 19:2). The site is thought to be Tell es-Saweh, twelve miles east-northeast of Beersheba.
A poetic term meaning “the upright one” that appears in the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:15), the Blessing of Moses (Deut. 33:5, 26), and a prophecy of Isaiah of Babylon (Isa. 44:2). Used in parallel with “Jacob” and “Israel,” it refers poetically to the people of Israel.
(1) A military leader from the tribe of Issachar during the reign of David (1 Chron. 7:3). (2) A soldier from the tribe of Benjamin who joined David at Ziklag while he was on the run from Saul (1 Chron. 12:6). (3) A Levite from the house of Rehabiah who cast lots in the presence of King David, Zadok, and Ahimelek (1 Chron. 24:21). (4) A Kohathite Levite from the family of Uzziel (1 Chron. 23:20; 24:25). (5) A descendant of Harim who had married a foreign wife during the Persian period but agreed to divorce her during the reforms of Ezra (Ezra 10:31). The NIV renders the name in Ezra 10:31 as Ishijah (NRSV: “Isshijah”). See also Ishijah.
A descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:36).
From Bethlehem, he was the father of David and a descendant of Ruth the Moabite (Ruth 4:17); 1 Sam. 22:3 implies that Jesse fled to Moab on one occasion. The Gospels recognize him as an ancestor of Jesus (Matt. 1:5–6; Luke 3:32). Prior to the anointing of David, Samuel was sent to Jesse (1 Sam. 16:1) to choose from among his eight sons (1 Sam. 17:12). Like the father of Samuel (1 Sam. 1:1), Jesse is called an “Ephrathite,” a name associated with Bethlehem (1 Sam. 17:12; cf. Ruth 1:2; Mic. 5:2). Isaiah alludes to the Davidic dynasty as a “Root of Jesse” (Isa. 11:1, 10).
(1) A military leader from the tribe of Issachar during the reign of David (1 Chron. 7:3). (2) A soldier from the tribe of Benjamin who joined David at Ziklag while he was on the run from Saul (1 Chron. 12:6). (3) A Levite from the house of Rehabiah who cast lots in the presence of King David, Zadok, and Ahimelek (1 Chron. 24:21). (4) A Kohathite Levite from the family of Uzziel (1 Chron. 23:20; 24:25). (5) A descendant of Harim who had married a foreign wife during the Persian period but agreed to divorce her during the reforms of Ezra (Ezra 10:31). The NIV renders the name in Ezra 10:31 as Ishijah (NRSV: “Isshijah”). See also Ishijah.
As a noun, the word “jest” means “a playful joke,” as a verb, “to act or speak in a joking manner.” Lot warned his sons-in-law to flee Sodom, but “he appeared to his sons-in-law to be jesting” (Gen. 19:14 NASB [NIV: “joking”]). Paul warns believers against “coarse jesting” (Eph. 5:4 NASB [NIV: “coarse joking”; NRSV: “vulgar talk”]).
(1) A son of Asher, he immigrated to Egypt at the time of Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:30). He is named as the ancestor of a clan of the tribe of Asher at the time of the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:44). (2) One of the sons of Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49).
(1) A son of Asher, he immigrated to Egypt at the time of Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:30). He is named as the ancestor of a clan of the tribe of Asher at the time of the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:44). (2) One of the sons of Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49).
(1) A son of Asher, he immigrated to Egypt at the time of Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:30). He is named as the ancestor of a clan of the tribe of Asher at the time of the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:44). (2) One of the sons of Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49).
A poetic term meaning “the upright one” that appears in the Song of Moses (Deut. 32:15), the Blessing of Moses (Deut. 33:5, 26), and a prophecy of Isaiah of Babylon (Isa. 44:2). Used in parallel with “Jacob” and “Israel,” it refers poetically to the people of Israel.
The name “Jesus” comes from the Greek form of the name “Joshua.” The same Greek word (Iēsous) is therefore used to refer to both Jesus and Joshua in the NT (see esp. Heb. 4). The name “Jesus” was common among Jews in the first century. Josephus mentions nineteen different men called “Jesus.” Likewise, Luke tells of a Jewish sorcerer named “Bar-Jesus” (Acts 13:6), and Paul refers to a Jewish companion named “Jesus” (Col. 4:11). The best-known figure of this name is the predominant figure of the NT, Jesus Christ. See also Jesus, Son of Sirach; Jesus Christ; Justus.
The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human history.
Introduction
Name. Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title “Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). The name “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was a common male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ” is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh (“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually were named after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry of Jesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah (Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources. From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesus constitute the turning point in human history. From a historical perspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed, both Christian and non-Christian first-century and early second-century literary sources are extant, but they are few in number. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initial resistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Roman historian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,” since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailing worldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sources therefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christian sources.
The NT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry of Jesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels), and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four Source Hypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as a source by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (from German Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their own individual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additional sources.
The early church tried to put together singular accounts, so-called Gospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionites represents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Another harmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was produced around AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning the life of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, the Pauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John. Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come, God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4). The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was a passion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. The first extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’s letters (1 Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognized from the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1 Cor. 15:13–14).
Among non-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in a letter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governor of Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentions Christians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about the history of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius, wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Rome because of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Some scholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of “Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
The Jewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a story about the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus (Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in a different part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus is the Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). The majority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic but heavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source, the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but these references are very late and of little historical value.
Noncanonical Gospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel of James, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, the Egerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these may contain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most part they are late and unreliable.
Jesus’ Life
Birth and childhood. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18; Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in Bethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at the time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars. Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus” (Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesus was born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered a temple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford to sacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’ earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, or metal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth was not a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground. Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently common first-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Can anything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesus was also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy were surely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnant before her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only the intervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal (Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem, far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinship hospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay with distant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcome because of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Mary had to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feeding trough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later in Nazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son” (Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming him as one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewise rejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucify him!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21; John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled (Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter, vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71; Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His own siblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamed of his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his mother into the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27) rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism, temptation, and start of ministry. After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke 3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11; Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation, quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13; Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’ public ministry: chronology. Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28, and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple had been forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as the temple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out the money changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding and expansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during the eighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry of John the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius (Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From these dates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of the reign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset of Jesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
The Gospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast in John 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended over three or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a half years. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came on a Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death was therefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’ ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and his Judean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry in Galilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galilean ministry. The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30); the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and suffering.
All Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke 5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke 6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics focus on healings and exorcisms.
During Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority (Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family (3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble beginnings (4:1–32).
The Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful. No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many demons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fed five thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark 6:48–49).
In the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee, where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents (7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere “crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,” Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’ ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’ travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean ministry. Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27). The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem (Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45; Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’ ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel (Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16; Luke 18:15–17).
Passion Week, death, and resurrection. Each of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark 11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17). Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’ authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions (12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation (12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’ arrest (14:10–11).
At the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29; Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark 14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42; Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial, crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15; Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18). Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8) and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return (Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
The Identity of Jesus Christ
Various aspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels, depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses to Jesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning and examining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark 3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70; 23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritual realm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). At Jesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus was transfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voice affirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark 9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’ identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and other guards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf. Mark 15:39).
Miracle worker. In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers were part of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs and miracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of God over various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature, and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’ signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus his identity.
No challenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miracles and signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed a storm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke 8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13; Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised the dead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16; 8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculous feedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44; 8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked on water (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
The Pharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark 8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterous generation asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4). The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—his death and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice, taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher. Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbis or Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguished him was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28, 32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathered disciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to join him in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesus used a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables (Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35; 21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark 4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18; 12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15, 19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33), used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark 10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons (Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke 13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Major themes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the cost of discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, his identity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings, observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’s kingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come to fulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’ teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. These conflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions in which the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus used these interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gave replies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’s will, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. The Synoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations of violating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answers to such accusations often echoed the essence of 1 Sam. 15:22, “To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as “I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). An overall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’ public teaching.
The Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than” ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outward obedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equal to murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfully amounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revenging wrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesus valued compassion above traditions and customs, even those contained within the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter of the law.
Jesus’ teachings found their authority in the reality of God’s imminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9), necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence (Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—the family of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged, “Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness” (Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among prophetic teachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his own grounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt. 10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examples of a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include the occasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesus used an aphorism in response to accusations about his associations with sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners” (Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark 2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking the law, he pointed to an OT exception (1 Sam. 21:1–6) to declare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also applied the “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, since women suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly became outcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’ kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, and eschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internal transformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring on love (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus to bless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesus taught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” ones in Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful, and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godly character.
Some scholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic” for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end of time. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of his teachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah. The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore the glories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability was common in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babylonian captivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace and protection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer, one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice and righteousness (2 Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16; Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2; Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whose suffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle of expectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’ authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianic images in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearers called him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt. 12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesus as the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). In line with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesus focused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regeneration through his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatological prophet. Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewish apocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God to intervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom of God. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ prophecies concerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2, 15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). In addition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representative of the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30). Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images of coming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt. 24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
Suffering Son of God. Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth was paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa. 61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so he revealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptly portrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ own teachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13, 31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “The Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly career ended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewish components (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65; 15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24; 18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’ suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt. 27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John 19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror, bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyone hanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13). Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with a crucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed as a lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referred to this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed of the gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
Exalted Lord. Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23; 20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46). The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of Jesus Christ indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday (Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) and risen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke 24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus was witnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples (Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on the road to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appeared to as many as five hundred others (1 Cor. 15:6). He appeared in bodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43; John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesus ascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
As much as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory over death was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost, Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises (Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31). Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through his resurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his life and work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him as Lord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31; Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’ exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification (Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and his intercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascension signaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John 14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return in glory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt. 19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom (1 Cor. 15:24; 2 Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’ Purpose and Community
In the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, who preaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent (4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter the kingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, one made in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
In the prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identity of Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidings of salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of the gospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Luke likewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose of Jesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is the kingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John the Baptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesus answered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen and heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news is proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, as presented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery of sight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’ healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God already present in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20; 8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
In the Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signs throughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, his identity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundant life is lived out in community.
In the Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community of God (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but they continued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’ ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’s family—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained by adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
The Quests for the Historical Jesus
The quest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from a historical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary by scholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’ death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding of the church.
The beginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecture notes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously. Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus that rejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. He concluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles, prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’s conclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry of rationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continued throughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “first quest” for the historical Jesus.
In 1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of the Historical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: Eine Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of the first quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-century researchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming the historical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching an inoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’s conclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest. Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was an eschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days in Jerusalem.
With the demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as Rudolf Bultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historical Jesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’s former students launched what has come to be known as the “new quest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). This quest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was still dominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels is largely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
As the rebuilding years of the post–World War II era waned and scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeological finds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on to what has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeks especially to research and understand Jesus in his social and cultural setting.
Jesus’ brothers are mentioned several times in the Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. In Mark 6:3 (see also Matt. 13:55–56) four brothers are named, and sisters are mentioned, though the name or number of sisters is not given. The people of Nazareth are offended by Jesus’ preaching in the synagogue and express surprise that Jesus, given the dramatic claims that he has made about himself in his sermon there (see Luke 4:16–30), is the son and brother of local villagers (Mary and her sons James, Joses [named “Joseph” in Matthew], Judas, and Simon). In the crucifixion scene in Mark, one of the women present is identified as “Mary the mother of James the younger and of Joseph [NIV mg.: “Greek Joses”]” (Mark 15:40). It is unlikely, however, that this is Jesus’ mother and brothers, since it would be strange to identify Mary as the mother of these two lesser-known siblings rather than of Jesus himself.
In Mark 3:32–35 Jesus redefines what it means to be his brother, sister, or mother in the kingdom of God in response to being notified that his earthly mother and brothers, who at this point in time did not understand his mission (see 3:21), are waiting for him outside the house in Capernaum. Although Mary and Jesus’ brothers appear to have traveled around Galilee with him (see John 2:12), John’s Gospel makes explicit the brothers’ unbelief (7:2–10), which is only implicit in Matthew and Mark. Acts 1:14 shows the dramatic reversal that has taken place in the response to Jesus by his brothers after the resurrection. Mary and Jesus’ brothers are gathered together with the entire body of Jesus’ disciples in prayer, fellowship, and teaching.
James (apparently Jesus’ oldest sibling) became a key leader in the Jerusalem church (Acts 12:17; 21:18) and pronounced the decision at the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:13). He is also traditionally identified as the author of the NT letter that bears his name (James 1:1). Another NT letter may also have been penned by a brother of Jesus, since Jude identifies himself as “a brother of James” (Jude 1), a probable reference to this same James.
In 1 Cor. 9:5 Paul argues (through a rhetorical question) that Christian missionaries have the right to take “a believing wife” along with them in their work, just as the other apostles and Jesus’ brothers had done. Finally, while recounting his first trip to Jerusalem after his conversion, Paul mentions a meeting with James, “the Lord’s brother” (Gal. 1:19).
According to the Jewish historian Josephus, Jesus’ brother James died a martyr’s death at the hands of the Jewish high priest Ananus (Ant. 20.197–200).
(1) The eldest son of Gideon, as a youth he fearfully disobeyed his father’s command to kill two kings of Midian (Judg. 8:20). (2) The father of Amasa, a military commander under David who was killed by another military commander, Joab (2 Sam. 17:25 [here called “Ithra”; see NIV mg.]; 1 Kings 2:5, 32). (3) A son of Jada and a descendant of Jerahmeel who died childless (1 Chron. 2:32). (4) The first of Ezrah’s four sons, from the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:17). (5) A descendant in the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. 7:38). (6) In 1 Chron. 7:37 “Ithran” is sometimes understood to be another name for “Jether.”
A descendant of Esau, he was a leader of an Edomite clan who gave his name to the territory he occupied (Gen. 36:40; 1 Chron. 1:51).
A town listed among the inheritance of the tribe of Dan after the conquest of Canaan under Joshua (Josh. 19:42). It is alternatively spelled “Jethlah.” The exact location is unknown; however, its position in the list suggests that it was likely located in the southern portion of the territory of Dan, between Aijalon and Timnah.
The father of Zipporah, the wife of Moses. He is thus best known as the father-in-law of Moses. Moses came into contact with Zipporah and her father as he fled from Egypt (Exod. 2:11–25). Jethro is identified from the start as a “priest of Midian” (Exod. 2:16). Midian was not a nation-state but rather an area occupied by nomadic shepherds. The area is in northern Arabia on the east side of Aqaba. Since Israel had no priests at this time, Jethro’s status is somewhat unclear. Perhaps he was a pagan priest who converted to the true worship of Yahweh. In any case, Moses recognized Jethro as a fellow worshiper of the same true God. It was while Moses was with Jethro that God met him at the burning bush (Exod. 3:1). Jethro gave good advice to Moses when the latter felt overwhelmed by his leadership responsibilities. He explained to Moses how he could more efficiently deal with the organization of the people as they journeyed in the wilderness. One interpretation of Num. 10:29 understands “Hobab” as another name for Jethro, and in Exod. 2:18 his name may be “Reuel.”
The tenth son of Ishmael (Gen. 25:15; 1 Chron. 1:31), he is the ancestor of an Arab tribe by the same name (1 Chron. 5:19).
(1) A man of the Zerahite clan who returned from the exile (1 Chron. 9:6). (2) A descendant of Adonikam who returned with Ezra (Ezra 8:13; KJV: “Jeiel”).
(1) The first of three sons born to Esau and Oholibamah (Gen. 36:5, 14, 18). (2) The first of seven sons of Bilhan in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:10). (3) A warrior, the second of three sons of Eshek in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:39). (4) The third of four sons of Shimei, a Levite (1 Chron. 23:10). (5) The first of three sons born to King Rehoboam of Judah and Mahalath (2 Chron. 11:19).
A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the fifth of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:10).
In the NT, “Jews” (Ioudaioi) is an ethnic and religious term to describe the people of Judah. In Jesus’ day, Jews were distinguished from Samaritans (John 4:9, 22). Gradually the term began to be used more in a religious than in an ethnic sense, and it has come to represent the descendants from Abraham as a whole and religious converts who regard the Mosaic law and customs as the inalienable religious foundation for faith and practices (Mark 7:3; John 2:6).
The Gospels
In the Synoptic Gospels the term “Jews” is used largely in the phrase “the king of the Jews” with reference to Jesus (Matt. 2:2; 27:11, 29; Mark 15:2, 9, 12, 18; Luke 23:3, 37). Born as the king of the Jews, Jesus claimed to have come to fulfill the law of Moses instead of abolishing it (Matt. 5:17). He emphasized the importance of practicing the law in obedience (Matt. 7:24–27), and he rebuked the Pharisees and the scribes for teaching the law without carrying it out (Matt. 23). They opposed him, not only because they rejected his claim to be the Messiah, but also because they viewed his teaching and practices as destabilizing their religious status quo (Matt. 12:1–8; John 5:10; 11:48).
The Jews are represented in the Gospels by both the upper class (e.g., Pharisees, Sadducees, scribes, chief priests) and the lower classes (the crowds). Usually the religious upper class would not accept Jesus’ teaching and challenged him by asking questions or denying his authority (Matt. 15:1; 16:1). The crowds generally accepted Jesus’ teaching and experienced his power to heal and other benefits. The Synoptic account of the opposition by the upper class is contrasted with the widespread opposition to Jesus by the “Jews” in general in John’s Gospel. But Matthew and Luke also highlight Jesus’ lament of the unrepentant Jewish cities (Matt. 11:20–24; Luke 10:12–15), indicating that resistance to Jesus’ teaching was a common phenomenon among the Jews.
Jesus responded to the unbelieving Jews with strong rebuke and condemnation (Matt. 12:30–32; 21:33–46). When Jesus healed a servant of a Roman centurion and marveled at the amazing faith of this Gentile (8:5–13), Jesus predicted that “the subjects of the kingdom will be thrown outside, into the darkness” because of unbelief, whereas the Gentiles will come to eat with Abraham in the kingdom of heaven (8:11–12). In spite of the unbelief of the Jews, the privilege to hear the gospel was given to them first. Jesus sent out the twelve disciples, instructing them that they should not go anywhere among the Gentiles or enter the towns of the Samaritans, but instead go “to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 10:6 [cf. Rom. 1:16]).
The term “Jews” occurs only four times in the Synoptics outside the phrase “king of the Jews,” but seventy-one times in the Gospel of John. John uses the term especially as a technical one for those Jews who were hostile to Jesus and his followers. Whereas the Synoptics focus on the Jewish leaders’ rejection of Jesus’ messianic actions, John focuses on their rejection of his teaching that he is the Son of God in unique relationship with the Father. Jesus in John is not only the “one and only” (monogenēs) of God (1:18), but also the fulfiller of what the temple signifies and all the Jewish tradition and customs represent. John thus describes the Jewish opposition to Jesus as much more widespread and intense than that in the Synoptics, presenting the Jews as opposing Jesus’ teaching because of their loyalty to Jewish tradition (5:15–18; 6:41; 7:1–2, 13; 8:31–57; 9:22; 10:31–33; 19:7–12, 38; 20:19).
Acts and the Pauline Letters
In the book of Acts the term “Jews” (eighty-one occurrences) is used especially with reference to the Jewish people who oppose Paul’s law-free gospel (9:23; 13:45, 50; 14:2, 4; 17:5; 18:12, 14; 20:3; 21:11; 22:30; 23:12; 24:9).
In his letters, Paul refers to “Jews” primarily in an ethnic and religious sense without connoting that they have theological antagonism against the gospel. The Jews are thus contrasted with the Gentiles in that they are “the people of Israel”: “Theirs is the adoption to sonship; theirs the divine glory, the covenants, the receiving of the law, the temple worship and the promises” (Rom. 9:4). While Paul acknowledges the continuity of Jewish identity through their lineage from Abraham, he distinguishes true Jews from false Jews in terms of Jesus’ accomplishment of redemption. Paul says, “A person is a Jew who is one inwardly; and circumcision is circumcision of the heart, by the Spirit, not by the written code” (2:29). This distinction of true Jews from false Jews resonates with his distinction of true Israel from false Israel (9:6). The redefinition of the group of spiritual Israelites is the result of Jesus’ death and resurrection according to the OT prophecies. Those who believe in Jesus are reckoned as “children of Abraham” according to the gospel announced in Gen. 12:3 (Gal. 3:7–8).
Paul’s presentation of spiritual Jews is foreseen in Jesus’ statement that the Jews who do not believe in him are not Abraham’s children but rather the children of the devil (John 8:30–44). In 1 John the children of God are defined in terms of love rather than ethnic lineage (3:10). According to the book of Revelation, those “who say they are Jews” are not, but are a “synagogue of Satan” (2:9; 3:9). These passages show that salvation is obtained through faith in Jesus rather than through the ethnic lineage of Abraham and observances of the Mosaic law (Rom. 3:20–28).
These polemics against the Jews and Jewish law do not necessarily make the NT teachings anti-Semitic or anti-Judaic. What the NT polemicizes is neither the Jewish nation nor Judaism but rather the unbelief of the Jews who rejected Jesus, inasmuch as Jesus is the Messiah, who has come in flesh and fulfilled the prophecies of the OT.
Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in the Bible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These precious stones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in the ancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.
Jewelry known in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everyday jewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among the people, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Fine jewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold or silver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn both by men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conserved wealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators of socioeconomic placing in society.
Most gold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal was shaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involved soldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form of decoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as a substitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry was inlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items. Engraving was likewise used for decoration.
Jewelry in Antiquity
Jewelry has been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC. Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in the city of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found in cemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Other specimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC. Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this period places such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athens produced beautiful gold work.
By the seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greek islands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to the goddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC, jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for the next 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold were cut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during the Classical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. Captured Persian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold and precious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks. Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenistic period. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry: carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls. Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelry came from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empire jewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. In general, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry was gold-plated and decorated with costly stones.
Certain writers in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry and precious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls as the “topmost rank among all things of price.” Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of the Dead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shape of hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets were made of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.
Jewelry in the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamental circlet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs was known as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occur in the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts in archaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everyday life in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments of relatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver, gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets, and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circlets with two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, often artistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those of serpents.
Rings likewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in the ears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popular during the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were worn on neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment but also were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn on clothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.
Amulets were common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection from harm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets often incorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods. Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide. Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christian amulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.
Although not often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelry item in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings, circlets, and so forth.
Jewelry in the Bible
Many different items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings (Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11; Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12), rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30; Num. 31:50; 1 Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job 38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2), headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50; 2 Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18), and anklets (Isa. 3:20).
Various articles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mere aesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify the desire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servant discovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nose ring and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosen her (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over ten shekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servant indicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of the jewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.
Early in the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designated that the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain precious stones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majesty and holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod. 25:7; 35:9).
Lovers flattered one another by comparing physical features to articles of fine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’s people appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa. 49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels (61:10).
Biblical authors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry with admonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewels and jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15; 8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and a godly spouse far above jewels (31:10).
Similar to the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and other notable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like other kings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2 Sam. 1:10), which were intended to signify royalty and competence in military affairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denoted features of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior in Rev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatched power (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than seven diadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).
At times, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially when acquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as an object of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry that accompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lend credence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled with polytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideon made an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of the Midianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship for the Israelites and greatly offended God.
Kings had signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings. The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked the small semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, rings were used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11; 1 Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to seal prophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16; Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in order to signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is the usage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. The ring was placed on the returning son’s finger to show the radical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to his son’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into the household.
In certain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselves with external jewelry (1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3), as this was a sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear in John’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majestic beauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets of gold (21:18–21).
Precious stones appear in visions and theophanies in the Bible. Examples include Ezek. 1:16; 10:1; Rev. 4:3. These precious stones, also used in jewelry, were well known to people in the ancient Near East and in the first-century Mediterranean basin.
Jewelry known in antiquity is broadly divided into two groups: everyday jewelry and fine jewelry. Everyday jewelry, found commonly among the people, was made of materials such as bronze, iron, and bone. Fine jewelry, on the other hand, consisted of objects crafted from gold or silver and included costly and precious stones. Jewelry was worn both by men and women as part of clothing. The ancients also conserved wealth with investments in jewels or used jewels as indicators of socioeconomic placing in society.
Most gold jewelry had sheet metal as its foundation. This sheet metal was shaped and/or decorated. One form of decoration, filigree, involved soldering wiring in a pattern on a background. A later form of decoration known as granulation used tiny grains of gold as a substitute for wires. An additional method of decorating jewelry was inlaying with colored stones, glass, or other precious items. Engraving was likewise used for decoration.
Jewelry in Antiquity
Jewelry has been discovered in Babylon dating back as far as 2700 BC. Examples of jewelry from this era were found in cemeteries in the city of Ur. Examples of ancient jewelry were likewise found in cemeteries on the island of Crete, dating back to 2400 BC. Other specimens of jewelry come from the Mycenaean world around 1100 BC. Jewelry dating after 800 BC was of high quality. During this period places such as Knossos on Crete and cities such as Corinth and Athens produced beautiful gold work.
By the seventh century BC, the finest jewelry was found on the Greek islands and in Asia Minor. Jewelry in Ephesus was offered to the goddess Diana, yet was also made for personal adornment. By 600 BC, jewelry became very scarce in Greece. This scarcity lasted for the next 150 years. Archaeologists postulate that supplies of gold were cut off by the Persians. After the Persians were defeated during the Classical period, some of the finest gold work was produced. Captured Persian treasures and exploitation of Macedonian mines made gold and precious stones and metals highly accessible to the Greeks. Consequently, jewelry was readily available during the Hellenistic period. The Greeks incorporated a variety of stones in their jewelry: carnelian, chalcedony, amethyst, and garnet, as well as small pearls. Materials and inspiration for the Greeks for certain types of jewelry came from newly conquered territories. In the early Roman Empire jewelry resembled that seen during the Hellenistic period. In general, during the Greek and the Roman periods, jewelry was gold-plated and decorated with costly stones.
Certain writers in antiquity documented well-known or costly jewelry and precious stones. One Roman historian described the value of pearls as the “topmost rank among all things of price.” Correspondingly, he wrote about two pearls owned by Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, known as the largest in history. The Egyptian Book of the Dead, dating to around 1500 BC, makes mention of amulets in the shape of hearts, considered jewelry by some experts. These amulets were made of carnelian, lapis lazuli, and green feldspar.
Jewelry in the biblical world was known by different terms. An ornamental circlet worn singly or as multiples on one’s arms or legs was known as a “bangle.” This term, however, does not occur in the Bible. The abundant presence of bangles as artifacts in archaeological digs is an indicator of their significance in everyday life in the biblical world. Bangles were stiff ornaments of relatively heavy weight. Materials varied: bronze, iron, silver, gold, and so forth. Bangles were of three types: bracelets, anklets, and armlets. They were either solid, complete circles or circlets with two distinct ends. These ends had specific designs, often artistically crafted in the shape of animal heads, such as those of serpents.
Rings likewise were prevalent in the biblical world. Rings were worn in the ears, nose, and around fingers and toes. Nose rings were popular during the Iron Age (1200–586 BC). In addition, rings were worn on neck cords. Rings not only were worn as articles of adornment but also were used as signets. Brooches or pins mostly were worn on clothing and were made of wood, bronze, iron, silver, or gold.
Amulets were common as religious jewelry. Worn as divine protection from harm, amulets varied from simple to ornate. Egyptian amulets often incorporated snake imagery or representations of Egyptian gods. Ancient Near Eastern amulets often were smaller than an inch wide. Greek amulets were colorful and crafted from stones. Christian amulets in the shape of the crucified Christ have also been found.
Although not often worn individually, beads were the most prevalent jewelry item in the ancient Near East. Beads were strung in bracelets, rings, circlets, and so forth.
Jewelry in the Bible
Many different items of jewelry are found in the Bible, including earrings (Gen. 35:4; Exod. 35:22; Judg. 8:24–26; Job 42:11), bracelets (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Num. 31:50), necklaces (Gen. 41:42; Ezek. 16:11; Dan. 5:29), nose rings (Gen. 24:22, 30, 47; Isa. 3:21; Ezek. 16:12), rings (Gen. 38:18, 25; 41:42; Exod. 28:11, 21, 36; 35:22; 39:14, 30; Num. 31:50; 1 Kings 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10; Job 38:14; Isa. 3:21; Jer. 22:24; Hos. 2:13; Luke 15:22; James 2:2), headbands (Exod. 13:16; Deut. 6:8; 11:18), armlets (Num. 31:50; 2 Sam. 1:10; Isa. 3:20), pendants (Judg. 8:21, 26; Isa. 3:18), and anklets (Isa. 3:20).
Various articles of jewelry in the Bible carried significance beyond mere aesthetics. Early in Genesis, bracelets were used to signify the desire for covenantal marriage. When Abraham’s servant discovered Rebekah, a potential bride for Isaac, he gave her a nose ring and placed bracelets on her arms to signify that God had chosen her (Gen. 24:22, 47). The bracelets and nose ring weighed over ten shekels. By placing the jewelry on Rebekah’s arm, the servant indicated that a marriage contract was sought. The high value of the jewelry signifies the high bridal price paid for Rebekah.
Early in the OT, jewelry was used in temple worship. The law designated that the high priest’s breastpiece and ephod contain precious stones along with setting stones. The stones signified the majesty and holiness of God as his people worshiped in his holy temple (Exod. 25:7; 35:9).
Lovers flattered one another by comparing physical features to articles of fine jewelry (Song 5:14) and admiring their fine jewelry (4:9). God’s people appear as a jeweled necklace when God gathers them (Isa. 49:18) and are as highly esteemed as a bride adorned with jewels (61:10).
Biblical authors also challenged people’s desire for jewelry with admonitions to seek godly attributes and gifts of God above jewels and jewelry. Wisdom was to be desired above jewels (Prov. 3:15; 8:11), knowledgeable speech above gold and jewels (20:15), and a godly spouse far above jewels (31:10).
Similar to the habits of most ancient cultures, Israelite kings and other notable leaders wore jewelry of special significance. Like other kings of antiquity, Saul wore armlets and a crown (2 Sam. 1:10), which were intended to signify royalty and competence in military affairs. Such jewelry typically carried insignias that denoted features of national and royal identity. The victorious warrior in Rev. 19 wears many diadems (crowns) in order to signify his unmatched power (19:12). He has more than one crown, and even more than seven diadems, which is the number of diadems that the dragon has (12:3).
At times, jewelry carried negative connotations, especially when acquired within polytheistic trends of society or else designed as an object of worship. Even Jacob was found burying his jewelry that accompanied his foreign idols (Gen. 35:4). Such instances lend credence to theories that even early Hebrew faith wrangled with polytheism and was infused with its many golden artifacts. Gideon made an ephod from the sparkling plunder (rings and pendants) of the Midianites (Judg. 8:21). This ephod became an object of worship for the Israelites and greatly offended God.
Kings had signet rings that contained their own personalized engravings. The engravings were made by stonecutters who carefully worked the small semiprecious stones atop the rings. Throughout the OT, rings were used to make impressions on official documents (Exod. 28:11; 1 Kings 21:8; Esther 8:8). Prophets used signet rings to seal prophecies that were of grave importance for the nation (Isa. 8:16; Jer. 32:10). Unique rings were designed by notable families in order to signify the honor of the patriarch. Of special interest is the usage of the ring in Jesus’ parable of the prodigal son. The ring was placed on the returning son’s finger to show the radical grace of the father, who was willing to join his honor to his son’s shame (Luke 15:22) as the son was brought back into the household.
In certain NT writings, women are admonished not to adorn themselves with external jewelry (1 Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3), as this was a sign of materialism and immodesty. In Rev. 21, jewels appear in John’s depiction of the new Jerusalem: it is a city of majestic beauty adorned with precious jewels, gates of pearls, and streets of gold (21:18–21).
In the NT, “Jews” (Ioudaioi) is an ethnic and religious term to describe the people of Judah. In Jesus’ day, Jews were distinguished from Samaritans (John 4:9, 22). Gradually the term began to be used more in a religious than in an ethnic sense, and it has come to represent the descendants from Abraham as a whole and religious converts who regard the Mosaic law and customs as the inalienable religious foundation for faith and practices (Mark 7:3; John 2:6).
The Gospels
In the Synoptic Gospels the term “Jews” is used largely in the phrase “the king of the Jews” with reference to Jesus (Matt. 2:2; 27:11, 29; Mark 15:2, 9, 12, 18; Luke 23:3, 37). Born as the king of the Jews, Jesus claimed to have come to fulfill the law of Moses instead of abolishing it (Matt. 5:17). He emphasized the importance of practicing the law in obedience (Matt. 7:24–27), and he rebuked the Pharisees and the scribes for teaching the law without carrying it out (Matt. 23). They opposed him, not only because they rejected his claim to be the Messiah, but also because they viewed his teaching and practices as destabilizing their religious status quo (Matt. 12:1–8; John 5:10; 11:48).
The Jews are represented in the Gospels by both the upper class (e.g., Pharisees, Sadducees, scribes, chief priests) and the lower classes (the crowds). Usually the religious upper class would not accept Jesus’ teaching and challenged him by asking questions or denying his authority (Matt. 15:1; 16:1). The crowds generally accepted Jesus’ teaching and experienced his power to heal and other benefits. The Synoptic account of the opposition by the upper class is contrasted with the widespread opposition to Jesus by the “Jews” in general in John’s Gospel. But Matthew and Luke also highlight Jesus’ lament of the unrepentant Jewish cities (Matt. 11:20–24; Luke 10:12–15), indicating that resistance to Jesus’ teaching was a common phenomenon among the Jews.
Jesus responded to the unbelieving Jews with strong rebuke and condemnation (Matt. 12:30–32; 21:33–46). When Jesus healed a servant of a Roman centurion and marveled at the amazing faith of this Gentile (8:5–13), Jesus predicted that “the subjects of the kingdom will be thrown outside, into the darkness” because of unbelief, whereas the Gentiles will come to eat with Abraham in the kingdom of heaven (8:11–12). In spite of the unbelief of the Jews, the privilege to hear the gospel was given to them first. Jesus sent out the twelve disciples, instructing them that they should not go anywhere among the Gentiles or enter the towns of the Samaritans, but instead go “to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 10:6 [cf. Rom. 1:16]).
The term “Jews” occurs only four times in the Synoptics outside the phrase “king of the Jews,” but seventy-one times in the Gospel of John. John uses the term especially as a technical one for those Jews who were hostile to Jesus and his followers. Whereas the Synoptics focus on the Jewish leaders’ rejection of Jesus’ messianic actions, John focuses on their rejection of his teaching that he is the Son of God in unique relationship with the Father. Jesus in John is not only the “one and only” (monogenēs) of God (1:18), but also the fulfiller of what the temple signifies and all the Jewish tradition and customs represent. John thus describes the Jewish opposition to Jesus as much more widespread and intense than that in the Synoptics, presenting the Jews as opposing Jesus’ teaching because of their loyalty to Jewish tradition (5:15–18; 6:41; 7:1–2, 13; 8:31–57; 9:22; 10:31–33; 19:7–12, 38; 20:19).
Acts and the Pauline Letters
In the book of Acts the term “Jews” (eighty-one occurrences) is used especially with reference to the Jewish people who oppose Paul’s law-free gospel (9:23; 13:45, 50; 14:2, 4; 17:5; 18:12, 14; 20:3; 21:11; 22:30; 23:12; 24:9).
In his letters, Paul refers to “Jews” primarily in an ethnic and religious sense without connoting that they have theological antagonism against the gospel. The Jews are thus contrasted with the Gentiles in that they are “the people of Israel”: “Theirs is the adoption to sonship; theirs the divine glory, the covenants, the receiving of the law, the temple worship and the promises” (Rom. 9:4). While Paul acknowledges the continuity of Jewish identity through their lineage from Abraham, he distinguishes true Jews from false Jews in terms of Jesus’ accomplishment of redemption. Paul says, “A person is a Jew who is one inwardly; and circumcision is circumcision of the heart, by the Spirit, not by the written code” (2:29). This distinction of true Jews from false Jews resonates with his distinction of true Israel from false Israel (9:6). The redefinition of the group of spiritual Israelites is the result of Jesus’ death and resurrection according to the OT prophecies. Those who believe in Jesus are reckoned as “children of Abraham” according to the gospel announced in Gen. 12:3 (Gal. 3:7–8).
Paul’s presentation of spiritual Jews is foreseen in Jesus’ statement that the Jews who do not believe in him are not Abraham’s children but rather the children of the devil (John 8:30–44). In 1 John the children of God are defined in terms of love rather than ethnic lineage (3:10). According to the book of Revelation, those “who say they are Jews” are not, but are a “synagogue of Satan” (2:9; 3:9). These passages show that salvation is obtained through faith in Jesus rather than through the ethnic lineage of Abraham and observances of the Mosaic law (Rom. 3:20–28).
These polemics against the Jews and Jewish law do not necessarily make the NT teachings anti-Semitic or anti-Judaic. What the NT polemicizes is neither the Jewish nation nor Judaism but rather the unbelief of the Jews who rejected Jesus, inasmuch as Jesus is the Messiah, who has come in flesh and fulfilled the prophecies of the OT.
During the time of Jesus and in the couple of centuries prior, Judaism was not a monolithic entity but was comprised of different groups with varying religious concerns and political interests. This multifaceted nature of Judaism has caused scholars to question whether it would be better to speak of Judaisms rather than Judaism. Was Judaism cut from a whole cloth, or was it a box of fabric scraps? Perhaps it is best to speak of Judaism as a single entity, but one comprised of various factions with diverse beliefs and interests. This conclusion is justified because the diverse sentiments and interests were responses to the same religious and political issues, such as Torah, the temple, and foreign occupiers.
Five of the important parties in ancient Judaism were the Pharisees, the Sadducees, the Essenes, the Zealots, and the Herodians. The first three seem to have first emerged in reaction to the rise of the Hasmonean priest-kings in the mid-second and first centuries BC, and the other two in response to the occupation of Palestine by the Romans and their establishment of the Herods as the rulers of Israel.
Pharisees
According to Josephus. The best source of information on the Pharisees, apart from the Gospels themselves, is the Jewish historian Josephus, who discusses the beliefs of various Jewish factions. In consideration of his Roman audience, he depicts these groups as Jewish philosophical schools. In his Antiquities, Josephus indicates a rough outline of the beliefs of the Pharisees and their political position in relation to the Sadducees and the general populace.
Josephus gives the following points in summation of the Pharisees’ beliefs. (1) The Pharisees believed some things are the result of fate, whereas other things are the result of human choice. (2) The Pharisees believed that the soul survives death in a place of either reward or punishment, and in the resurrection of the body. (3) Besides believing in the authority of Scripture, the Pharisees also had an authoritative body of oral tradition.
The Pharisees and the Sadducees had a difficult relationship, due not only to different religious beliefs but also to conflicting political aspirations. Josephus suggests that Jewish leaders gave patronage to one group or the other, or suppressed one group or the other, sometimes violently. In regard to the general populace, the Pharisees had a much better relationship with them than did the Sadducees, to the point that when Sadducees were magistrates, they had to rule according to the beliefs of the Pharisees or else the people would not listen to them.
In the New Testament. In the Synoptic Gospels, the Pharisees were one of the groups that opposed Jesus. It seems that the Pharisees most strongly opposed Jesus on issues related to their received tradition, which they considered to be as binding as the OT law. Two such legal issues were ceremonial washings before meals and working on the Sabbath. All three Synoptic Gospels narrate the Pharisees questioning Jesus concerning his and his disciples’ failure to follow the tradition of the elders by eating with “unclean,” that is, “unwashed,” hands (Matt. 15:1–2; Mark 7:1–5; Luke 11:39–41). Concerning breaking the Sabbath, the Pharisees confronted Jesus on various occasions, such as when Jesus healed on the Sabbath (Matt. 12:9–14; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–11) and when his disciples picked grain while walking through a field (Matt. 12:1–8; Mark 2:23–28; Luke 6:1–5).
In response to accusations concerning breaking the traditions of the elders, Jesus affirmed the priority of mercy in the face of human need that supersedes laws concerning the Sabbath by saying that the Sabbath was made for humans, not humans for the Sabbath (Mark 2:27), or that the Son of Man (Jesus) was Lord of the Sabbath (Matt. 12:8; Mark 2:28; Luke 6:5). He also said that God desires mercy, not sacrifice (Matt. 12:7).
Jesus’ critique of the Pharisees concentrated on their neglecting mercy toward fellow humans for the sake of their tradition. This is especially clear in Matthew, where Jesus’ critique of the Pharisees includes indictments against them for concentrating on the fine points of the law but neglecting justice and mercy (12:7; 23:23).
In the Gospel of John, the Pharisees are again usually depicted as adversaries of Jesus and also in league with other Jewish authorities in plotting to arrest and kill Jesus (7:32; 11:47–57). One passage suggests that they were divided concerning Jesus (9:16). One Pharisee, Nicodemus, came to Jesus by night (John 3), defended Jesus before his peers (7:50), and brought spices to prepare Jesus’ body for burial after his death (19:39).
The Pharisees were not always antagonistic toward Jesus. From time to time, they were on the same side of an issue, such as Jesus’ confrontation with the Sadducees over the resurrection (Luke 20:27–40). Nicodemus, mentioned above, was quite sympathetic toward Jesus. The apostle Paul identifies himself as a Pharisee in regard to keeping the law in Phil. 3:5; Acts 26:5, and in a confrontation with Jerusalem authorities in Acts 23:6. Also, some early Christians were said to be Pharisees (Acts 15:5).
Relationship with rabbinic Judaism. An issue concerning the Pharisees is their relationship with later rabbinic Judaism. There are basically two viewpoints on this matter, and both involve the destruction of the Jerusalem temple in AD 70. One position maintains that when the dust settled from the destruction of the temple, only the Pharisees remained standing, and rabbinic Judaism is their heir. Another view holds that after AD 70 sectarian Judaism disappeared, and rabbinic Judaism emerged from a coalescence of various Jewish groups. Although one cannot be certain, it seems that the former view may be closer to the truth, since in the Mishnah, Sadducean legal opinion is contrasted with Pharisaic, and the Pharisaic is invariably considered correct.
Sadducees
The Sadducees were an elite group of Jews connected with the priesthood. “Sadducee” probably means “Son of Zadok,” a descendant of the high priest Zadok from the time of David. Some members of the Qumran community used the term “Son of Zadok” as a self-designation as well, suggesting some common ancestry, if not direct identification, of the Sadducees and some members of the Qumran community.
Along with the Pharisees, the Sadducees were a religious-political group that sought the support of the ruling powers. It is in the context of the patron-retainer relationship that we first hear of the Sadducees. Josephus relates how the Hasmonean ruler John Hyrcanus switched from being the patron of the Pharisees to that of the Sadducees. When the Pharisee Eliezer suggested that Hyrcanus step down from the high priesthood due to his uncertain lineage, Hyrcanus became very angry and wanted Eliezer to be executed. The rest of the Pharisees suggested that he merely be bound and whipped, since they had a tradition of passing light sentences. A Sadducee suggested that they passed such a light sentence because they agreed with Eliezer that Hyrcanus was unsuitable to be high priest. Hyrcanus then cast his support behind the Sadducees and abolished the laws that the Pharisees had given to the populace.
Josephus gives the following general description of the Sadducees’ beliefs and relationship with the general populace. (1) The Sadducees rejected fate; things are the result of human action alone. Along with this, God stands aloof from humans concerning good and evil actions. Good and evil are the result of human action. (2) The Sadducees believed that the soul dies along with the body. (3) They accepted only the written law and had no oral tradition. Some take this last point to mean that they accepted only the Pentateuch as Scripture, but this goes beyond what Josephus says about them.
Josephus goes on to write that Sadducees were as contentious in their disputes with fellow Sadducees as with people outside the group, and they did not hold their elders in esteem. They had influence over the elite, but no say with the populace at large.
The Sadducees are mentioned in the Synoptic Gospels, but not in John, although the “chief priests” who plotted against Jesus with the Pharisees (e.g., John 11:46) probably were Sadducees. All three Synoptic Gospels relate the narrative in which the Sadducees posed the hypothetical question concerning whose wife a woman would be in the resurrection if she outlived seven husbands. Jesus answered that they understood neither the Scriptures nor the power of God, and that God was the God of the living and not the dead (Matt. 22:23–33; Mark 12:18–27; Luke 20:27–40).
The book of Acts confirms that the Sadducees were closely connected to the priesthood (Acts 4:1; 5:17), and that they disputed with the Pharisees over the resurrection (Acts 23:6–8).
Essenes
The Essenes are the third “philosophical school” mentioned by Josephus. Most scholars consider the Qumran sectarians who produced the DSS to be Essenes. This has created a number of circular arguments, since the DSS are then used to confirm the nature of Essene beliefs. That being said, there is good evidence that the Qumran sectarians were at least in part Essene. The Essenes are not mentioned in the NT or in rabbinic literature, but they do appear in the writings of Josephus, Philo of Alexandria, and Pliny the Elder.
Josephus delineates the beliefs of the Essenes as follows. (1) They ascribed every happening to God. (2) They believed in the immortality of the soul.
Josephus writes at great length concerning the Essenes’ way of life. They lived an ascetic lifestyle, avoided pleasure, and devoted themselves to prayer. They shared all things in common and lived in harmony with one another. Some Essenes avoided marriage, whereas others regarded marriage and procreation as too central to human life to avoid. Certain Essenes could predict the future and interpret dreams. Concerning sacrifices, Josephus mentions that although they sent offerings to the temple, they had their own, superior sacrifices.
Philo writes that the Essenes were much admired due to their holy lives, living peaceably with one another and holding to the truth. Contrary to Josephus, Philo says that the Essenes did not sacrifice, but through study they kept their minds pure and holy.
The Essenes, as Josephus and Philo describe them, seem similar to the Qumran sectarians. The Qumran sectarians believed that God determines the fate of people (1QS 3:13–4:26). Although the sectarians believed in the immortality of the soul as well as divine reward and punishment, this does not seem to be emphasized in their writings.
Zealots
Scholars tend to use “Zealots” as a general term to refer to three different groups mentioned by Josephus: brigands, Sicarii, and Zealots. The three groups have different political ideologies and emerged at different times in the first century. They can all be described as revolutionaries.
The brigands were motivated not by religious or political ideology but by survival. Displaced from the traditional economic structure of Palestine—the agricultural village—by the Romans, the brigands stole from Jew and Roman alike. They hated the Romans because the Romans had driven them into poverty through taxation and transformation of the economy from subsistence-based agriculture to cash crops that could be sold more readily. (Money could be shipped to Rome more easily than crops.)
The other two groups, the Sicarii and the Zealots, fought the Romans and Jewish collaborators for political and religious reasons. They emerged at different times during the first century, and they should not be lumped together, for their methodologies and goals were somewhat different.
Josephus writes about what he calls the “fourth philosophy,” which he considers an alien element introduced into the religion and politics of Israel, begun in AD 6 by Judas the Galilean and Zadok the Pharisee. Their slogan was “No king but God,” and they engaged in a short-lived rebellion. It seems unclear whether the fourth philosophy should be a category that includes the brigands, the Sicarii, and the Zealots, or whether it is a group unto itself. Whatever the case, Josephus makes clear that this fourth philosophy is an anomaly in the history of Israel.
The Sicarii were a group of assassins who emerged in the AD 40s–50s. They specialized in mixing into Jerusalem crowds and murdering Jews who were friendly with the Romans, mainly the wealthy. The high priest Jonathan was one of their victims. At the start of the first Roman war, they commanded Jewish troops but were driven out by fellow Jews. They spent the rest of the war at Masada, conducting inconsequential exploits. They killed themselves in AD 73–74 rather than be captured by the Romans. Josephus writes that the leader of the Sicarii at the beginning of the first Roman war was Menahem, the son or grandson of Judas of Galilee. It has been speculated that Judas Iscariot’s surname may be derived from Sicarii, but the etymology is uncertain.
The Zealots emerged at the start of the first Roman war (AD 66–70). Josephus mentions them mainly in connection with the Roman war and seldom in other sections of his writings. They consisted mainly of people displaced by Roman activity in Galilee. They targeted the aristocracy that collaborated with Rome, the Romans themselves, and other revolutionary groups. One of Jesus’ disciples was called “Simon the Zealot” (Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13), but this is likely a reference to his zealous faith.
The first Roman war erupted when the Roman procurator Florus looted the temple. When nothing was done concerning this, the lower priests, the captain of the temple guard, Eleazar, and other revolutionary leaders decided to terminate the temple sacrifice made on the emperor’s behalf. This essentially started the Roman war and gave rise to the Zealots.
Herodians
The Herodians are mentioned three times in the Gospels. They are reported to have plotted, along with the Pharisees, to kill Jesus after he healed a man with a withered hand (Mark 3:6). They are also described, along with the Pharisees, as trying to trap Jesus concerning the lawfulness of paying taxes to Caesar (Matt. 22:16; Mark 12:13).
The Herodians were aristocrats who supported the Herodian dynasty and the Romans, whose support made that dynasty possible. There seems to be some overlap between the Herodians and the Sadducees; Mark 8:15 has Jesus warning his disciples concerning the leaven of the Pharisees and the leaven of Herod (some ancient witnesses read “Herodians”), whereas the parallel in Matt. 16:6, 11 has Jesus warning his disciples concerning the Pharisees and the Sadducees. Their religious beliefs may have been similar to those of the Sadducees. Too little information about them exists to permit drawing strong conclusions. One can safely say, however, that the Herodians were pro-Roman aristocrats who joined forces with the anti-Roman Pharisees in opposing Jesus.
In the NT, “Jews” (Ioudaioi) is an ethnic and religious term to describe the people of Judah. In Jesus’ day, Jews were distinguished from Samaritans (John 4:9, 22). Gradually the term began to be used more in a religious than in an ethnic sense, and it has come to represent the descendants from Abraham as a whole and religious converts who regard the Mosaic law and customs as the inalienable religious foundation for faith and practices (Mark 7:3; John 2:6).
The Gospels
In the Synoptic Gospels the term “Jews” is used largely in the phrase “the king of the Jews” with reference to Jesus (Matt. 2:2; 27:11, 29; Mark 15:2, 9, 12, 18; Luke 23:3, 37). Born as the king of the Jews, Jesus claimed to have come to fulfill the law of Moses instead of abolishing it (Matt. 5:17). He emphasized the importance of practicing the law in obedience (Matt. 7:24–27), and he rebuked the Pharisees and the scribes for teaching the law without carrying it out (Matt. 23). They opposed him, not only because they rejected his claim to be the Messiah, but also because they viewed his teaching and practices as destabilizing their religious status quo (Matt. 12:1–8; John 5:10; 11:48).
The Jews are represented in the Gospels by both the upper class (e.g., Pharisees, Sadducees, scribes, chief priests) and the lower classes (the crowds). Usually the religious upper class would not accept Jesus’ teaching and challenged him by asking questions or denying his authority (Matt. 15:1; 16:1). The crowds generally accepted Jesus’ teaching and experienced his power to heal and other benefits. The Synoptic account of the opposition by the upper class is contrasted with the widespread opposition to Jesus by the “Jews” in general in John’s Gospel. But Matthew and Luke also highlight Jesus’ lament of the unrepentant Jewish cities (Matt. 11:20–24; Luke 10:12–15), indicating that resistance to Jesus’ teaching was a common phenomenon among the Jews.
Jesus responded to the unbelieving Jews with strong rebuke and condemnation (Matt. 12:30–32; 21:33–46). When Jesus healed a servant of a Roman centurion and marveled at the amazing faith of this Gentile (8:5–13), Jesus predicted that “the subjects of the kingdom will be thrown outside, into the darkness” because of unbelief, whereas the Gentiles will come to eat with Abraham in the kingdom of heaven (8:11–12). In spite of the unbelief of the Jews, the privilege to hear the gospel was given to them first. Jesus sent out the twelve disciples, instructing them that they should not go anywhere among the Gentiles or enter the towns of the Samaritans, but instead go “to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 10:6 [cf. Rom. 1:16]).
The term “Jews” occurs only four times in the Synoptics outside the phrase “king of the Jews,” but seventy-one times in the Gospel of John. John uses the term especially as a technical one for those Jews who were hostile to Jesus and his followers. Whereas the Synoptics focus on the Jewish leaders’ rejection of Jesus’ messianic actions, John focuses on their rejection of his teaching that he is the Son of God in unique relationship with the Father. Jesus in John is not only the “one and only” (monogenēs) of God (1:18), but also the fulfiller of what the temple signifies and all the Jewish tradition and customs represent. John thus describes the Jewish opposition to Jesus as much more widespread and intense than that in the Synoptics, presenting the Jews as opposing Jesus’ teaching because of their loyalty to Jewish tradition (5:15–18; 6:41; 7:1–2, 13; 8:31–57; 9:22; 10:31–33; 19:7–12, 38; 20:19).
Acts and the Pauline Letters
In the book of Acts the term “Jews” (eighty-one occurrences) is used especially with reference to the Jewish people who oppose Paul’s law-free gospel (9:23; 13:45, 50; 14:2, 4; 17:5; 18:12, 14; 20:3; 21:11; 22:30; 23:12; 24:9).
In his letters, Paul refers to “Jews” primarily in an ethnic and religious sense without connoting that they have theological antagonism against the gospel. The Jews are thus contrasted with the Gentiles in that they are “the people of Israel”: “Theirs is the adoption to sonship; theirs the divine glory, the covenants, the receiving of the law, the temple worship and the promises” (Rom. 9:4). While Paul acknowledges the continuity of Jewish identity through their lineage from Abraham, he distinguishes true Jews from false Jews in terms of Jesus’ accomplishment of redemption. Paul says, “A person is a Jew who is one inwardly; and circumcision is circumcision of the heart, by the Spirit, not by the written code” (2:29). This distinction of true Jews from false Jews resonates with his distinction of true Israel from false Israel (9:6). The redefinition of the group of spiritual Israelites is the result of Jesus’ death and resurrection according to the OT prophecies. Those who believe in Jesus are reckoned as “children of Abraham” according to the gospel announced in Gen. 12:3 (Gal. 3:7–8).
Paul’s presentation of spiritual Jews is foreseen in Jesus’ statement that the Jews who do not believe in him are not Abraham’s children but rather the children of the devil (John 8:30–44). In 1 John the children of God are defined in terms of love rather than ethnic lineage (3:10). According to the book of Revelation, those “who say they are Jews” are not, but are a “synagogue of Satan” (2:9; 3:9). These passages show that salvation is obtained through faith in Jesus rather than through the ethnic lineage of Abraham and observances of the Mosaic law (Rom. 3:20–28).
These polemics against the Jews and Jewish law do not necessarily make the NT teachings anti-Semitic or anti-Judaic. What the NT polemicizes is neither the Jewish nation nor Judaism but rather the unbelief of the Jews who rejected Jesus, inasmuch as Jesus is the Messiah, who has come in flesh and fulfilled the prophecies of the OT.
A variant form of the name “Jaazaniah,” meaning “Yahweh heard,” which appears in the Hebrew text of Jer. 40:8 for “the son of the Maakathite,” which was corrected by the translators of the NIV to “Jaazaniah” based on 2 Kings 25:23. The name also occurs in the Hebrew text of Jer. 42:1 for “the son of Hoshaiah” and appears as “Jezaniah” in the NIV; the translators of the NRSV render it “Azariah” based on the LXX and the Hebrew text of Jer. 43:2.
The foreign-born wife of Ahab, a ninth-century BC king of Israel. Jezebel was the daughter of King Ethbaal of Sidon. She was a devout worshiper of the god Baal, whose religion she promoted in Israel after marrying Ahab. Many people were persuaded to add the worship of Baal to the worship of Yahweh, the true God of Israel. God raised up two prophets during this time, Elijah and Elisha, who resisted the encroachment of her false religion. Jezebel also pushed her too-willing husband to act like a despot rather than a servant of God toward his own people. First Kings 21 recounts that a landowner, Naboth, refused to sell his field to King Ahab. The refusal angered Ahab, but an Israelite king could not dispossess one of his subjects. Jezebel came from a different royal house, however, and she instructed Ahab how to unjustly acquire the field. Although they succeeded in falsely convicting Naboth of cursing God and the king and, after his execution, took his land, God sent Elijah to pronounce a curse against Ahab’s family, including Jezebel (“Dogs will devour Jezebel by the wall of Jezreel” [1 Kings 21:23]). Jezebel outlived her husband, but God’s judgment overtook her when a usurper, Jehu, killed her royal son and then pursued her. She was thrown out of a window, and dogs picked at her body (2 Kings 9:30–37).
Jezebel was evil and a worshiper of false gods. In the NT she became an exemplar of wickedness. Revelation 2:20 associates a woman prophet in Thyatira with Jezebel because she was leading the people astray by her teaching.
The third of Naphtali’s four sons (Gen. 46:24; 1 Chron. 7:13) and the ancestor of the Jezerite clan (Num. 26:49).
The third of Naphtali’s four sons (Gen. 46:24; 1 Chron. 7:13) and the ancestor of the Jezerite clan (Num. 26:49).
A priest and descendant of Parosh who disobeyed the word of God and married a foreign wife (Ezra 10:25; KJV: “Jeziah”).<
One of Saul’s kinsmen from the tribe of Benjamin who joined David when he was staying at Ziklag. He was a member of a company of ambidextrous warriors armed with bow and slingshot (1 Chron. 12:3).
The sixth of the seven sons of Elpaal, he was one of the family heads of the Benjamites who lived in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 8:18). The KJV transliterates the name as Jezliah; most English versions have Izliah.
(1) The father of Ephron the Hittite, who sold the cave of Machpelah to Abraham for the burial of Sarah (Gen. 23:8; 25:9). (2) The fifth of the six sons of Simeon, also known as “Zerah” (Gen. 46:10; Exod. 6:15). (3) According to a textual correction (Qere reading), a descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:7). The Kethib reading is “Izhar” (followed by the NRSV; KJV: “Jezoar”).
Jezrahiah led the choirs in joyful singing in the dedication ceremony for the rebuilt wall in Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. 12:42). Referring to a different individual from the tribe of Issachar, this Hebrew name is transliterated elsewhere as “Izrahiah” (1 Chron. 7:3).
(1) A fertile valley extending west from the northern city of Jezreel and possibly also east to the Jordan. This is the location of Gideon’s attack on the Midianites (Judg. 6:33). (2) A city in Issachar’s territory about eighteen miles southwest of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 19:18), which can be identified with modern Zerin/Yizra’al. This city, and probably the entire valley, was a part of the kingdom of Ish-Bosheth (2 Sam. 2:9). King Ahab had a palace in this city, and from that point on it appears to have been a political center of Israel. (3) An unidentified city in the territory of Judah (Josh. 15:56). It is uncertain whether David’s wife Ahinoam came from this city or the city in Issachar (1 Sam. 25:43). (4) The first of Etam’s three sons, a descendant of Judah (1 Chron. 4:3). (5) One of Hosea’s sons. The name initially points symbolically to the judgment on Jehu’s dynasty for his massacre in Jezreel (Hos. 1:4–5). In Hos. 2:22–23 this name is reinterpreted as a picture of restoration, playing both on the natural fertility of the Jezreel Valley and the meaning of “Jezreel,” “God sows.”
Someone who comes from Jezreel. Naboth (1 Kings 21:1) and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 25:43) are two Jezreelites.
A son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, with his wife Milkah (Gen. 22:22).
(1) The first son of Asher and the ancestor of the Imnites (Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:44; 1 Chron. 7:30). (2) The Levite father of Kore, who was keeper of the East Gate of Jerusalem and appointed by Hezekiah and Azariah to manage freewill offerings to God (2 Chron. 31:14).
(1) The first son of Asher and the ancestor of the Imnites (Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:44; 1 Chron. 7:30). (2) The Levite father of Kore, who was keeper of the East Gate of Jerusalem and appointed by Hezekiah and Azariah to manage freewill offerings to God (2 Chron. 31:14).
(1) The first son of Asher and the ancestor of the Imnites (Gen. 46:17; Num. 26:44; 1 Chron. 7:30). (2) The Levite father of Kore, who was keeper of the East Gate of Jerusalem and appointed by Hezekiah and Azariah to manage freewill offerings to God (2 Chron. 31:14).
A valley on the northern border of the tribe of Zebulun (Josh. 19:14, 27).
One of the towns allotted to Judah under Joshua (Josh. 15:43). Its exact location is uncertain, though it lay in the “western foothills” (the Shephelah) of Judah (15:33). A proposed identification is Tarqumiya, located about six miles northwest of Hebron.
A valley on the northern border of the tribe of Zebulun (Josh. 19:14, 27).
A valley on the northern border of the tribe of Zebulun (Josh. 19:14, 27).
(1) A son of Asher, he immigrated to Egypt at the time of Jacob and Joseph (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:30). He is named as the ancestor of a clan of the tribe of Asher at the time of the second census in the wilderness (Num. 26:44). (2) One of the sons of Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49).
(1) The eldest son of Gideon, as a youth he fearfully disobeyed his father’s command to kill two kings of Midian (Judg. 8:20). (2) The father of Amasa, a military commander under David who was killed by another military commander, Joab (2 Sam. 17:25 [here called “Ithra”; see NIV mg.]; 1 Kings 2:5, 32). (3) A son of Jada and a descendant of Jerahmeel who died childless (1 Chron. 2:32). (4) The first of Ezrah’s four sons, from the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:17). (5) A descendant in the tribe of Asher (1 Chron. 7:38). (6) In 1 Chron. 7:37 “Ithran” is sometimes understood to be another name for “Jether.”
(1) The third of Dishon’s four sons and a grandson of Seir, he was a Horite chief in Edom (Gen. 36:26; 1 Chron. 1:41). The Horites were later displaced and destroyed by the descendants of Esau (Deut. 2:12). (2) The tenth of Zophah’s eleven sons, he was among the brave warriors of Asher (1 Chron. 7:37). Here, “Ithran” may be a variant of “Jether.” See also Jether.
The sixth of the seven sons of Elpaal, he was one of the family heads of the Benjamites who lived in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 8:18). The KJV transliterates the name as Jezliah; most English versions have Izliah.
A son of Jeduthun and leader of the fourth division of temple musicians, who served under the supervision of Asaph, Jeduthun, and Heman (1 Chron. 25:11). See also Zeri.
A nephew of King David through his sister Zeruiah (1 Chron. 2:16–17). His brothers were Abishai and Asahel, and his cousin was Amasa, all of whom were important military commanders. Joab himself was the most famous military leader of them all. He became the leader of David’s army after he was the first to take up David’s challenge to defeat the Jebusite city of Jerusalem (1 Chron. 11:4–9).
Joab won many impressive battles for David (2 Sam. 2:12–32; 10:1–19). He often served the interests of David, even trying to persuade David not to take a census that he knew would provoke God’s anger (2 Sam. 24:1–9; 1 Chron. 21:1–6). On some occasions he gave David bad advice, for instance, counseling him to take Absalom back into the court (2 Sam. 14:1–33). However, he sometimes acted in his own interests, and not those of his king, country, or God. He killed Abner, the commander of the northern army, in revenge (2 Sam. 3:22–39) and even murdered his own cousin Amasa (2 Sam. 20:7–13).
Joab met his end when he supported Adonijah’s attempt to succeed David. When David’s choice, Solomon, became king, he sent Benaiah to kill Adonijah. When news of Adonijah’s death reached Joab, he fled to the tabernacle and took hold of the horns of the altar (1 Kings 1:50). Solomon ordered Benaiah to kill Joab, and he did so in the tabernacle because Joab refused to come out (1 Kings 2:29–31, 34).
(1) The son of Asaph, he was a recorder during the siege of Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:18, 26, 37; Isa. 36:3, 11, 22). (2) A Gershonite Levite, son of Zimmah (1 Chron. 6:21), who with his son Eden was charged by Hezekiah to consecrate the temple (2 Chron. 29:12). (3) A Korahite Levite, son of Obed-Edom, and gatekeeper during the time of David (1 Chron. 26:4). (4) The son of Joahaz the recorder, he was sent by Josiah to repair the temple (2 Chron. 34:8).
The recorder for King Josiah. Joah, his son, helped repair the temple (2 Chron. 34:8).
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:27 as grandson of Zerubbabel, son of Rhesa, and father of Joda.
The wife of Chuza, the manager of Herod Antipas’s household. Joanna was cured by Jesus of either illness or demon possession, and she was among the women who traveled with Jesus during his ministry and provided support for him (Luke 8:1–3). Joanna likely witnessed Jesus’ crucifixion (23:49) and observed the location of Jesus’ tomb (23:55). Upon returning to anoint Jesus’ body, Joanna received the message of his resurrection and went with the women to tell the other disciples (24:9–11).
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:27 as grandson of Zerubbabel, son of Rhesa, and father of Joda.
(1) Ahaziah’s son and a king of Judah (2 Kings 11–12; 2 Chron. 22:10–24:27). He is described as the only surviving descendant of Ahaziah (and the line of David) after Athaliah’s (Jehoram’s wife and Joash’s grandmother) purge of the royal line. The priest Jehoiada protected Joash in the temple until he was seven years old, at which time Jehoiada was able to organize a rebellion against Athaliah and place Joash on the throne. Joash is given a favorable description largely due to his allegiance to the temple (as evidenced by his renovation of the temple) and the priesthood. According to the Chronicler, Joash strayed away from God after Jehoiada’s death. By the time of the end of his reign, Joash was so politically weak that he was assassinated by some of his own servants.
(2) A variation of “Jehoash” (Jehoahaz’s son and a king of Israel) in 2 Chron. 25:17–24 (KJV, ESV, NRSV). (See Jehoash.) (3) An Abi-ez-rite who lived at Ophrah and was the father of Gideon. He refused to hand over Gideon to an angry crowd after Gideon desecrated Baal’s altar (Judg. 6:11–31). (4) Along with Amon, this individual was entrusted with custody of the prophet Micaiah, whom King Ahab ordered into prison. He may be Ahab’s son who is not mentioned elsewhere, or he may be the later son of Jehoahaz (1 Kings 22:26).
(5) A descendant of Shelah who ruled in Moab and Jashubi Lehem (1 Chron. 4:22). (6) The second of nine sons of Beker, descendant of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:8). (7) A son of Shemaah, he was one of the Benjamite warriors who supported David when he was banished from Saul’s court (1 Chron. 12:3). (8) One of David’s officials, he oversaw the supplies of olive oil (1 Chron. 27:28).
(1) The youngest son of Gideon (Jerub-Baal). After Gideon’s death, Abimelek, who was his son through his concubine from Shechem, sought to gain control of Israel by executing Gideon’s seventy other sons and Abimelek’s rival heirs. Jotham alone escaped, by hiding. Even as the Shechemites were pronouncing Abimelek king, Jotham emerged atop Mount Gerizim and delivered a message of warning and judgment to the people of Shechem in the form of a parable of trees and a thornbush. His message, though unheeded, was vindicated three years later as God brought judgment on the people of Shechem (Judg. 9:5–57). (2) Son of King Azariah (Uzziah) and his successor to the throne of Judah. He reigned sixteen years and did “right in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kings 15:34). It was during Jotham’s reign that Tiglath-pileser III (r. 744–727 BC), king of Babylon, rose to prominence. (3) The second of Jahdai’s six sons, a Judahite of the clan of Caleb the son of Hezron (1 Chron. 2:47).
Job is the main character of the book that bears his name. In 1:1 the reader learns that he is from Uz, most likely a site outside the promised land in the Transjordan region, known during most of the OT period as Edom. Job’s wealth is described in terms of the number of sheep and cattle that he owns, likely placing him in the period of time during or before the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
Job is described as a “blameless and upright” man who “feared God and shunned evil” (1:1). In other words, he is the paragon of a wise person whose character is described in the book of Proverbs. Because of his virtue, he has expected to continue to receive the rewards that had led to his large, happy family and wealth. However, the book tells the story of his great suffering and loss brought on not because of anything he has done, but rather by the sovereign decision of God. Job has three friends who assail him and dialogue with him after he laments his sorry fate (chaps. 3–31). They are convinced that his suffering is a result of sin; Job, on the other hand, believes that God has made a mistake. The three friends urge him to repent and be restored, while Job himself demands an audience with God in order to set him straight (31:35–37). God finally appears to Job, but rather than Job setting God straight, God puts Job in his place. God never tells Job why he has suffered; he simply asserts his own great wisdom and power. Job then rightly repents, not of any sins that have caused his suffering, but of his growing irritation with God (40:3–5; 42:1–6). God responds by commending Job and restoring his good fortune.
Job is rarely mentioned outside the book that bears his name. He, along with Noah and Daniel, are cited as examples of righteousness, though even their presence would not have saved the city of Jerusalem from God’s judgment for its sins (Ezek. 14:14, 20). The Letter of James cites Job as an example of perseverance (James 5:11 [not “patience,” as in many older translations]).
(1) A son of Joktan in the line of Shem (Gen. 10:29; 1 Chron. 1:23). (2) The son of Zerah, he was a king of Edom, successor to Bela (Gen. 36:33–34; 1 Chron. 1:44–45). (3) A king of Madon who joined forces with other Canaanite kings to fight the Israelites led by Joshua and was subsequently defeated (Josh. 11:1). (4) A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the first of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:9). (5) The last of the seven sons of Elpaal of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:18).
The wife of Amram and the mother of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Exod. 6:20; Num. 26:59). She is not mentioned by name in the narrative in Exod. 2, where she puts the infant Moses in a basket and floats him down the Nile. By God’s providence and the actions of Miriam, Moses’ sister, Jochebed becomes the paid nursemaid for her son after he is rescued by Pharaoh’s daughter. Jochebed and her husband are listed as examples of faith in Heb. 11:23.
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:26 as a son of Joanan and father of Josek.
An ancestor of Sallu, a man who lived in Jerusalem during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 11:7).
(1) The prophet Samuel’s firstborn son, who, with his brother, Abijah, was appointed as a judge by their father but perverted justice and accepted bribes, thus prompting the Israelites to ask Samuel for a king (1 Sam. 8:1–5; 1 Chron. 6:28, 33). (2) A Simeonite clan leader (1 Chron. 4:35). (3) A Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:4, 8), though there is some question as to whether the Joel of v. 8 is the same as that of v. 4. (4) A chief of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:12). (5) One of Samuel’s Levite ancestors (1 Chron. 6:36). (6) A chief of the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:3). (7) One of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:38). (8) A Levite and Gershonite who was part of the company appointed by David to bring the ark of the covenant up to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:7, 11, 17). (9) A Levite and Gershonite appointed for temple service who, with his brother Zetham, is put in charge of the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 23:8; 26:22). He may be the same Joel as in 1 Chron. 15:7, 11, 17. (10) A chief over half the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 27:20). (11) A Levite involved in the purification of the temple during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chron. 29:12). (12) One of the men in postexilic Judah who had married foreign wives and, at Ezra’s prompting, pledged to put them away (Ezra 10:43). (13) A Benjamite overseer during the days of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:9). (14) The prophet Joel, son of Pethuel (Joel 1:1).
The son of Jeroham and brother of Zebadiah, from Gedor. He was one of the ambidextrous soldiers from the tribe of Benjamin (Saul’s tribe) who joined David at Ziklag during the period when he was banished from Saul’s presence (1 Chron. 12:7).
A Korahite who joined David during his time as a fugitive from Saul (1 Chron. 12:6).
A town in Gilead allocated by Moses to the tribe of Gad and subsequently fortified (Num. 32:35). It is also mentioned in connection with Gideon’s successful pursuit of the Midianites (Judg. 8:11). The site is possibly Jubeihat, about six miles northwest of Amman.
The father of Bukki, a Danite leader chosen by Moses to help divide the land (Num. 34:22).
(1) A Benjamite and son of Beriah (1 Chron. 8:16). (2) One of David’s elite soldiers, a man from Tiz (1 Chron. 11:45).
(1) An army officer who survived the conquest of Judah by King Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 25:23). In Jeremiah he plays a significant role among the remnant of Jews who were not carried off into exile. Loyal to Gedaliah, who was appointed by the Babylonians as administrator of Judah in 587 BC (Jer. 40:8), Johanan unsuccessfully warned him of an assassination plot by Ishmael (Jer. 40:13–16; 41:1–3). Having saved a group of Jews from further treachery by Ishmael, Johanan subsequently became their leader (Jer. 41:11–18). He and the rescued Jews, however, refused to obey the word of God that came through Jeremiah to remain in the land and instead went down into Egypt, forcibly taking Jeremiah with them (Jer. 42:1–43:7).
(2) The firstborn son of King Josiah, he perhaps died prematurely, since he did not succeed his father (1 Chron. 3:15). (3) The fifth son of Elioenai, listed as a descendant of David (1 Chron. 3:24). (4) A priest who served in Solomon’s temple (1 Chron. 6:9–10). (5) One of several Benjamite soldiers who joined David at Ziklag after he went there to escape Saul. These soldiers were noted for their loyalty to David (coming from the same tribe as Saul) and ambidextrous use of weaponry (1 Chron. 12:4). (6) The eighth of eleven Gadite army commanders who were loyal to David when he was banished by Saul (1 Chron. 12:12). These soldiers were distinguished by their superior fighting qualities and remarkable feats of bravery and strength (1 Chron. 12:8, 14–15). (7) One of the Jewish family heads who returned from exile with Ezra, he brought with him 110 people (Ezra 8:12). (8) A postexilic high priest descended from Eliashib mentioned in connection with the official registration of priests (Neh. 12:22–23).
A common name in first-century Judaism. The Greek name Iōannēs comes from the Hebrew name “Yohanan.” (1) The father of Mattathias and grandfather of Judas Maccabeus (1 Macc. 2:1), he was a priest in the line of Joarib. He is possibly the Jehoiarib mentioned in 1 Chron. 9:10; 24:7. (2) The Baptist or Baptizer, he was the son of the priest Zechariah and Elizabeth. (See John the Baptist.) (3) The son of Zebedee, he was an apostle originally belonging to the inner circle of the twelve main disciples of Jesus. (See John the Apostle.) (4) The father of Peter the apostle (John 1:42; 21:15–17). The Gospel of Matthew identifies Peter’s father as Jonah, a variant of “John” (16:17). (5) A relative of the high priest Annas (Acts 4:6). (6) John Mark, a cousin of Barnabas (Col. 4:10) and the son of Mary (Acts 12:12). (See Mark, John.) (7) The elder. Both 2 John and 3 John claim authorship by “the elder” (2 John 1; 3 John 1). Traditionally, all three Johannine Letters, the Gospel of John, and sometimes the Revelation of John have been attributed to John the apostle. However, modern scholarship often attributes 2 John and 3 John, and sometimes 1 John, to “the elder”—John the elder. (8) The seer, the author of the book of Revelation (see 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8). Some scholars ascribe the authorship of Revelation to John the apostle, in line with the view of the church father Irenaeus. Other scholars ascribe the writing of Revelation to a certain John the elder. The book of Revelation does not further identify the author. However, the author is among the prophets, a seer, and his name is “John”—hence, John the seer.
Patristic evidence identifies John Mark (Mark) as the author of the second Gospel. The house of Mark’s mother, Mary, served as a place for early Christians in Jerusalem to meet and pray (Acts 12:12). Mark followed his cousin Barnabas from Jerusalem to Antioch and joined Barnabas and Paul on their first missionary journey (Acts 13:5), working with them in Cyprus. When they left for the mainland of Asia Minor, Mark returned to Jerusalem (Acts 13:13). Later, when Paul and Barnabas wished to return to the churches that they had established, Barnabas wanted to take Mark again, but Paul objected because of Mark’s prior desertion (Acts 15:38). Paul and Barnabas differed so markedly on this point that they parted ways, with Bar-na-bas and Mark going to work in Cyprus, while Paul and Silas traveled elsewhere. The NT tells nothing more of Mark for ten years. The former disagreement apparently was resolved, for Mark was later present with Paul in Rome and received Paul’s recommendation to the Colossian church (Col. 4:10). Paul also speaks positively of Mark’s use in ministry (2 Tim. 4:11). It is quite likely that Mark was associated with Peter during this same period in Rome (1 Pet. 5:13).
John, along with his brother James, was a son of Zebedee and a fisherman, and a disciple of Jesus. He was first called to be a disciple when Jesus passed along the shore of Galilee (Matt. 4:21; Mark 1:19–20; Luke 5:10). The fishing boat belonging to John’s family contained hired men, indicating that he left behind a profitable fishing trade (Mark 1:20). Jesus surnamed John and his brother James “Boanerges,” meaning “sons of thunder” (Mark 3:17), likely a reflection of their boisterous temperament.
John’s passionate temperament may be reflected in the Gospels in his attempt to confront potential opposition (Mark 9:38–41; Luke 9:49–50) and his desire to bring heavenly fire down upon those who rejected Jesus (Luke 9:54). James and John requested seats of honor in Jesus’ kingdom (Mark 10:37–40). Matthew clarified this event by naming James and John’s mother as the one voicing the request, something befitting the cultural setting (Matt. 20:20–22). As part of Jesus’ inner group of disciples, along with James and Peter, John was allowed to witness Jesus’ actions on certain critical occasions: raising a child from the dead (Mark 5:37–43), his transfiguration (Matt. 17:1–2; Mark 9:2; Luke 9:28–30), and his agony in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–38; Mark 14:32–34; Luke 22:39–40).
In its account of Jesus’ passion, the Gospel of John highlights the actions of an unnamed disciple “whom Jesus loved.” John is the likeliest candidate. This disciple leaned on Jesus at the final supper (John 13:23), was given care of Jesus’ mother (19:26), arrived first at the empty tomb (20:2–4), first recognized the resurrected Jesus (21:7), was prophesied to live a long life (21:23), and was an eyewitness of events in the Gospel (21:24).
John was among the disciples who stayed in Jerusalem in the upper room prior to Pentecost (Acts 1:13–14). John next was seen after Pentecost with Peter in accounts of the healing of a crippled beggar (3:1–11) and the two of them being arrested for proclaiming the gospel (4:1–23).
John is said to have authored the Fourth Gospel (John 21:20–24). The Gospel of John was written with a purpose stated explicitly by its author: “That you may believe that Jesus is the Messiah, the Son of God, and that by believing you may have life in his name” (20:31). This “believing” encapsulates several key convictions that the author sought to convey. First, Jesus is one with God as preexistent and operative in creation (1:1–4, 10, 18). Second, Jesus is the messianic Savior to God’s chosen people (1:41; 11:27) and all humankind (4:42). In the Johannine Gospel, salvation is conceived in God’s love (3:16), formalized by the sacrifice of his Son (1:29; 3:16), and received by those holding orthodox belief in Jesus’ divine identity (8:24) and origin (12:44; 17:21). Finally, believing includes the conviction that Jesus is one with God, expressed through sonship (1:19–2:11). In the Johannine Gospel, sonship is conveyed literarily and buttresses the certainty that Jesus is sufficient to provide eternal life. Messianic realities mingled with sonship distinguish Jesus as the ultimate revelation of God, thus complementing, while subordinating, previous Jewish religious convictions. In addition to the Gospel of John, tradition attributes the Johannine Letters and, in some cases, the Revelation of John to the apostle John.
John the apostle is understood in his older days to have been a member of a community with disciples of his own, commonly known as the Johannine Community. Within this community the teachings of John about Jesus were preserved and written down. In addition, his correspondence was preserved—1 John, 2 John, and 3 John.
A Jewish prophet at the time of Jesus, he was the son of priestly parents (Zechariah and Elizabeth), executed by Herod Antipas, and identified as “John” (a common Jewish name), often with the title “the Baptist” or “the Baptizer,” the latter possibly being the older title.
Our primary sources on John the Baptist are the canonical Gospels, Josephus (Ant. 18.116–19), and Acts. Both Jewish and Christian sources note John’s message of the kingdom, call to baptism, and popularity. Josephus and the Gospels can speak of him without introduction. In the Gospels, only Jesus is a more prominent character. It is possible that the typical peasant was more familiar with John than with Jesus, at least until after Pentecost.
The Gospels, particularly Luke, parallel the stories of John and Jesus. Both had an annunciation, a miraculous birth accompanied by praise, and a martyr’s death. Both gathered disciples, announced the kingdom, denounced the Jewish leadership, and practiced baptism. It is easy to see how some on the periphery confused the characters (Mark 8:28).
Ministry
Dressed in a prophet’s garment of camel’s hair (Matt. 3:4; cf. 2 Kings 1:8; Zech. 13:4), the Baptist is noted for emerging from the wilderness and preaching near the Jordan. He called all listeners to repent to prepare Israel for the coming covenant of the Spirit. He and his message were well known, disconcerting Jerusalem’s powerful elite (Mark 11:32) and enthralling the masses (Matt. 3:5–6).
John the Baptist unwaveringly maintained that he was sent to introduce the Son (or Chosen One) of God, who would baptize with the Holy Spirit (John 1:33–34; cf. Matt. 3:11–12 pars.). This one was not named, but the Baptist was told how he would know him: “The man on whom you see the Spirit come down and remain is the one” (John 1:33). Thus, the Baptist could claim, “I myself did not know him” (John 1:31), more likely meaning that the Baptist did not know Jesus was the one until the Spirit descended on him (1:32). It is less likely that John meant that he had not met his cousin previously (Luke 1:39–45). Jesus accepts (and validates) the Baptist’s proclamation both at the beginning of his ministry (Mark 1:9) and again later (Luke 16:16; John 5:35; 10:41).
After his imprisonment, the Baptist seems less certain of his earlier identification of Jesus as the coming one (Matt. 11:2–3). It should also be noted that John had not disbanded his disciples. After his death, some continued to preach his baptism of repentance as far away as in Ephesus (Acts 18:24–26; 19:1–7). Similarly, Jesus’ last description of the Baptist is ambiguous. It is guarded but still complimentary (John 5:32–36; 10:41) and even lofty: “Among those born of women there has not arisen anyone greater than John the Baptist”; however, Jesus’ next statement could be interpreted to mean that the Baptist was not yet part of the coming kingdom: “Yet whoever is least in the kingdom of heaven is greater than he” (Matt. 11:11). Like everyone else, John was confused by Jesus’ preaching ministry. Jesus was not acting like the Messiah they were expecting (Luke 7:18–20). The Gospels offer no final verdict on the Baptist.
Message
Like Isaiah, the Baptist’s message of restoration of the kingdom meant comfort and hope for those preparing for its arrival (Isa. 40; Mark 1:2–6) and judgment for those unprepared (Isa. 41; Matt. 3:7–10; Luke 3:7–9). The return of the kingdom was by a new covenant, marked by the Spirit (Mark 1:2–8). Cleansing with water is connected to replacing the old covenant (etched in stone) with the new (imbedded in hearts with the Spirit) by the prophets (Ezek. 36:24–28; Jer. 31), by the Baptist (John 1:31–33), by Jesus (John 3:5), and by early Christians (2 Cor. 3; Heb. 9–10). Preparing (Matt. 3:3) meant repenting and living in piety and justice as a member of the kingdom (Luke 3:10–14). This commitment of renewed faithfulness was marked by one’s own (ethical) cleansing, symbolized in baptism. While ritual lustrations were somewhat common for initiation or membership in a group, John the Baptist called all who would devote themselves to God to repent, confess their sins, and be baptized (Mark 1:4–5).
The Synoptic Gospels portray Jesus and John as allies in announcing the kingdom. It has been argued that the Fourth Gospel has an anti-Baptist polemic. Because of historical elements (in Ephesus?), it may be more accurate to say that the Fourth Gospel strives to clarify the Baptist’s place in salvation history. He is subordinate to Jesus by divine design (John 1–5) and by deed (John 10:41). He was the Elijah who was to come before the Christ (Matt. 11:14).
(1) The son of Paseah, he repaired the Jeshanah (or Old) Gate in the walls of Jerusalem under the direction of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:6 [KJV: “Jehoiada”]). (2) A postexilic high priest and son of Eliashib (Neh. 12:10, 11, 22). An unnamed son of Joiada married the daughter of Sanballat (a notorious opponent to rebuilding Jerusalem), which was a flagrant breach of the law against mixed marriage. He was subsequently banished by Nehemiah (13:28). See also Jehoiada.
(1) One of nine Jewish men, distinguished for their learning, sent by Ezra to Iddo to procure Levites for service in the temple (Ezra 8:16). (2) A descendant of the tribe of Judah who volunteered to settle in Jerusalem after the return from the Babylonian exile (Neh. 11:5). (3) A priest who settled in Jerusalem after the exile (Neh. 11:10; 12:6, 19). See also Jehoiarib.
A town given by lot to the tribe of Judah at the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 15:56). The town is further identified by two literary markers: located geographically in the south central hill country of Judah, and grouped within an administrative district of ten towns headed by Maon (15:55). Its precise location is uncertain, but as far as is known, the other nine towns in the group are a few miles south of Hebron.
A descendant of Shelah, one of Judah’s sons (1 Chron. 4:22).
The city that guarded the westernmost of the three passes of the Via Maris, which cut through Mount Carmel (“Jokneam in Carmel” [Josh. 12:22]), situated where the pass opened onto the Jezreel Valley. A modern city and large military base continue to attest to the location’s importance. Excavations of the archaeological site have yielded twenty-seven levels, representing nearly 4,500 years of habitation at the site, starting as early as 3000 BC. After the Israelite conquest, Jokneam was allotted to the Merarite clans of the Levites (Josh. 21:34; 1 Chron. 6:77) within the tribal region of Zebulun (Josh. 19:10–11), though the site may have remained under Canaanite control. The excavated remains include a destruction attributed to the conquests of King David, followed by poor settlements and then two strongly fortified cities dating to the tenth through eighth centuries BC, during the divided kingdom.
The second of Abraham’s six sons with Keturah (Gen. 25:1–2), he was the ancestor of the Sabeans (descendants of Sheba) and the Dedanites (descendants of Dedan) (Gen. 25:3), who later lived in the city Raamah (Gen. 10:7).
A great-great-grandson of Noah’s son Shem, he was the son of Eber, the brother of Peleg, and the father of thirteen children (Gen. 10:25–30).
(1) A town in the western foothills (the Shephelah) of Judah given by lot at the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 15:38). (2) A town taken from the Edomites by King Amaziah, originally named “Sela” but renamed “Joktheel” after its capture (2 Kings 14:7).
A transliteration of Iōna, a Greek form of the Hebrew name “Jonah,” used in Matt. 16:17 for the father of Simon Peter, whom Jesus refers to as Bariōna (lit., “Bar-Jona,” or “son of Jona”). Some Greek manuscripts have Iōna at John 1:42 (KJV: “Simon the son of Jona”).
(1) The son of Shimeah, David’s brother. He devised the scheme that helped his cousin Amnon seduce and rape Tamar, Amnon’s half sister (2 Sam. 13:3–5). Later he advised David of Amnon’s death (2 Sam. 13:32–35). Here his name is spelled as both yonadab and yehonadab in Hebrew. (2) The son of Rekab, he instructed his descendants to become nomadic and not to engage in agriculture or drink wine (Jer. 35 [here spelled as both yonadab and yehonadab in Hebrew; NIV: “Jehonadab”]). Apparently, he is Jehonadab in 2 Kings 10, where he aids Jehu in the bloody purge of Ahab’s family and the extermination of Baal worshipers in Samaria. See also Jehonadab.
(1) The son of Amittai, he is most famous for being swallowed by a big fish (Jonah 1:1, 17). The book of Jonah is unique among the Minor Prophets because it is a narrative about Jonah the person rather than a collection of prophecies. Some scholars have speculated that the book of Nahum is actually his collection of prophecies. Outside of that book, almost nothing is known about him. Jesus famously alludes to Jonah being in the belly of the fish, speaking of it as a sign of his own death (Matt. 12:39–41; 16:4). (2) The father of Simon Peter (Matt. 16:17).
The son of Eliakim and the father of Joseph, he is an otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:30 (with the noted spelling variation in different manuscripts) as a descendant of David through Nathan.
The son of Eliakim and the father of Joseph, he is an otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:30 (with the noted spelling variation in different manuscripts) as a descendant of David through Nathan.
A transliteration of Iōna, a Greek form of the Hebrew name “Jonah,” used in Matt. 16:17 for the father of Simon Peter, whom Jesus refers to as Bariōna (lit., “Bar-Jona,” or “son of Jona”). Some Greek manuscripts have Iōna at John 1:42 (KJV: “Simon the son of Jona”).
This phrase (Heb. yonat ’elem rekhoqim), found only in the title of Ps. 56, has been variously understood. Most interpreters consider it the title of a song to which these words should be sung (cf. NIV). Very early interpreters connected this phrase with another part of the title that refers to David being seized by the Philistines. So the LXX translates it as “for the people far removed from the sanctuary.” Lacking a solution, some versions transliterate (KJV, NASB, NAB) or omit (TEV) the phrase.
(1) A priest who served the idolatrous shrine at Dan. According to the best textual traditions, he was a descendant of Moses, though the MT changes “Moses” to “Manasseh” out of embarrassment at the association (Judg. 18:30).
(2) The oldest son of Saul, the first king of Israel. As such, he would have been heir to the throne, but his father’s actions compromised the dynasty (1 Sam. 13:13–14). Jonathan’s great integrity throws into contrast his father’s meanness, particularly in regard to David. Jonathan’s military skill and bravery were notable. He led his father’s army in victory against the Philistine garrison at Geba (1 Sam. 13:1–7). Even though he was a loyal son, his paranoid father treated him poorly and even suspected him of collaborating with his enemy David (1 Sam. 20:30–33).
Although David and Jonathan were fast friends, they did not conspire against Saul, so Jonathan helped David escape his father’s murderous plans. Indeed, Jonathan expressed his deep love for David by handing over to him his robe, tunic, sword, bow, and belt, a gift that may even have indicated his belief that David, not he, should be the next king (1 Sam. 18:4). Even so, Jonathan stayed with his father until the end. Jonathan died at his father’s side as they fought the Philistines at Mount Gilboa (1 Sam. 31:1–3). David deeply mourned the loss of his dear friend, whose love was “more wonderful than that of women” (2 Sam. 1:26).
(3) The son of Abiathar, who was high priest at the time of David. Jonathan functioned as a spy for David during the rebellion of Absalom (2 Sam. 15:27, 36; 17:17, 20). He and his father sided with the Adonijah faction, so when Solomon became king, they were disenfranchised from the high priesthood in favor of Zadok (1 Kings 1:42–45).
(4) A nephew of David who killed an unnamed but fearsome Philistine warrior (2 Sam. 21:21; 1 Chron. 20:7). (5) One of David’s thirty mighty warriors (2 Sam. 23:32; 1 Chron. 11:34). (6) From the tribe of Judah, he was a descendant of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. 2:32–33). (7) The son of Uzziah, he was an official during David’s reign in charge of “storehouses in the outlying districts, in the towns, the villages and the watchtowers” (1 Chron. 27:25 [KJV: “Jehonathan”]). (8) David’s uncle, known as “a counselor, a man of insight and a scribe” (1 Chron. 27:32). (9) The father of Ebed, a family head who came to Jerusalem with Ezra (Ezra 8:6).
(10) The son of Asahel, he was one of four men who opposed Ezra’s mandate for men to separate from their foreign wives (Ezra 10:15). (11) A (high?) priest in the period after the exile (Neh. 12:11). (12) The head of a priestly family in the period after the exile (Neh. 12:14). (13) The father of Zechariah, a musician when the wall of Jerusalem was dedicated during the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 12:35). (14) A secretary during the administration of Zedekiah in whose home Jeremiah was imprisoned (Jer. 37:15, 20). (15) A son of Kareah who, with Johanan his brother, swore allegiance to Gedaliah, the governor of Judah appointed by Babylon and supported by Jeremiah (Jer. 40:8).
A seaport along the Mediterranean coast just south of the modern city of Tel Aviv that served the Israelites and others during the periods covered by both Testaments. As with most of the ports located along the Mediterranean south of Mount Carmel, Joppa (or Jaffa) offered only a relatively small place to harbor boats. The anchorage was formed by a series of large rocks that create a breakwater at the foot of a promontory that juts out into the Mediterranean. Despite its small size, the harbor at Joppa was the most important port in the region until Herod the Great completed Caesarea Maritima, around 10 BC, approximately thirty miles farther north.
Joppa’s importance is reflected in ancient historical sources, including the Bible. Egyptian and Assyrian texts describe the city’s conquest in the fifteenth and eighth centuries BC respectively. Joppa was located within the tribal allotment of Dan (Josh. 19:46) but probably did not come under Israelite control at least until the conquests of David. David’s son Solomon used Joppa to import materials from Phoenicia for the temple (2 Chron. 2:16); Jonah (1:3) boarded a ship at Joppa apparently heading to the western Mediterranean; the returnees from exile imported building materials through Joppa to rebuild the temple (Ezra 3:7)—all indicating the port’s continued importance from the time of the united monarchy through the postexilic periods. The Greeks colonized Joppa in the intertestamental period, and the Hasmoneans recaptured the port for the Jews in the second century BC.
The NT contains several references to Joppa (all in Acts), even after Caesarea had been completed and began to serve as the region’s primary port. The early Christian community was present in Joppa, as indicated by the stories of Peter raising Tabitha from the dead (Acts 9:36–43) and of Peter’s vision at the home of Simon the tanner in Joppa that led him to preach to Cornelius the centurion at Caesarea (Acts 10:1–11:18).
Joppa was destroyed during the revolt against Rome in the first century AD, but it continued as a port city under various governments, including Roman, Arab, Crusader, French, Turkish, and British. The British built a railway between Joppa and Jerusalem in 1892, the first in Palestine, to serve the tourists and pilgrims traveling to the Holy Land via Joppa.
Archaeological excavations at Joppa have yielded at least seven occupational levels, dating from the seventeenth century BC to the first century AD. Opportunities to excavate are limited by continued habitation at the site. Today Joppa forms a sort of historic, artistic suburb of Tel Aviv, and the port continues to service small boats.
The head of a clan that was part of the early return to Judah from Babylonian captivity sometime after 539 but before 520 BC (Ezra 2:18).
A leader from the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:13).
(1) King of Israel (r. 851–842 BC), Ahab and Jezebel’s son (2 Kings 3:1–3). His reign was troubled by the rebellion of Moab and Syria, two of his father’s vassal states. He was killed, along with Ahaziah king of Judah (r. 843–842 BC), in Jehu’s purge of the Omride dynasty (2 Kings 9:14–29). (2) The son of Tou (or Toi), king of Hamath during David’s reign in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 8:9–12). In the parallel account, 1 Chron. 18:9–10, he is called “Hadoram” (see also Hadoram). (3) One of the Levites in charge of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 26:25).
The Jordan River flows over one hundred miles and is the most important source of water for both Israel and Jordan today, as it was in biblical times. Scholars are divided over what the name means: some suggest it comes from the Hebrew root yrd (“to go down”) or from a combination of “Jor” (meaning “river”) and “Dan” the tribe; or perhaps it simply means “river.” Initially it was the dividing line between western Israel (Cisjordan) and the area of the eastern tribes (Transjordan).
The Jordan River begins at the base of Mount Hermon and descends about 2,380 feet to the Dead Sea. While the distance from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea is a little over seventy miles, the meandering path of the river measures longer than that distance. It has four different sources: the Hasbani and the Iyon (from Lebanon), and the Banias and the Dan (from the base of Mount Hermon). These merge and flow through the Great Rift Valley to empty into the Dead Sea. Initially the river is fast moving and falls to about seven hundred feet above sea level in twenty-five miles into the marshy area known as the Hulah Basin. After exiting the Hulah Basin, it drops to just under sea level in the Sea of Galilee in about eight miles. It then exits the Sea of Galilee and drops about six hundred feet as it meanders gradually through the Jordan Valley to empty into the Dead Sea about 150 feet below sea level. The depth of the Dead Sea reaches to about 1,378 feet below sea level, which makes it the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. Because this lake has no outlet, it has become a major source of salt and other minerals that remain after the water evaporates. The Dead Sea is the second saltiest lake in the world, with about 31 percent salt as well as high levels of potash, bromine, and magnesium.
Much wildlife can be found in and along the river. Of the thirty species of fish, sixteen are unique to it. Similarly, of the forty-five species of birds, twenty-three are found only here. The Jordan River has two major tributaries, the Yarmuk River and the Jabbok River, flowing from the Jordan highlands. For the last several years the water level of the Jordan has continued to decline for two reasons: lack of rainfall and human consumption (70 to 90 percent of its water is used by humans). Water rights have become a major source of contention between Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and the Palestinians. In 2007 the Jordan River was placed on a list of the one hundred most endangered rivers by an environmentalist group, the Friends of the Earth.
The Jordan River is referred to 197 times in the Bible, but few passages describe it. Genesis 13:10 mentions that the Jordan Valley was well watered and luxuriant. Most of the time it is mentioned as a crossing point (e.g., Gen. 32:10; Josh. 3:15–17; 2 Kings 2:8, 14) or as a demarcation or boundary between areas (e.g., Num. 34:15; Josh. 13:7; Judg. 7:24). Jephthah killed many Ephraimites at a major ford of the Jordan opposite Jericho (see Judg. 12:5–6). Elijah told Naaman to go wash in the Jordan River and he would be cleansed (2 Kings 5:14). In the NT, Jesus and others were baptized by John in the Jordan River (Matt. 3:13).
An otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:29 as the son of Matthat and the father of Eliezer.
The son of Raham, a descendant of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:44 [KJV: “Jorkoam”]). The text can also be understood as “Jorkeam founded by Raham,” in which case it is the name of a town of Judah, possibly a variant of “Jokdeam” (Josh. 15:56).
The son of Raham, a descendant of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:44 [KJV: “Jorkoam”]). The text can also be understood as “Jorkeam founded by Raham,” in which case it is the name of a town of Judah, possibly a variant of “Jokdeam” (Josh. 15:56).
(1) A royal official who, with Jeho-za-bad, assassinated King Joash of Judah (2 Kings 12:21). (See also Jozacar, Jozachar.) (2) From Ge-de-rah, he was one of the Benjamite soldiers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:4). (3) Two warriors of Manasseh described as leaders of units of a thousand soldiers (1 Chron. 12:20). They defended David against bands of raiders. (4) A Levite appointed by King Hezekiah who helped keep tally of the offerings given for the work of the temple (2 Chron. 31:13). (5) A leading Levite who donated offerings to King Josiah for the Passover celebration (2 Chron. 35:9). (6) A descendant of Pashhur guilty of intermarriage (Ezra 10:22). (7) The son of Jeshua, he was a Levite who helped make an inventory of the freewill offerings brought by Ezra from Babylon for the temple (Ezra 8:33). (8) A Levite guilty of intermarriage (Ezra 10:23). (9) One of the thirteen Levites who helped interpret and teach while Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God to the returned exiles (Neh. 8:7). (10) A prominent Levite who helped supervise the rebuilding of the temple after the exile (Neh. 11:16). He may be the same individual as in Neh. 8:7.
(1) The son of Ahilud, he was an official, a recorder, during the time of David and Solomon (2 Sam. 8:16; 20:24; 1 Kings 4:3). (2) The son of Paruah, he was an official in Issachar responsible for supplying Solomon’s palace (1 Kings 4:17).
(3) The fourth king of Judah (r. 867–846 BC), coming to the throne on the death of his father, Asa (1 Kings 22:1–50; 2 Kings 3:1–27; 2 Chron. 17:1–21:1). He was a good king who loved God, but not a perfect king. He removed most, but not all, forms of false worship from the land of Judah. He entered into a formal treaty with King Ahab of Israel and sealed it with a marriage between his son Jehoram and Athaliah daughter of Ahab. From a religious point of view, this alliance was not healthy, because although Jehoshaphat remained faithful, his son came under the influence of the Baal worship favored by Ahab and his family. From a political point of view, Jehoshaphat was the junior partner of this relationship (vassal) and often had to lend his support to Ahab against his enemies, particularly the Arameans.
Even so, Jehoshaphat did many good things pleasing to God. He supported those who taught the law of God (2 Chron. 17:7–9), and he also promoted justice in the land when he created a system of judges after being challenged to do so by the prophet Jehu (2 Chron. 19). He also depended on God during war. When he fought a coalition from Ammon, Moab, and elsewhere, he preached to the army before the battle (2 Chron. 20). When he supported Ahab in his war against the Arameans, he was the one who insisted that a prophet of Yahweh be consulted (1 Kings 22).
(4) A valley symbolically mentioned in Joel 3:2, 12 (see Jehoshaphat, Valley of). (5) The son of Nimshi and the father of King Jehu of Israel (2 Kings 9:2, 14).
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:26 as the son of Joda and the father of Semein.
A priest deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar (1 Chron. 6:14–15; Hag. 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; Zech. 6:11). His father, the high priest Seraiah, was executed by Nebuchad-nez-zar following the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:18–21). Nevertheless, Jozadak’s son Joshua (sometimes called “Jeshua”) returned from the Babylonian captivity, became high priest, and played a significant role in the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh. 12:26; Zech. 6:11). Jozadak is also called “Jehozadak” (e.g., Hag. 1:1; Zech. 6:11 ESV, NASB) and in some versions “Josedech” (KJV).
An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:26 as the son of Joda and the father of Semein.
(1) The eleventh son of Judah and the first by Jacob’s beloved wife, Rachel (Gen. 30:24; 35:24). The name comes from a Hebrew verb meaning “to add,” and the significance of his name is explained in Gen. 30:24: “May the Lord add to me another son.” His story begins in Gen. 37 and continues to Gen. 50, the end of the book.
Joseph was Jacob’s favorite, and so Jacob “made an ornate robe for him” (37:3), although the precise meaning of the Hebrew is unclear. While shepherding with his brothers, Joseph had a dream indicating that he would one day rise to prominence over them. This was too much for his brothers to bear, and so they decided, after some deliberation, to throw him into a cistern and, rather than kill him, sell him to passing Ishmaelite/Midianite merchants (37:25–28).
Upon arriving in Egypt, Joseph was sold to Potiphar, an official of Pharaoh, and then thrown in jail after Potiphar’s wife falsely accused him of making sexual advances (chap. 39). While in jail, he accurately interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh’s cupbearer and baker (chap. 40). Two years later, he was called upon to interpret Pharaoh’s dreams (chap. 41). Joseph’s ability to interpret dreams plus his administrative skills saved Egypt from famine, which resulted in his elevation to being “in charge of the whole land of Egypt” (41:41).
It was the famine that brought Joseph’s family to Egypt to find food, which eventually led to their warm reunion, though not without some testing on Joseph’s part (chaps. 42–45). After Joseph made himself known to his brothers, they reconciled and sent for the elderly Jacob, who was awaiting news in Canaan. Thus, Jacob and his twelve sons lived in Egypt, and their descendants were eventually enslaved by a king “to whom Joseph meant nothing” (Exod. 1:8).
Joseph died in Egypt and was embalmed (Gen. 50:20–26). The exodus generation took his bones out of Egypt (Exod. 13:19), and he was later buried in Shechem (Josh. 24:32).
Although Joseph was a son of Jacob, his descendants did not become one of the twelve tribes of Israel. Instead, Jacob blessed Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, and he blessed the younger Ephraim over the older Manasseh just as Jacob himself had been blessed over his older brother Esau. The OT still refers occasionally to the house or tribe of Joseph as a general designation for Israel (e.g., Pss. 80:1; 81:5).
(2) The husband of Mary, mentioned only by name in Jesus’ birth stories in Matthew and Luke. According to Matt. 1:16, Joseph is a descendant of David, which establishes Jesus’ royal bloodline. Luke’s genealogy (3:23–38) downplays Jesus’ relationship to Joseph. In Matthew, Joseph is a recipient of several divine communications by means of dreams, announcing Mary’s conception (1:18–25) and commanding the flight to Egypt (2:13) and the return to Nazareth (2:19–23). In Luke, Joseph takes Mary to Bethlehem to give birth (2:4–7), presents Jesus in the temple for consecration (2:21–24), and brings Mary and Jesus to Jerusalem for the Passover feast when Jesus is twelve (2:41–52).
(3) The second brother to Jesus, after James (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). In some manuscripts, the name appears as “Joses” (so KJV). (4) The son of one of the women who witnessed the crucifixion, Mary the mother of James the younger and Joseph (Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40; cf. 15:47; KJV: “Joses”). John 19:25 may refer to this same woman as Mary the wife of Clopas and the sister of Mary the mother of Jesus. If this is the case (the Greek is ambiguous), then this Joseph could be a cousin to Jesus.
(5) A Jew from Arimathea, a secret follower of Jesus and member of the Sanhedrin who did not agree to put Jesus to death (Luke 23:50–51; John 19:38). He asked Pilate for Jesus’ body, wrapped it in linen, and placed it in his own tomb (Matt. 27:57–60). (6) Also known as Bar-sab-bas or Justus, he was one of the two men proposed to take Judas Iscariot’s place among the disciples (Acts 1:23). (7) Also known as Barnabas, he was a Levite from Cyprus who sold his field and brought the money to the apostles (Acts 4:36).
(1) A variation of the name “Joseph” in Mark 6:3 and Matt. 13:55, referring to the second brother to Jesus, after James. (2) A variation of the name “Joseph” in Mark 15:40 and Matt. 27:56 (cf. Mark 15:47), referring to the son of Mary, mother of James and Joseph, who witnessed the crucifixion. See also Joseph.
A leader of a clan in the tribe of Simeon during the time of Hezekiah (1 Chron. 4:34).
(1) The Mithnite, he was one of David’s thirty mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (2) One of the priests who blew trumpets in the celebration of the ark of the covenant coming into Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:24).
One of the two sons of Elnaam, he was one of David’s thirty mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:46).
One of the sons of Heman, David’s seer. Heman had fourteen sons and three daughters because of God’s promises. Joshbekashah was one of the men commissioned by David for ministry as a prophet (1 Chron. 25:1–8).
Also known as Josheb-Basshebeth (2 Sam. 23:8), he was chief of David’s officers (1 Chron. 11:11 [so the Qere, followed by NIV, KJV, NKJV; the Kethib reads “the Thirty,” followed by NASB; based on 2 Sam. 23:8, NLT, ESV, NRSV make him head of “the Three”]). Chronicles calls him a “Hakmonite” (“Tahkemonite” in 2 Sam. 23:8), suggesting that he was a descendant of Hakmoni and thus from a family closely associated with David (1 Chron. 27:32). The MT and some LXX manuscripts of 2 Sam. 23:8 could suggest that he was also known as Adino the Eznite (so NASB), but this probably is a textual corruption. He is noted for his success in battle, though Samuel and Chronicles differ over whether he killed eight hundred (2 Sam. 23:8) or three hundred (1 Chron. 11:11) at one time. Hebrew roots associated with the number three are so common in the list of David’s mighty warriors that it is more likely that Chronicles has unintentionally conformed its number to the rest of the list, though it is also likely that this number includes those slain under his command.
The father of Jehu and the son of Seraiah of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:35).
(1) The son of Nun and the servant of Moses. Joshua appears thirty-three times in Exodus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, and Judges. He is the principal human character of the OT book that bears his name.
As a military commander, Joshua fought against the Amalekites (Exod. 17:8–13). He became an assistant to Moses and accompanied him up and then down the mountain of God (24:13; 32:17). Joshua also kept watch over the tent of meeting (33:11).
Moses sent Joshua, Caleb, and ten others as spies to explore the land of Canaan (Num. 13). At this point, Moses also changed his name from “Hoshea” to “Joshua” (13:8, 16). Because Joshua and Caleb trusted that God would help Israel conquer Canaan, God vowed that only these two of that rebellious generation would enter the promised land (14:30). God also commanded Moses to commission Joshua as his successor. So in the presence of all Israel Moses laid his hands upon Joshua and set him apart for the task (27:15–23).
God commanded Moses to strengthen and encourage Joshua (Deut. 1:38; 3:28). Later, Moses charged Joshua with the specific task of bringing the people into the promised land (31:7, 23). Since Moses had laid his hands upon him, and he was filled with the spirit of wisdom, the children of Israel agreed to obey Joshua (34:9).
Joshua’s character as a leader is demonstrated throughout the book that bears his name. Among other things, Joshua served as a brilliant military leader (Josh. 1–12), an administrator (Josh. 13–21), and a religious leader (Josh. 24). He led the Israelites across the Jordan and presided at the allotment of land. In all of this, Joshua was “strong and courageous” (1:6), just as God and the people encouraged him to be (1:6–7, 9, 18). At the end of his life he was called, like Moses, “the servant of the Lord” (24:29). The people served God throughout the lifetime of Joshua (Judg. 2:7).
(2) The owner of the field in Beth Shemesh where the ark stopped after it returned from the Philistines (1 Sam. 6:14).
(3) The governor of Jerusalem during Josiah’s reign (2 Kings 23:8).
(4) A high priest and one of the leaders of Israel who survived the Babylonian captivity and was permitted by an edict of Cyrus to return to Jerusalem (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7). He was a contemporary of Haggai and Zechariah. In many Bible versions, he is referred to as “Jeshua son of Jozadak” in Ezra and Nehemiah (e.g., Ezra 3:2; Neh. 12:26) and “Joshua son of Jehozadak” in Haggai and Zechariah (e.g., Hag. 1:1; Zech. 6:11) (the NIV standardizes his name to “Joshua son of Jozadak” throughout).
Together with Zerubbabel, Joshua helped to restore worship for the returned exiles (Ezra 3:2) and with the sometimes hazardous work of rebuilding the temple (Ezra 3:8–9; 4:3; 5:2). The high priests descended from him are listed in Neh. 12:10, but other descendants are named as guilty of intermarriage with foreign wives (Ezra 10:18). In the book of Zechariah he is the subject of two visions where he serves as a representative of Israel (Zech. 3:1–10) and as a type of Christ (6:9–15).
(5) An ancestor of Jesus in Luke’s genealogy (Luke 3:29).
The king of Judah (r. 640–609 BC). Although his father (Amon) and grandfather (Manasseh) were evil and worshiped false gods, Josiah “did what was right in the eyes of the Lord and followed completely the ways of his father David, not turning aside to the right or to the left” (2 Kings 22:2). Indeed, according to 2 Kings 21:24–23:30; 2 Chron. 33:25–35:27, no one among the kings of Judah, not even Hez-e-kiah, surpassed Josiah in terms of his piety.
Josiah’s name first appears centuries before he was born. First Kings 13:2 records the words of an unnamed prophet who announced that Josiah would destroy the golden calf shrine that Jeroboam I dedicated. This altar was built in the second half of the tenth century BC. The fulfillment of this prophecy is recorded in 2 Kings 23:15–18.
The prophets Jeremiah (Jer. 1:1–4; 22:13–23; 25:3; 36:2) and Zephaniah (Zeph. 1:1) ministered during Josiah’s reign and likely supported his religious reforms. The high point of his religious reform took place in his eighteenth year, when he ordered the purification of the temple. Up to that time, the temple had housed idolatrous objects. During the repair, the priest Hilkiah discovered the Book of the Law. The reaction to this book suggests that it was Deuteronomy or a part thereof, which presumably had been suppressed by the previous wicked administrations.
Although he was a good king, Josiah had a sad conclusion to his life. He was killed in 609 BC when he attempted to block the march of Pharaoh Necho up the coast as the latter tried to bolster the Assyrian forces at Carchemish.
The KJV rendering of the name “Josiah” (Gk. Iōsias) in the Matthean genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1:10–11).
The father of Jehu and the son of Seraiah of the tribe of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:35).
The father of Shelomith, a man from the family of Bani who returned to Judah with Ezra (Ezra 8:10).
The RSV and REB use “dot” to translate the Greek word keraia in Matt. 5:18 (NIV: “the smallest letter”), where Jesus says that not the smallest part of a letter of the law will pass away.
The hometown of Meshullemeth, daughter of Haruz (2 Kings 21:19). She became the wife of King Manasseh of Judah, and her son Amon succeeded to the throne on his father’s death. Widely different opinions have been expressed for Jotbah’s location. Some have identified it with Khirbet Jifat in lower Galilee, in which case Manasseh may have married to strengthen his political ties with the northern kingdom of Israel.
An Israelite campsite between Hor Haggidgad and Abronah, documented to help trace the journey of the wilderness generation from Egypt to the promised land (Num. 33:33–34). A further reference suggests that it had a plentiful supply of water, which is appropriate to its name, which means “pleasantness” (Deut. 10:7). A suggested location is Tabeh on the western shore of the Gulf of Aqaba.
(1) The youngest son of Gideon (Jerub-Baal). After Gideon’s death, Abimelek, who was his son through his concubine from Shechem, sought to gain control of Israel by executing Gideon’s seventy other sons and Abimelek’s rival heirs. Jotham alone escaped, by hiding. Even as the Shechemites were pronouncing Abimelek king, Jotham emerged atop Mount Gerizim and delivered a message of warning and judgment to the people of Shechem in the form of a parable of trees and a thornbush. His message, though unheeded, was vindicated three years later as God brought judgment on the people of Shechem (Judg. 9:5–57). (2) Son of King Azariah (Uzziah) and his successor to the throne of Judah. He reigned sixteen years and did “right in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kings 15:34). It was during Jotham’s reign that Tiglath-pileser III (r. 744–727 BC), king of Babylon, rose to prominence. (3) The second of Jahdai’s six sons, a Judahite of the clan of Caleb the son of Hezron (1 Chron. 2:47).
Joy is not a prevalent theme in most of the Bible. In fact, the word “joy” is completely missing from many books of the OT and appears only sporadically in many others. The lack of prevalence of this word is understandable, since most of the Bible deals with a world in which the humans are outside the garden of Eden.
Old Testament. The most enthusiastic and concentrated expressions of joy in the OT are found in the context of worship when the people of God find joy in his presence, usually when the community is gathered for various feasts. Thus, words that connote joy are concentrated in Deuteronomy, Chronicles, Ezra-Nehemiah, Isaiah, and especially the Psalter.
As one might expect, people are found rejoicing in the simple joys of life: when meeting a close relative (Exod. 4:14), when their enemies are defeated (1 Sam. 18:6; 2 Chron. 20:27), when a child is born (Jer. 20:15), at the sound of music (Ps. 45:8), and when they hear a good word (Prov. 12:25). Jonah is “exceedingly glad” (ESV; NIV: “very happy”) because a plant grew as a shade over his head (Jon. 4:6). The teacher of Ecclesiastes urges his students to rejoice in their youth (Eccles. 11:9), and he considers it a good thing to be joyful (3:12; 8:15). Wine may gladden the heart of humans (Ps. 104:15) and life in general (Eccles. 10:19). More important, men are encouraged both to bring joy to their young wives (Deut. 24:5 [NIV: “happiness”]) and to rejoice in the wife of their youth (Prov. 5:18). For the psalmist, the “teachings” of God are a reason for joy (Pss. 19:8; 119:111).
It is by far more common, however, to find joy and delight in the presence of God, especially when the community is gathered to celebrate various feasts. The psalmist understands quite well that more than wine or a young wife, it is God who brings joy to his servants (Ps. 86:4). Thus, the earliest calls to rejoice are always in the presence of God (Lev. 23:40; Deut. 12:7, 12, 18; 14:26; 16:11; 26:11). Psalm 16:11 is a good example: “You make known to me the path of life; you will fill me with joy in your presence, with eternal pleasures at your right hand.”
For the prophet Habakkuk, even if the crops fail and there is nothing left to eat, he finds reason for joy in God, the only one who can bring salvation: “Yet I will rejoice in the Lord, I will be joyful in God my Savior” (Hab. 3:18). This verse is important because it shows that the people of God must be able to rejoice apart from material blessings, and also because it unites two central reasons for joy in the OT: God and his salvation (Pss. 9:14; 21:1; Isa. 25:9; 61:10). The prophet Zechariah looks forward to a time of great joy when a righteous king will bring salvation to Zion (Zech. 9:9). Finally, real and complete joy can exist only when and where God reigns (1 Chron. 16:31; Ps. 97:1).
New Testament. The time of joy and salvation anticipated by the prophets begins to find fulfillment in the NT. The Gospels interpret the prophecy in Zech. 9:9 as referring to Jesus (Mark 11:9–10; Luke 19:37–38), and there is a strong note of joy already at Jesus’ birth (Matt. 2:10; Luke 1:47; 2:10). Jesus’ life (Luke 10:17; John 3:29) and resurrection also evoke intense joy (Matt. 28:8; Luke 24:52). In the Gospel of John, joy becomes the result of a deep fellowship between Jesus and the church (John 16:22; see also 1 John 1:3–4), and in Acts it marks the life of the early church (Acts 2:46; 8:8; 13:52; 15:3).
Paul uses joy in at least three ways. First, progress in faith of the children of God, particularly those whom Paul has led to Christ, is a great cause for joy (1 Thess. 2:19–20; cf. Phil. 2:2). Second, Paul stresses the paradox that joy may be the outcome of suffering and even sorrow for Christ’s sake (2 Cor. 6:10; Col. 1:24; cf. 1 Pet. 4:13). Thus, Paul’s letter to the Philippians, even though written under circumstances of great suffering, is also the most joyous of all his letters (Phil. 2:2; 3:1; 4:4). Third, joy is a gift of the Holy Spirit (Gal. 5:22), and true believers should be careful in their daily walk with the Lord to avoid “interrupting” this gift.
The last word on joy is appropriately found in the book of Revelation: “Let us rejoice and be glad and give him glory! For the wedding of the Lamb has come, and his bride has made herself ready” (19:7).
(1) A royal official who, with Jeho-za-bad, assassinated King Joash of Judah (2 Kings 12:21). (See also Jozacar, Jozachar.) (2) From Ge-de-rah, he was one of the Benjamite soldiers who joined David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:4). (3) Two warriors of Manasseh described as leaders of units of a thousand soldiers (1 Chron. 12:20). They defended David against bands of raiders. (4) A Levite appointed by King Hezekiah who helped keep tally of the offerings given for the work of the temple (2 Chron. 31:13). (5) A leading Levite who donated offerings to King Josiah for the Passover celebration (2 Chron. 35:9). (6) A descendant of Pashhur guilty of intermarriage (Ezra 10:22). (7) The son of Jeshua, he was a Levite who helped make an inventory of the freewill offerings brought by Ezra from Babylon for the temple (Ezra 8:33). (8) A Levite guilty of intermarriage (Ezra 10:23). (9) One of the thirteen Levites who helped interpret and teach while Ezra read from the Book of the Law of God to the returned exiles (Neh. 8:7). (10) A prominent Levite who helped supervise the rebuilding of the temple after the exile (Neh. 11:16). He may be the same individual as in Neh. 8:7.
The name appearing in some Hebrew manuscripts of 2 Kings 12:21, whereas other manuscripts (followed by the NIV) read “Jozabad.” This variant is a result of scribal error (copying a similar but incorrect letter) in one direction or the other.
The name appearing in some Hebrew manuscripts of 2 Kings 12:21, whereas other manuscripts (followed by the NIV) read “Jozabad.” This variant is a result of scribal error (copying a similar but incorrect letter) in one direction or the other.
A priest deported to Babylon by Nebuchadnezzar (1 Chron. 6:14–15; Hag. 1:1, 12, 14; 2:2, 4; Zech. 6:11). His father, the high priest Seraiah, was executed by Nebuchad-nez-zar following the fall of Jerusalem (2 Kings 25:18–21). Nevertheless, Jozadak’s son Joshua (sometimes called “Jeshua”) returned from the Babylonian captivity, became high priest, and played a significant role in the rebuilding of the temple (Ezra 3:2, 8; 5:2; 10:18; Neh. 12:26; Zech. 6:11). Jozadak is also called “Jehozadak” (e.g., Hag. 1:1; Zech. 6:11 ESV, NASB) and in some versions “Josedech” (KJV).
One of two sons born to Lamech by his wife Adah (Gen. 4:21). He is referred to as “father of all who play stringed instruments and pipes,” which probably designates him both as the instruments’ inventor and as the founder of the musical arts.
The Jubilee was a year of rest after seven cycles of Sabbatical Years (Lev. 25:8–55). The Israelites were to sound the ram’s horn on the Day of Atonement and consecrate the fiftieth year, proclaiming liberty throughout the land. The fiftieth year was to be a “jubilee” (Heb. yobel ).
Two principles were essential to the Jubilee practices. The first was that the land belongs to God (Lev. 25:23). The Israelites’ socioeconomic system, rooted in the land, was shaped by their understanding that they were to provide for all members of society from God’s land. The second was the familiar redemption paradigm. God had brought them out of Egypt, delivering them as free people so that they might serve him (25:38–45). Thus, they were not to own land or slaves permanently, since that would reverse the impact of the exodus and create a perpetual underclass. Instead, they were to buy them back, just as God had redeemed his people.
The specific requirements for the Year of Jubilee involved rest for the land, continuing the Sabbatical Year practices. The people were not to sow or harvest. In the Jubilee Year they were to return land and houses to the family or clan of original ownership. The price of any land sold was to be determined by the number of potential crops that the buyer had forthcoming until the next Jubilee. If it was a long time, the price could be set higher. In the interval, if someone had sold family landholdings due to financial stress, the nearest relative could redeem them, or the seller could buy them back personally. In the end, however, the property reverted to the clan ownership in the Jubilee. A house in a walled city could be redeemed for one year. After that, the new owner could keep it permanently because the urban setting was separate from the land. A house in an unwalled city could be redeemed anytime and had to be returned to the original owner at the next Jubilee, since such a city was considered open country. Property of the Levites was always subject to redemption. Any Israelite unable to pay off debts could sell himself, either to a fellow Israelite or to a resident alien. As with the land, the nearest relative or the seller could provide the redemption payment prior to the Jubilee. Failing that, in the Jubilee Hebrew hired workers and their children were to be set free.
There is no direct evidence in the historical books that the Israelites actually practiced the Year of Jubilee. There are echoes of it in Isa. 61:1–7 with the allusions to the release of the prisoner (as in Lev. 25:10) and the inheritance. Jesus cited this passage with reference to his own messianic ministry (Luke 4:16–21), suggesting his affirmation and fulfillment of the Jubilee principles.
The son of Shelemiah, he was an official in the administration of King Zedekiah (Jer. 37:1–3). Jehukal was commissioned to persuade Jeremiah to pray on behalf of Judah. Later, Jehukal was part of a group of officials who wanted to have Jeremiah put to death (38:1–4).
(1) The fourth son of Jacob (Gen. 35:23). The meaning of his name is debated, but his mother, Leah, links it to “praise” (29:35). He persuaded his brothers to sell Joseph instead of killing him (37:26–27). He also guaranteed the safety of Benjamin when the brothers returned to Egypt to purchase food (43:1–10). In spite of his despicable behavior with his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen. 38), his father’s blessing included the promise of kingship (49:10). (2) A Levite and the ancestor of a family that worked on the postexilic temple (Ezra 3:9; cf. 2:40 KJV, ESV, NASB; NIV: “Hodaviah”). (3) A Levite among those who married a foreign woman (Ezra 10:23). (4) The son of Hassenuah, he was in charge of the second district in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh. 11:9). (5) A Levite who had returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and was in charge of the songs of thanksgiving (Neh. 12:8). (6) An official of Judah who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:34). (7) A musician and priest who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:36). (8) An ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:30). See also Judah, Kingdom of; Judah, Tribe of.
(1) The fourth son of Jacob (Gen. 35:23). The meaning of his name is debated, but his mother, Leah, links it to “praise” (29:35). He persuaded his brothers to sell Joseph instead of killing him (37:26–27). He also guaranteed the safety of Benjamin when the brothers returned to Egypt to purchase food (43:1–10). In spite of his despicable behavior with his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen. 38), his father’s blessing included the promise of kingship (49:10). (2) A Levite and the ancestor of a family that worked on the postexilic temple (Ezra 3:9; cf. 2:40 KJV, ESV, NASB; NIV: “Hodaviah”). (3) A Levite among those who married a foreign woman (Ezra 10:23). (4) The son of Hassenuah, he was in charge of the second district in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh. 11:9). (5) A Levite who had returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and was in charge of the songs of thanksgiving (Neh. 12:8). (6) An official of Judah who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:34). (7) A musician and priest who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:36). (8) An ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:30). See also Judah, Kingdom of; Judah, Tribe of.
The term “Judaizer” does not appear in most Bible translations. It arises from the Greek verb Ioudaizō, meaning “to live as a Jew” (Gal. 2:14; cf. Esther 8:17 LXX; Josephus, J.W. 2.463). Judaizers continued to observe the Jewish practices of circumcision, the food laws, the Sabbath, and the other feasts and festivals alongside their new faith in Jesus as the Messiah. In particular, they believed that salvation was for the Jews, and that anyone who wanted to experience salvation needed to become aligned with all the OT Jewish practices. Many of these people lived in the early years of the church age, when the relationship between OT practices and the newly emerging NT church age was less clear. Paul, more than anyone else, saw the dangers in this movement and rightly condemned even Peter himself when he saw that Peter and others “were not acting in line with the truth of the gospel”; Paul “said to Peter in front of them all, ‘You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?’ ” (Gal. 2:14). Judaizers suffered a significant defeat at the council of Jerusalem, when James and the Jerusalem church ruled that Gentiles did not have to be circumcised in order to be saved (Acts 15).
The name “Judas” (Gk. Ioudas) is the Greek equivalent for the Hebrew name “Judah” (Yehudah). (1) One of Jesus’ brothers (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3), also known as Jude, author of the letter that bears his name (Jude 1). (2) One of the apostles identified as “Judas son of James” (Luke 6:16; Acts 1:13) and “Judas (not Judas Iscariot)” (John 14:22), probably the same person as Thaddaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18). (3) A defunct revolutionary identified as “Judas the Galilean” (Acts 5:37), probably the same person as Judas the Galilean from Gamala in Gaulanitis, who led a revolt against Roman taxes in AD 6 (Josephus, Ant. 18.4; 20.102; J.W. 2.118, 433–34; 7.253). (4) A resident of Damascus, known simply as “Judas,” who had a house on Straight Street where the blinded Saul stayed (Acts 9:11). (5) A leading Jerusalem believer and prophet, “Judas called Barsabbas” (i.e., “son of the Sabbath” or “son of Sabbas”; possibly a relative of “Joseph called Barsabbas” in Acts 1:23). Along with Silas, he was sent with Paul and Barnabas to add verbal testimony to the letter to the Gentile Christians from the apostles and elders after the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:22, 27, 32). (6) One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus, he betrayed Jesus. See Judas Iscariot.
One of the twelve disciples chosen by Jesus (Matt. 10:4). He is identified beforehand as the one who would betray Jesus (Mark 3:19) and is noted as having a devil (John 6:66–71). John further attributes his betrayal of Jesus to Satan (John 13:2, 27), and Luke asserts that before the betrayal Satan entered into Judas (Luke 22:3).
Much has been written about his motive for betraying Jesus, but a simple look at the biblical text reveals Judas’s interest in gain. John notes that as the group’s treasurer, Judas regularly stole from the money box. His apparent concern for the poor at the anointing of Jesus was in fact self-serving (John 12:1–8). It was for gain that Judas betrayed Jesus to the chief priests. After agreeing to thirty pieces of silver, Judas sought an occasion to betray Jesus, especially when there was no crowd (Matt. 26:14–16; Luke 22:3–5).
At the table on the night before the crucifixion, Jesus predicted his betrayal. After the disciples questioned who the betrayer might be, Jesus pronounced a woe on the betrayer and noted it would have been better if that one had not been born. Jesus identified Judas as the betrayer, though only Judas understood (Matt. 26:21–25; Mark 14:17–21). John makes it clear that none of the other disciples understood the real reason why Judas was leaving the upper room (John 13:28–30).
Since Judas knew that Jesus would later be in the garden of Gethsemane, he led the soldiers and religious leaders there (Luke 22:48). Jesus noted the irony of Judas using a kiss, a sign of friendship, to betray him (Mark 14:43–52).
Subsequently, Judas regretted the betrayal and proclaimed Jesus’ innocence to the chief priests. The religious leaders had no concern for his regrets. After casting the money to the floor, Judas left. The leaders thought it unlawful to keep the money, so they bought a field for the burial of strangers. Because the people knew that blood money bought the “potter’s field,” that field was thereafter called the “Field of Blood.” Matthew notes this as fulfillment of prophecy (Matt. 27:9–10). As for Judas, he hanged himself; falling headlong, his body burst open and his intestines gushed out (Matt. 27:3–10; Acts 1:18).
Peter notes that Judas’s punishment, death, and abandonment of office were predicted by David in the psalms (Acts 1:15–20). Speaking euphemistically, Peter remarks that Judas went to his own place, no doubt a reference to hell (1:25).
Jude, whose name is another form of “Judah” or “Judas” (Heb. Yehuda; Gk. Ioudas), identifies himself as “a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James” (Jude 1). Because the author does not elaborate on the identity of this James, many conclude that a well-known individual named “James” must be in mind, one whom the readers would be able to identify easily. Certainly this is James the brother of Jesus and leader of the Jerusalem church (James 1:1; Acts 15:13; Gal. 2:9). This would make Jude the brother of Jesus, named among Jesus’ other siblings in Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3. The brothers of Jesus were never referred to as “apostles” in the early church, which makes sense in light of the fact that Jude both appeals to his authority as a “servant” of Jesus rather than as an “apostle” and implies that he is not among the apostles whose teaching he cites in Jude 17. The NT does not record any more details regarding Jude’s life other than what we can infer from the fact that Jesus’ brothers did not accept him as the Messiah during his lifetime (John 7:5), and that only after the resurrection did they become followers (Acts 1:14). According to Hegesippus, quoted in Eusebius (Hist. eccl. 3.19.1–20.6), two grandsons of Jude were brought before the Roman emperor Domitian and were asked if they were descendants of David. But after finding that they were common farmers who posed no threat to Rome, he released them “as beneath his notice.”
The Hebrew term shopet, often translated “judge,” refers to officials granted various forms of authority over the people. In many instances it is judicial authority employed to arbitrate in legal disputes (e.g., Exod. 2:14; Deut. 17:9, 12; Isa. 3:2). However, the Hebrew word, together with corresponding words in related ancient languages such as Ugaritic and Akkadian, is less restrictive than the English and legitimately refers to those whose function expands beyond the dispensation of justice to those with more full-fledged roles as governors or rulers over the people (e.g., Amos 2:3; Mic. 4:14; and in particular throughout the book of Judges).
In the OT, as the ultimate judge (Gen. 18:25; Isa. 33:22; James 4:12) God delegated the administration of justice to the appointed leader of the people of Israel—initially Moses (Exod. 18:13–16); then, during the monarchy, the ruling king (e.g., 1 Kings 3:16–28); and later, Ezra. However, the task of adjudicating every matter was too onerous for a single leader, and thus a judicial hierarchy was established to alleviate the burden of the ruler (Exod. 18:21–23; cf. Num. 11:16–17; Deut. 1:12–17; 16:18–20; Ezra 7:25). Surprisingly, the rulers (or “judges”) who governed Israel during the period recounted in the book of Judges are almost never shown as passing judgment in disputes (the one exception is Judg. 4:4). Rather, they are generally depicted as overcoming foreign threats (Judg. 2:16).
Although civil courts were available for resolving disputes in NT times, Paul encourages believers to avoid making recourse to them in favor of resolving disputes within the church with the assistance of a member of the church recognized as having sufficient wisdom to adjudicate (1 Cor. 6:1–8).
The Bible makes strong distinctions between righteous and sinful judging. God commands his people to exercise fair and impartial judgment, especially to society’s poor and helpless (e.g., Exod. 23:1–9; Prov. 31:9; Isa. 1:17), punishing the perversions of favoritism and bribery (Deut. 16:19; Amos 5:12). The NT warns against partiality (James 2:1–9) and judging by outward appearances (John 7:24). Jesus denounces selfish and hypocritical judgment: “Do not judge, or you too will be judged” (Matt. 7:1 [cf. Luke 6:37]). This kind of judging presumes moral superiority over others (Rom. 2:1–5) and reveals an unrepentant heart, blind to its own sinfulness. It criticizes others over spiritually disputable matters (“specks” [see Matt. 7:3–5]), whereas Christian love defers such judgments to God (Rom. 14:1–18). Believers still must confront sin in the church (Matt. 18:15–17; Heb. 3:12–13; James 5:19–20) and the world (2 Cor. 10:5), but they must do so in a humble, gentle spirit (Gal. 6:1) that repents of its own sin before addressing another’s (Matt. 7:5).
Old Testament. Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.
The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2 Chron. 24:24).
The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:7–8) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).
New Testament. One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2 Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2 Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1 John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).
Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2 Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).
Judgment Day in the Bible
The book of Revelation concludes with a harrowing vision of final judgment. On that day, when the God of all creation sits on his great white throne and holds court, the dead will rise and answer for their deeds, whether good or bad (20:11–13). The record of each person’s conduct appears in books, one of which is the Book of Life (20:12–13). Anyone whose name does not appear in the Book of Life is thrown into the lake of fire (20:15).
The apostle Paul refers to this same event in Acts 17:30–31. All human beings will face their scheduled day in court, as God certified by raising Christ from the dead. It will be a day of wrath, among other things, when God’s righteous anger against sin is fully displayed (Rom. 2:5). In the presence of this God, Isaiah proclaimed himself to be ruined because of his sinfulness before the one who is called “Holy, holy, holy” (Isa. 6:1–5). We therefore confess with the author of Hebrews, who says, “It is [and will be] a dreadful thing to fall into the hands of the living God” (Heb. 10:31).
Many other texts of Scripture forecast the same event: judgment day is coming, and nothing can stop it. They also describe this day in equally frightening terms, anticipating fire, darkness, and weeping for some, but everlasting joy and peace for others. Even Christians will be judged on this day, notwithstanding the promise of everlasting life for everyone who believes (e.g., John 3:16; 5:24; Rom. 3:21–24; 8:1–2; 2 Cor. 5:21). In Rom. 14:10–12 Paul says, “For we will all stand before God’s judgment seat,” at which time, “each of us will give an account of ourselves to God.” Similarly, in 2 Cor. 5:10 Paul warns, “For we must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each one of us may receive what is due us for the things done while in the body, whether good or bad.”
Justification and Judgment
In these texts, an apparent tension exists between the promise of justification, upon which all Christian hope stands, and the certainty of final judgment, including the judgment of believers. It will not do simply to downplay the one or the other, as if the biblical writers had not really intended one or both of them. These texts say what they say, the good news no less plainly than the bad. Yet, closer inspection shows that the tension is merely apparent.
We must first recognize that Scripture treats piety as the evidence of regeneration and saving faith. Jesus says that a “good tree,” which is a genuine disciple, bears good fruit (Matt. 7:17). That is, the observable righteousness of such a disciple will surpass the hypocritical casuistry of the scribes and Pharisees (Matt. 5:20). On judgment day, therefore, no actual conflict will or ever could arise between the general tendency of the believer’s conduct and his or her position in Christ. Over a lifetime, the believer’s habitual behavior will have differed fundamentally, though never satisfactorily, from that of a lost person. As for unrepentant sinners, they will be sentenced to eternal damnation because of their lawlessness (Rom. 3:9–19). Their conduct demonstrates that they have rejected the gospel and are deserving of wrath (Heb. 2:3). This linkage between justification and right conduct accounts for James’s polemical statement: “You see that a person is considered righteous by what they do and not by faith alone” (James 2:24). Abraham’s positional righteousness, secured by faith in what God would do on his behalf, became publicly evident through his obedience (James 2:21–22).
We should also note the different purpose that God has in judging his church. One aspect of it certainly is to grasp the enormity of our sins, so that we might properly acknowledge the depth of his mercy on that day. But also this judgment will occur in order to mete out the differing rewards that Scripture anticipates for the people of God. The definitive text in this regard is 1 Cor. 3:1–17, which connects the believer’s rewards and losses to the quality of his or her behavior within the body of Christ. Some are building on Christ, the sure foundation, using the available materials, and they receive their proper reward. Others build selfishly on themselves, with the result that they are saved, “though only as one escaping through the flames” (1 Cor. 3:15). In both cases, however, the question seems to be one of greater and lesser reward, as opposed to salvation or damnation. Even in hell itself, various degrees of suffering come into play. According to Jesus, one can receive a heavy or light “beating” for disobedience, based on one’s prior knowledge of the master’s will (Luke 12:47–48). Judgment day, therefore, should not frighten Christians. Jesus really did suffer the full measure of God’s wrath against our sin. But this day reminds us that we are accountable for what we do as his disciples, and it motivates the evangelism that we are commanded to practice.
A platform (Gk. bēma) from which civil officials held session to hear legal cases and render judgments (Acts 18:12; 25:6, 10, 17). Jesus was brought before the judgment seat of Pilate (Matt. 27:19; John 19:13), and Paul before that of Gallio (Acts 18:12). The NT claims that all people will stand for judgment before God (Matt. 16:27; 25:31–46; Rev. 20:11–15). Paul asserts that Christians too will give an account for how they lived and will have their works tested (Rom. 14:10; 2 Cor. 5:10). In Rom 14:10 some Greek manuscripts, probably influenced by 2 Cor. 5:10, read “judgment seat of Christ” (followed by the KJV) rather than “judgment seat of God.”
Retribution refers to “giving what is due,” usually in response to evil. Retribution is an important theological doctrine whose significance is belied by scant use of the term in English translations (ESV 2×; NIV 6×; NRSV 9×). Retribution is driven by the theological conviction that moral order is built into the fabric of the world (Ps. 7:14–16; Prov. 26:27). This moral compass is guaranteed by God’s oversight, meting out justice in judgment and rewards to the righteous, not only on the human-human level, but also on the divine-human level (2 Cor. 9:6; Gal. 6:7). This biblical equation assures that (1) life is not overwhelmed by moral chaos, (2) human actions affect the future, (3) the world is morally uniform, and (4) human revenge is to be avoided (Lev. 19:17–18; Matt. 16:27; Rom. 12:19). With the human community in view, God’s commands are intended to instruct and guide. Not surprisingly, address of retribution is found throughout biblical literature: legal (Deut. 28), narrative (Num. 16), poetic (Pss. 18:20; 94:15), sapiential (Prov. 11:24–25), and prophetic (Hab. 2:2–20).
This poetic justice pervades the OT in the judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:8–24), Cain’s sentence and blood revenge (Gen. 4:15, 24), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (Gen. 6–9) (cf. Exod. 21:20–21; Deut. 30:15–20; Josh. 7; Amos 3:14–15; Mic. 2:1–3). Such stories reveal a sovereign God acting as an external agent who exacts punishment in light of his intentions for creation. For Israel, retribution is the exercise of Yahweh’s legal rights in an attempt to restore covenant fellowship (Lev. 26:40–45). Although serious tensions exist—sometimes the wicked prosper and the innocent suffer—this does not alter the grand scheme of Scripture (Job 33; Jer. 12:1–4). In some scenarios, only the next lifetime will fully bring justice and reward (Ps. 49:5–15; Dan. 12:2; Matt. 25:31–46; Rev. 22:1–5). Deep wisdom, however, embraces mystery and understands the limits of human agency (Gen. 50:19–20; James 1:5).
While the notion of consequence may be too strong, the concept of correspondence is helpful for understanding the concept of retribution. God’s judgments reveal (1) a correspondence between act and effect, (2) accountability to known law, (3) a debt requiring resolve/restitution, and (4) punishment that reenacts elements of the sin itself. God’s roles as divine warrior, judge, and king proclaim his universal rule and preserve it from all who would mock or defy his royal authority (Gen. 3:14–19; Deut. 7:10; 1 Sam. 24:19; 2 Sam. 12:11–12; Ps. 149; Prov. 15:25; Mic. 5:15; 1 Cor. 16:22; Gal. 1:8–9; 2 Thess. 1:5–10).
God’s reasons for retribution center on disobedience and injustice, while his purposes are essentially restorative and developmental. Retribution is an application of God’s holiness that purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. In this way, vengeance and deliverance work together (Nah. 1:2, 7). Paradoxically, retribution gives hope to fallen humanity for sin acknowledged and unacknowledged, anticipating the triumph of righteousness (Ps. 58:11). Retribution grants rationality and stability to humanity, promotes closure in crisis, and fosters hope—a forerunner of the ultimate judgment before the throne of God the King.
(1) The daughter of Beeri the Hittite, one of the Canaanite wives of Esau who caused trouble for Isaac and Rebekah (Gen. 26:34). (2) The Jewish heroine of the book of the OT Apocrypha by the same name. The story tells how she enticed and killed Holofernes, an Assyrian general who besieged her hometown of Bethulia, saving her people.
A vessel made from earthenware or animal skins, used to store and carry grain, water, and other substances. Notable examples of jugs in Scripture include King Saul’s water jug, which was stolen by David (1 Sam. 26:11–16), and the widow at Zarephath’s oil jug, which upon God’s word through Elijah did not run out of oil (1 Kings 17:12–16).
A Roman Christian to whom Paul sent greetings (Rom. 16:15). She possibly was the wife or sister of Philologus. She may have been associated with the imperial family, as many women from the Julian family were named “Julia”—for example, Caesar Augustus’s wife and daughter.
A Roman centurion of the Imperial Regiment who was responsible for conveying Paul and other prisoners from Caesarea to Rome (Acts 27:1). Julius played a small but providential role in showing kindness to Paul, arranging for a ship, ignoring Paul’s advice not to sail in dangerous conditions, and saving Paul’s life by preventing the other soldiers from killing the prisoners when they shipwrecked (Acts 27:3, 6, 11, 42–44).
Paul mentions Junia (along with Andronicus) as “prominent among the apostles” (Rom. 16:7 NRSV). Among contemporary evangelicals, debate surrounds both her name and Paul’s description of her. Some argue that the name is properly “Junias” and thus masculine, or that Paul terms this person as “well known among the apostles.” However, it is likely that the name is “Junia,” a feminine name.
Paul mentions Junia (along with Andronicus) as “prominent among the apostles” (Rom. 16:7 NRSV). Among contemporary evangelicals, debate surrounds both her name and Paul’s description of her. Some argue that the name is properly “Junias” and thus masculine, or that Paul terms this person as “well known among the apostles.” However, it is likely that the name is “Junia,” a feminine name.
The term translated “juniper” in the KJV (NIV: “broom bush”) refers to a shady, flowering shrub, under which Elijah rested when he fled from Jezebel (1 Kings 19:4–5 KJV). The wood was used for making charcoal fuel (Ps. 120:4; Job 30:4 NIV mg.). The NIV frequently translates “juniper” for the term that appears as “fir” in the KJV (e.g., 1 Kings 5:8; Ps. 104:17; Ezek. 27:5). See also Broom Bush, Broom Tree; Fir Tree; Plants.
In Roman mythology, Jupiter is the patron deity of the Roman state and the head of the Roman pantheon of gods. Jupiter is the sky god and wielder of thunderbolts. The name “Jupiter” is derived from deus pater, meaning “father god.” The deus is etymologically equivalent to “Zeus,” and Jupiter is the mythological equivalent of Zeus in the Greek pantheon of gods. Jupiter does not appear in the Bible, but because of the influence of the Latin Vulgate, the ASV uses “Jupiter” in place of “Zeus” in 2 Macc. 6:2; Acts 14:12–13.
A son of Zerubbabel, a leader of those who returned to Judah at the end of the exile (1 Chron. 3:20).
The concept of justice pervades the Bible, especially, though not exclusively, the OT. The key biblical terms that convey this concept include mishpat, tsedeq/tsedaqah, yashar in the OT and the dik- word group in the NT (whose noun and verb forms are translated respectively as “righteous” and “justify” or their respective cognates). The biblical concept of justice is an embodiment of two contemporary concepts: righteousness and justice. The former designates compliance with the divine norm, while the latter emphasizes conformity to a societal standard of what is right and equitable. Focusing exclusively on the latter hinders the correct understanding of justice in the biblical sense. Additionally, the biblical understanding of this concept is encumbered by the use of differing English terms to translate the same Hebrew or Greek terms.
Mishpat and Tsedaqah
Mishpat inherently encompasses the idea of judicial activism consisting in the provision of standard criteria (legislation, instructions, directives) for conduct and adjudication, and/or the actual arbitration between parties with the goal of ascertaining culpability or otherwise and administering the requisite sanctions or acquittal. Tsedaqah, on the other hand, emphasizes the established norm of just order for right conduct both in the larger society and for individuals. Whereas mishpat emphasizes the action that seeks to establish or enforce right patterns of behavior for the common good, tsedaqah stresses the practice (or lack thereof) of such a norm in society, or between individuals, or an individual’s compliance with such a norm.
When used in combination as a hendiadys (or word pair), these two terms signify an inherent requirement for conformity to an established norm (whether in the religious sphere or in civil society) or the requirement of loyalty or right conduct between individuals. To the person who stands to benefit from this norm, it approximates a right (i.e., a claim). Conversely, implicit duty is placed upon the person who ensures the conformity to such an established norm. This fact is better appreciated when we reckon with the covenantal nature of requirements for justice in the ancient world, in which both parties have both claim and responsibility. Broadly speaking, this concept also implies good governance, which accrues order to life and common benefits to all members of the community.
This idea is exemplified even in passages that do not use this precise phraseology (mishpat utsedaqah). Judah’s widowed daughter-in-law, Tamar, had an inherent right to be provided with a (kinsman-redeemer) husband to raise up progeny for her deceased husband, while Judah had the incumbent duty of giving her in levirate marriage to his surviving son. When Judah failed to execute his duty, Tamar entrapped him into an incestuous relationship, from which she conceived. When condemned to die for adultery in a clannish court setting, Tamar revealed the identity of her unborn child’s father, to which Judah responded by saying, “She is more righteous than I, since I wouldn’t give her to my son Shelah” (Gen. 38:26). That is, she acted more in conformity to the norm than he did. In another instance, Yahweh, while challenging the Judeans concerning their loyalty to him in a covenant lawsuit setting, asks, “A son honors his father, and a slave his master. If I am a father, where is the honor due me? If I am a master, where is the respect due me?” (Mal. 1:6). It is Yahweh’s right as father and master to receive honor and respect, while it is their duty to give him both.
God as the Source and Model of Justice
To be just, then, implies conformity to that which is right—yashar (the standard or norm). In Scripture, this standard is the revealed divine will and character. Compliance to it is often expressed in biblical narrative as doing what is “right [or good] in the Lord’s sight” (Deut. 6:18; 12:28; 1 Kings 14:8; 22:43), while its antithesis is doing what is “evil in the eyes of the Lord” (Judg. 2:11; 1 Kings 11:6; 14:22) or doing what some human figure(s) “saw fit” (Deut. 12:8; Judg. 17:6; 21:25).
Therefore, the source of justice is God himself. It flows from his essential character as one who is both just and righteous, whose actions are flawless, perfect, upright, and just (Deut. 32:4; 1 Sam. 12:7; 2 Sam. 22:31; Job 37:23; Ps. 89:14). God is the righteous lawgiver, hence the one who establishes the norm for right conduct (Deut. 4:4–8; Ps. 19:7–9). He requires justice of all his creatures (cf. Gen. 9:5–6; Exod. 21:12, 28–29). God also judges righteously (Gen. 18:25; 1 Kings 8:32; Ps. 9:4, 9; Jer. 9:24) and defends and vindicates the weak and oppressed (Deut. 10:18; Ps. 103:6). The responsibility of maintaining justice in the human community, however, he delegates to its leaders, such as civil magistrates or political officials, and requires them to execute this responsibility with integrity, equity, and impartiality (Deut. 1:16–17; 16:18–20; Ps. 82:2–4; Prov. 31:8–9; John 7:24; 1 Pet. 2:13–14). God’s requirement of justice in the human community is not limited to its leaders only; it is incumbent upon everyone therein (Ps. 15:1–5; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9; 8:17; Matt. 23:23).
Executing justice requires doing all that is essential to bring about the divine order implicit in creation and explicit in revealed truth, to produce harmony in all relationships in which humankind is involved (divine-human, human-human, and human-nature). This has the twofold result of restraining evil and advancing the benefits of just living within the human society. Thus, the fruits of justice are to be seen in all spheres of human life, such as spirituality (2 Cor. 5:17–21), morality and ethics (Phil. 4:8; Col. 3:5–9; Titus 2:11–13), social justice (Exod. 22:21–24; Isa. 56:1; Amos 2:6–7; Ezek. 22:7–29; James 2:1–9), and economic justice (Amos 5:11; 8:4–6; James 5:1–6), as well as in the environment (Deut. 20:19–20; Pss. 96:9–13; 104:1–31; Eccles. 2:5–6; Rom. 8:19–22).
Additionally, the outworking of justice produces (re)distribution and retribution. Distribution means that those blessed materially share of their blessings with those in need (Deut. 15:1–15; Ps. 112:5–9; Prov. 28:27; Isa. 58:1–11; 2 Cor. 8–9). Retribution relates to the vindication and deliverance of the oppressed and judgment on the wicked (1 Sam. 2:7–10; Job 36:5–10; Ps. 72:4; Luke 4:17–20). This is both attested in biblical Israel’s experience (Isa. 1:17–20; 5:1–9; Jer. 5:26–29; Mic. 2:1–3) and is being anticipated at the final judgment (Isa. 66:24; Dan. 12:1–3; Matt. 25:31–46; 2 Thess. 1:5–10). The vindicated obtain God’s love and grace, while the judged receive his justice. Justice and love, therefore, are the two sides of God’s holiness.
Judgment performed with righteousness, leading to deliverance for the oppressed (Ps. 72:1–4; Isa. 30:18; Rom. 3:25). A part of God’s character, justice is to be administered by kings (1 Kings 10:9) and exhibited by God’s people (Amos 5:15). Since actions accompany God’s justice, when God’s actions are questioned, so too is his justice (Job 27:2; 34:5, 12). God’s justice is comparable to human justice (Luke 18:1–8), the main difference being the relationship that God’s justice has to love (11:42). See also Justice.
Justification is an important topic because of its relationship to Christian salvation and sanctification. The word “justification” occurs only five times in the Bible (NIV), but related words comprise significant themes in both Testaments. Part of the difficulty in the exposition of “justification” is English terminology. English has two word groups that express the same conceptual range for single word groups in Hebrew and Greek. So in addition to words related to justification, such as “justly,” “just,” and the very important verb “to justify,” no discussion can avoid the terms “righteous” and “righteousness.” Care must also be exercised in allowing the biblical texts to determine word meaning, since both “justice” and “righteousness” terminology can have contemporary connotations foreign to the biblical texts.
Justification is often related to a legal setting in both Jewish and Greco-Roman contexts, with its judge, defendant, evidence, criteria for evaluating the evidence, verdicts, and the implications of verdicts. This is a good word picture for justification and is used in the Bible itself. As long as the legal picture is extended to everyday affairs, moral and ethical concerns, and different criteria for evidence evaluation, it is a fine starting point for understanding the doctrine of justification.
Common and Extraordinary Justification
The salvific importance of justification has greatly shaped the exposition that follows. Justification has been somewhat awkwardly divided into common and extraordinary justification, with the latter bearing a significant relationship to the doctrine of salvation. The former is discussed only briefly in OT and NT paragraphs. In common justification, a person’s works or deeds are judged according to a standard of righteousness. Righteous deeds are judged and given the verdict “righteous.” Unrighteous deeds are judged and given the verdict “unrighteous.” Extraordinary justification occurs when an unrighteous person or deed is judged and given the verdict “righteous” by some supernatural intervention.
Common justification in the OT may be described in various contexts: (1) in comparative or relative righteousness between humans (e.g., Gen. 38:26; Ezek. 16:51–52); (2) in specific or concrete situations with God as judge (e.g., 2 Chron. 6:23: “Judge between your servants, condemning the guilty and bringing down on their heads what they have done, and vindicating the innocent by treating them in accordance with their innocence”; (3) in specific or concrete situations with a human as judge (e.g., Deut. 25:1: “When people have a dispute, they are to take it to court and the judges will decide the case, acquitting the innocent and condemning the guilty”); (4) in giving justice (e.g., 2 Sam. 15:4; cf. Ps. 82:3); (5) in proving correct or right (e.g., Ps. 51:4; Isa. 43:9).
Extraordinary justification is much rarer in the OT. A possible example is Dan. 8:14, where in a vision the sanctuary is desecrated and after a time “will be reconsecrated” or, in other terms, “will be justified holy.” It seems quite unusual that the unholy “is justified” as holy. In Isa. 45:25 we find the promise that “in the Lord all the offspring of Israel shall be justified” (ESV). Another verse declares that Yahweh’s “righteous servant will justify many, and he will bear their iniquities” (Isa. 53:11). The need for extraordinary justification and the deficiency of ordinary justification is clear in Ps. 143:1–2: “Lord, hear my prayer, listen to my cry for mercy; in your faithfulness and righteousness come to my relief. Do not bring your servant into judgment, for no one living is righteous before you” (cf. Job 4:17; 25:4). The last phrase might be translated “no person will be justified before you” and is cited by the apostle Paul in Gal. 2:16 (cf. Rom. 3:20).
In the NT, there are fewer references to common justification than in the OT and a much greater development of extraordinary justification, predominantly in the Pauline letters (for similar concepts in different terms, see, e.g., “kingdom of God” in the Synoptic Gospels or “eternal life” in the Gospel of John). Common justification in the NT may be described in various contexts: (1) in a specific situation with a human or God as judge and a person’s behavior as the object of judgment (e.g., Luke 16:15; 1 Cor. 4:3–4; perhaps Luke 10:29; 18:9–14); (2) when “wisdom is proved right,” meaning vindicated by the results (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:35); (3) in the release from demands no longer binding (Rom. 6:7; cf. 1 Cor. 6:1); (4) in being proved morally right in fullness (1 Tim. 3:16; cf. Rom. 3:4).
Paul and Justification
Extraordinary justification in the NT is characteristic of the apostle Paul. Luke’s report of Paul’s synagogue sermon in Pisidian Antioch concludes with a brief overview of extraordinary justification (Acts 13:38–39). Paul proclaims that forgiveness of sins is available through Jesus. Every person trusting in Jesus is being justified “from all things from which you could not be justified by the law of Moses” (NKJV). The forgiveness of sins leads to the verdict “innocent” even though sinners apart from Christ are guilty before God of their unrighteous deeds.
In Gal. 2:16 the verb “justify” is used three times: (1) “a person is not justified by observing the law, but by faith in Jesus Christ”; (2) “we, too, have put our faith in Christ Jesus that we may be justified by faith in Christ and not by the works of the law”; (3) “by the works of the law no one will be justified.” The statements may be paraphrased in the active voice (expressing the implied subject) as in the following: (1) God is justifying a person not by works of Mosaic law, but by trust in Jesus Christ; (2) God justified us by trust in Christ, not by works of Mosaic law; (3) God will justify no person by works of Mosaic law. In Gal. 2:16, God is the subject, the agent who justifies (cf. 3:8; Rom. 3:26, 30; 4:5; 8:30, 33). The basis of justification is faith in Christ, not works of the Mosaic law. The meaning of the verb “justify” may be discerned from the context. This justification is related to the gospel (e.g., Gal. 2:14) and to receiving the Spirit (Gal. 3:2, 14), and the verdict of “righteous” for the person trusting in Jesus (Gal. 2:21; cf. 3:6, 11; 5:5; 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:21).
Justification and righteousness are important themes in Paul’s letter to the Romans. At the beginning of the letter, Paul declares that he is not ashamed of the gospel because it is the power of God that brings salvation to all who believe. In the gospel the righteousness of God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith (Rom. 1:16–17). Paul argues in Rom. 1:18–3:20, a section abounding with righteousness language, that all humanity, Gentile and Jew, is under the power of sin (3:10), that no one is righteous (e.g., 3:10–18). All are subject to condemnation (i.e., the declaration of “guilty” and “unrighteous” [cf. 5:16]) rather than justification (i.e., the declaration of “innocent” and “righteous”). No human will be justified before God by works of the law; the law provides knowledge of sin (3:20).
The state resulting from this unrighteousness and sin is God’s wrath (e.g., Rom. 1:18). It is into this situation, this sad state of affairs where all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God, that the righteousness of God, God’s saving activity long anticipated in the OT, is revealed in the person and work of Jesus Christ (3:21; 10:3). This righteousness is from God (3:22), a righteousness not related to human fulfillment of Mosaic law or righteousness of one’s own (Rom. 3:21; 9:31–32; 10:4; Phil. 3:6, 9; cf. Eph. 2:8–9). This righteousness comes from God by trust in Christ (Rom. 3:22; 5:1; 9:30; 10:10; Phil. 3:9). By trust in Christ, God justifies each human in his freely given grace, whereby the human is redeemed from unrighteousness and sin (Rom. 3:24).
The death of Jesus is the sacrifice of atonement by which forgiveness of sins is accomplished and made effectual in the human when one trusts in Jesus’ sacrifice (Rom. 3:25). This sacrifice demonstrates God’s righteousness (3:26) because he justly judges human sin in Jesus. The one who had no sin of his own became sin for us (2 Cor. 5:21; cf. Rom. 5:6, 8; 1 Cor. 15:3). In merciful forbearance, God passes over sins previously committed, delaying the execution of his justice, that he might justify the ungodly person who trusts in Jesus’ person and work (Rom. 3:26; cf. 4:5). This justification is of a different nature than ordinary righteousness on the human level or of the kind that can be obtained by observing the Mosaic law. In this extraordinary justification, God reckons a human innocent of sin and righteous by trust and apart from works of Mosaic law (3:28). Both Jew and Gentile are reckoned righteous under the same condition: trust in Jesus (3:29–30).
Although the revelation of the person and work of Jesus the Messiah was relatively new at the time Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, Paul emphasizes in Rom. 4 that this idea of justification by trust and not by works goes back to the forefather of the Jews, Abraham. Quoting Gen. 15:6, Paul demonstrates from Scripture that trust, not works, was the basis of extraordinary justification: Abraham believes God, and it is credited to him as righteousness. God justifies Abraham (i.e., God credits righteousness to Abraham) on the basis of Abraham’s trust in God. Paul also cites most of Ps. 32:1–2, from a Davidic psalm, to further demonstrate the consistency of justification by faith with previous revelation. In this quotation the crediting of righteousness apart from works is related to the forgiveness of transgression, where the verdict of the guilty becomes “innocent.” “He was delivered over to death for our sins and was raised to life for our justification” (Rom. 4:25). Extraordinary justification of unrighteous sinners leads to the twofold verdict: innocent and righteous.
Titus 3:3–6 expresses the same doctrine of extraordinary justification. Humanity is under sin when Jesus appears. God saves in his mercy through Jesus, not on the basis of righteous human works. This saving activity is equivalent to being justified by Jesus’ grace (3:7).
James and Justification
There are three references to justification in James 2:14–26, which appear at first glance to contradict extraordinary justification as presented by Paul. In support of the claim that faith without deeds is useless (James 2:20), two questions are asked: Was not Abraham considered righteous for what he did, and was not Rahab the prostitute considered righteous for what she did (i.e., justified by works) (2:21, 25)? James 2:24 rephrases this as a proposition: a person is justified by what he or she does, not by faith alone. The context of 2:14–26 demonstrates that although the terms “faith,” “works,” and “justification” are the same as Paul’s, they have different meanings for James. Faith appears in this passage as mere knowledge (2:19), without any implications for living (2:14–18). For Paul, faith is a radical commitment of trust that submits one’s entire life under the lordship of Christ, something much different from the mere belief portrayed as faith by James. Deeds or works in the James passage are the concrete manifestations of what one believes (2:18). Works in the Pauline justification passages are set in opposition to trust in the person and work of the Lord Jesus. Outside of the justification context, Paul is an advocate of works properly related to faith, righteousness, and holiness (e.g., Eph. 2:10; 1 Thess. 1:3; cf. Rom. 1:5; 6:1–23; 8:4; 12:1–2). Justification is also different. Pauline justification most commonly relates to the extraordinary justification of declaring unrighteous sinners “innocent” and “righteous” based on trust in Christ. Justification in James has greater ties to common justification, focusing on the righteousness of a specific act at a specific time.
Other Views on Justification
Shortly after the age of the apostles, the doctrine of justification was deemphasized in many circles of church life in favor of a more moralistic system. One group has repeatedly argued for centuries that justification infuses righteousness into the believer, and then the believer must do good works to complete justification. This conception fails to differentiate between sanctification and justification and also misrepresents justification. In justification God declares the believer innocent and righteous, forgiving sin by means of Christ’s sacrifice and imputing Christ’s righteousness to the believer. This is not “legal fiction,” since justification has past, present, and future aspects (Rom. 3:30; 8:30–34; Gal. 2:16; 5:5). Believers have been, are being, and will be justified by faith in Christ Jesus. Recently, some have claimed that justification is related exclusively to the inclusion of Gentiles into the people of God without “works of the law,” racial and national identity markers (e.g., circumcision or food laws). Among the weaknesses of this view, the key one is that both Jew and Gentile are in need of extraordinary justification (Rom. 3:9, 19–20, 23–26, 30; 9:30–10:13; Gal. 2:15–3:14).
(1) Joseph, called “Barsabbas,” also known by the name “Justus.” He, along with Matthias, was considered to take the place among the apostles vacated by Judas Iscariot (Acts 1:23). (2) Titius (in some manuscripts “Titus”) Justus, a “worshiper of God” in Corinth with whom Paul lodged in his home near the synagogue (Acts 18:7). (3) Jesus Justus, a Jewish Christian coworker with Paul who sent greetings to Colossae (Col. 4:11).
A town in the hill country near Hebron given by lot to the tribe of Judah at the conquest of Canaan (Josh. 15:55). It was reserved for Levites, the descendants of Aaron (Josh. 21:16; 1 Chron. 6:59).
This modern term refers to a problem found also in Scripture: youth who break the law and may be considered incorrigible. In biblical times, persons were considered minors as long as they lived under the roof of their parents, and therefore they were subject to certain responsibilities and restrictions. A disobedient child remained the responsibility of the parents and was required to abide by their rules and disciplines or face serious penalty. Contrary to most modern Western law, youths who broke the law were subject to the same penalties as adults. However, if they broke the law in relation to their parents, particularly showing contempt to parents, they were subject to more-severe penalties (Exod. 21:15, 17; Lev. 20:9; Deut. 27:16; Prov. 20:20). The most serious case of juvenile delinquency in the Bible occurs in Deut. 21:18–21, which lays out the lethal consequences for a youth being incorrigible, completely rejecting parental direction and discipline.