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Maacah

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maacath

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maachah

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maachathites

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maadai

One of the Israelite men guilty of intermarriage with foreign women during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:34).

Maadiah

An ancestor of a clan of priests during the time of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:17). Some identify the name with Maadiah (Neh. 12:5; e.g., NIV).

Maai

One of the musicians who played at the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 12:36).

Maakah

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maakath

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maakathites

(1) The fourth son of Nahor, Abraham’s brother, by the concubine Reumah (Gen. 22:24). (2) The wife of David who gave birth to Absalom, she was the daughter of Talmai king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

(3) The mother of Abijah, second king of Judah, also identified as the daughter of Absalom (1 Kings 15:2 [NIV: “Abishalom,” a variant of “Absalom”; see NIV mg.]) and the wife of Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:20–21). In 2 Chron. 13:2 she is also identified as the mother of Abijah, but here as a descendant of Uriel of Gibeah, likely avoiding a negative reference to Absalom. She is also mentioned as the grandmother of the third king of Judah, Asa. Asa deposed his grandmother because she worshiped false gods (1 Kings 15:10; 2 Chron. 15:16).

(4) The father of Achish, the king of Gath during Solomon’s reign (1 Kings 2:39). (5) Caleb’s concubine, the mother of Sheber and Tirhanah (1 Chron. 2:48). (6) In a difficult and obscure text, Maakah is named as the wife of Makir, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:14–16). Some versions translate the passage in a way that refers to a second Maakah as the sister of Makir (e.g., NIV), but this is not the best understanding of the passage. (7) The wife of Jeiel, a descendant of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:29; 9:35). (8) The mother of Hanan, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). (9) The mother of Shephatiah, an officer in David’s kingdom (1 Chron. 27:16).

(10) A region mentioned in connection with Geshur and other locations northeast of the Sea of Galilee (Josh. 12:5; 13:11, 13; 2 Sam. 10:6, 8; 1 Chron. 19:7), home of the Maakathites (Deut. 3:14). The other sons of Nahor and Reumah (Tebah, Gaham, Tahash), like Maakah (Gen. 22:24), gave their names to locations in what is today Lebanon and Syria. Maakah the wife of David and mother of Absalom also came from this region (2 Sam. 3:3; 1 Chron. 3:2).

Maalehacrabbim

This name (lit., “scorpions”) is actually a shortened form of maaleh ’aqrabbim (“ascent of scorpions”). This is a mountain pass (NIV: “Scorpion Pass”) that marks part of the southern boundary of Canaan’s border, according to Num. 34:4; Josh. 15:3; Judg. 1:36. The pass is actually located southwest of the Dead Sea near the Arabah. The area adjacent to this pass is Akrabattene, which is where Judas Maccabeus defeated the Idumeans (1 Macc. 5:3).

Maarath

A hill-country village in the tribal territory of Judah (Josh. 15:59).

Maareh-Geba

(1) A town located within the borders of the tribe of Benjamin. Gibeah is infamous as the setting where the men of the city raped and murdered the concubine of a Levite who had lodged in the city for the night. In response to this brutal act, an army of Israelites from all the other tribes engaged in battle against Gibeah and the Benjamites, killing all but six hundred men and burning the city (Judg. 19–20). Hosea refers to these events when he compares the sins of Israel in his time to the depravity of Gibeah (Hos. 9:9; 10:9).

Gibeah was the hometown of Saul (1 Sam. 10:26; 15:34; Isa. 10:29), and as such it played a central role during his reign. It was to Gibeah that the elders of Jabesh sent messengers to Saul requesting help (1 Sam. 11:1–5), and from Gibeah that Saul directed his campaign against the Philistines (1 Sam. 13–14). Later, David handed over two of Saul’s sons and five of his grandsons to the Gibeonites to be hanged in Gibeah in retaliation for Saul’s misdeeds (2 Sam. 21:5–6). The final biblical references to Gibeah appear in Isaiah and Hosea in connection with the impending invasion of Assyria (Isa. 10:29; Hos. 5:8).

Some references to Gibeah are problematic. Since gibe’ah is the Hebrew word for “hill,” there is some question whether “Gibeah of God” in 1 Sam. 10:5 (NIV) is a reference to Saul’s hometown or to a high place and should thus be translated as the “hill of God” (KJV, NASB). Similarly, the word gibe’ah in the Benjamite town list in Josh. 18:28 might better be translated as “hill.” Although the NIV translates “Gibeah and Kiriath” here, indicating two distinct towns, the Hebrew MT reads gibe’at qiryat and may refer to the hill of Kiriath Jearim, where the ark of the covenant was located for several years (1 Sam. 7:1–2). Finally, Gibeah occasionally is mentioned in close connection with a town called “Geba,” and some uncertainty exists whether these are distinct cities or linguistic variants of the same name (cf. Judg. 20:10; 1 Sam. 13:3, 16).

Gibeah is identified by most scholars with modern Tel el-Fûl, located about three miles north of Jerusalem. Excavations by W. F. Albright in 1922–23 and 1933 and by P. W. Lapp in 1964 identified five periods of occupation dating from Iron Age I (1200–1000 BC) to the early Roman era (c. AD 70). Finds from the second period (Iron Age IIA, 1000–900 BC) include the remains of a fortress that Albright attributed to Saul, although others suggest it was built by the Philistines and later occupied by Saul. Remains of a second fortress from Iron Age IIA and a third from Iron Age IIB–C (900–586 BC) were also found.

(2) A town located within the borders of the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:57).

(3) A town located in the hill country of Ephraim that had been given to Phinehas, the son of Eleazar and the grandson of Aaron. Eleazar was buried there (Josh. 24:33).

Maasai

A priest who returned from the Babylonian captivity to live in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 9:12). He may be the same person as Amashsai (Neh. 11:13).

Maaseiah

(1) A Levite recruited to play the lyre during the procession of the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:18, 20). (2) The son of Adaiah, he was a military commander who covenanted with Jehoiada to remove Athaliah from power and install Joash (2 Chron. 23:1). (3) An officer of King Uzziah who helped organize the army into divisions (2 Chron. 26:11). (4) The son of King Ahaz who was killed by Zikri the Ephraimite (2 Chron. 28:7). (5) An official sent by King Josiah to repair the temple (2 Chron. 34:8). (6) A descendant of Jeshua (Ezra 10:18) listed among those guilty of marrying foreign women during the time of Ezra.

(7) A descendant of Harim (Ezra 10:21) listed among those guilty of marrying foreign women during the time of Ezra. (8) A descendant of Pashhur (Ezra 10:22) listed among those guilty of marrying foreign women during the time of Ezra. (9) A descendant of Pahath-Moab (Ezra 10:30) listed among those guilty of marrying foreign women during the time of Ezra. (10) The son of Ananiah and the father of Azariah, who helped to repair the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:23). (11) One of the leaders who accompanied Ezra as he read the law (Neh. 8:4). (12) One of the thirteen Levites who interpreted the law for the people (Neh. 8:7). (13) One of the leaders who signed Ezra’s covenant (Neh. 10:25). This may be the same person as #9 or 11.

(14) The son of Baruch, he is listed among the first residents of Jerusalem after the exile (Neh. 11:5). (15) A Benjamite ancestor of Sallu (Neh. 11:7). (16) One of the priestly trumpeters who played to dedicate Jerusalem’s walls (Neh. 12:41). He may be the same person as #6, 7, or 8. (17) A priest involved in dedicating the temple (Neh. 12:42). He may be the same person as #6, 7, or 8. (18) The father of Zephaniah the priest (Jer. 21:1; 29:25; 37:3). (19) The father of Zedekiah the prophet (Jer. 29:21). (20) The son of Shallum, he was a temple doorman (Jer. 35:4). He may be the same person as #18.

Maasiai

A priest who returned from the Babylonian captivity to live in Jerusalem (1 Chron. 9:12). He may be the same person as Amashsai (Neh. 11:13).

Maath

An otherwise unknown postexilic ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:26 as the son of Mattathias and father of Naggai.

Maaz

The first son of Ram and a grandson of Jerahmeel (1 Chron. 2:27).

Maaziah

(1) A priest to whom David assigned the last of twenty-four positions in the priestly order of service (1 Chron. 24:18). (2) One of the officials who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh. 10:8).

Macbannai

One of the eleven Gadite army commanders who defected from Saul to support David before he became king (1 Chron. 12:13).

Macbenah

The son of Sheva and the brother of Gibea in the genealogy of Judah (1 Chron. 2:49). The name may also refer to a place in the Judean hills south of Hebron, but the precise identification is uncertain.

Macedonia

The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula. Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood north of Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace. Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along the Thermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea. The name “Macedonia” comes from a Greek word referring to “tall ones” or “highlanders.”

Culture and Language

Ethnically, the Macedonians were composed of various groups, including Dorians, Illyrians, and Greeks. Macedonians were distinct from but related to the Greeks. Hesiod, an early Greek poet (c. 700 BC), described Macedonia as a “cousin” of the Greeks. To other early Greek writers, the Macedonians were “barbarians.” Alexander I (r. 498–454 BC) embraced the Greek connection to Macedonia by claiming descent from the hero Heracles. After a court determined his claims to be true, he was permitted to participate in the Olympic games, an honor reserved only for Greeks. The Macedonians and the Greeks held similar religious beliefs, as both worshiped the twelve Olympian gods in similar ways. In fact, Mount Olympus is located in Macedonia. Macedonian artwork illustrated these shared religious beliefs as it expressed themes from Greek mythology.

The Macedonian language was a Greek dialect with numerous Phrygian and Illyrian loanwords and elements. To combat the divisive effect of numerous Greek dialects, including Macedonian, Alexander the Great spoke and spread Koine, or common, Greek. In fact, Alexander’s use of Koine Greek was the single greatest factor for the NT being written in Greek.

Although Macedonia had been on the fringe of Greece geographically and culturally, the Macedonians and the Greeks shared much in the way of language, culture, and religion. Especially from the time of Philip II (r. 359–336 BC), the Macedonians embraced Greek education and philosophy. Alexander the Great, a student of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, was the product of a combined Greco-Macedonian culture. Through his conquests, Alexander spread his blended Greco-Macedonian culture, also known as Hellenism, throughout the East, where the populace would speak Koine Greek, worship Greek gods, mimic Greek architecture, build Greek-styled cities, educate their young in gymnasiums, and reexamine the world through Greek philosophy. Differences between Macedonians and Greeks were further muted by exposure to much more distinctive Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. In the NT, “Greek” was less a nationality designation (Acts 20:2) and more of a cultural designation (John 12:20; Acts 14:1). Even Jews could be “Greek.”

History

According to Herodotus, around 650 BC Perdiccas I, the first in the Macedonian list of kings, established the Argead dynasty, which lasted until Alexander the Great. During the Persian invasions (c. 480 BC), the Macedonians cooperated with the Persians, but they also secretly provided supplies to the Greeks. However, it would be through the Macedonians that the Greeks would achieve vengeance against the Persians. Philip II would first unite the rival Greek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. After Philip’s assassination, Alexander led one of the greatest campaigns in history to completely conquer the Persian Empire, which had stretched from Egypt to India (1 Macc. 1:1–7). Because Alexander had no heir, following his death the massive Macedonian empire dissolved into civil war among factions led by his former generals. Ultimately the rule of Macedonia and Greece fell to Antipater until his death in 319 BC. Years of conflict led to the establishment of the Antigonid dynasty, which lasted until the Roman invasion. Philip V won the first Macedonian war (212–205 BC) against Rome, but subsequent wars with Rome led to Macedonia being divided into four republics in 168 BC (1 Macc. 8:5). Twenty years later Rome annexed Macedonia, and in 146 BC Rome made Greece a protectorate administered from Macedonia.

During Rome’s own civil wars, many of the battles were fought in Greece and Macedonia. For example, at the battle of Philippi in 41 BC, Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of Julius Caesar. In 27 BC Octavian, later known as Augustus, turned Macedonia into a senatorial province and separated it from Achaia. In AD 15 Tiberius combined Macedonia, Achaia, and Moesia into one large imperial province. However, in AD 44 Claudius again separated Macedonia from Achaia and made them senatorial provinces. This was the political status when Paul traveled through “Macedonia and Achaia” during his missionary journeys (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26; 1 Thess. 1:7).

The Journeys of Paul

From the time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man calling him to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played a significant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. He established three churches there and wrote three letters to them (Philippians and 1–2 Thessalonians). Several of Paul’s companions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus, Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’s correspondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in six different letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his second missionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “a Roman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia” (Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert, to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailer and his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and the Philippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and the church in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2 Cor. 8:1–5; Phil. 4:15–17).

Paul then traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where he established a church composed of “some” Jews and a “great many” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there at least three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9), where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted the gospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinth in Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his third missionary journey (20:1–6).

Macedonians

The territory linking the Balkans with the Greek Peninsula. Though its borders shifted through its history, Macedonia stood north of Thessaly and mainland Greece, east of Epirus, and west of Thrace. Its topography is dominated by mountains and coastal plains along the Thermaic Gulf and northern shore of the Aegean Sea. The name “Macedonia” comes from a Greek word referring to “tall ones” or “highlanders.”

Culture and Language

Ethnically, the Macedonians were composed of various groups, including Dorians, Illyrians, and Greeks. Macedonians were distinct from but related to the Greeks. Hesiod, an early Greek poet (c. 700 BC), described Macedonia as a “cousin” of the Greeks. To other early Greek writers, the Macedonians were “barbarians.” Alexander I (r. 498–454 BC) embraced the Greek connection to Macedonia by claiming descent from the hero Heracles. After a court determined his claims to be true, he was permitted to participate in the Olympic games, an honor reserved only for Greeks. The Macedonians and the Greeks held similar religious beliefs, as both worshiped the twelve Olympian gods in similar ways. In fact, Mount Olympus is located in Macedonia. Macedonian artwork illustrated these shared religious beliefs as it expressed themes from Greek mythology.

The Macedonian language was a Greek dialect with numerous Phrygian and Illyrian loanwords and elements. To combat the divisive effect of numerous Greek dialects, including Macedonian, Alexander the Great spoke and spread Koine, or common, Greek. In fact, Alexander’s use of Koine Greek was the single greatest factor for the NT being written in Greek.

Although Macedonia had been on the fringe of Greece geographically and culturally, the Macedonians and the Greeks shared much in the way of language, culture, and religion. Especially from the time of Philip II (r. 359–336 BC), the Macedonians embraced Greek education and philosophy. Alexander the Great, a student of the Greek philosopher Aristotle, was the product of a combined Greco-Macedonian culture. Through his conquests, Alexander spread his blended Greco-Macedonian culture, also known as Hellenism, throughout the East, where the populace would speak Koine Greek, worship Greek gods, mimic Greek architecture, build Greek-styled cities, educate their young in gymnasiums, and reexamine the world through Greek philosophy. Differences between Macedonians and Greeks were further muted by exposure to much more distinctive Egyptian and Mesopotamian cultures. In the NT, “Greek” was less a nationality designation (Acts 20:2) and more of a cultural designation (John 12:20; Acts 14:1). Even Jews could be “Greek.”

History

According to Herodotus, around 650 BC Perdiccas I, the first in the Macedonian list of kings, established the Argead dynasty, which lasted until Alexander the Great. During the Persian invasions (c. 480 BC), the Macedonians cooperated with the Persians, but they also secretly provided supplies to the Greeks. However, it would be through the Macedonians that the Greeks would achieve vengeance against the Persians. Philip II would first unite the rival Greek city-states at the battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC. After Philip’s assassination, Alexander led one of the greatest campaigns in history to completely conquer the Persian Empire, which had stretched from Egypt to India (1 Macc. 1:1–7). Because Alexander had no heir, following his death the massive Macedonian empire dissolved into civil war among factions led by his former generals. Ultimately the rule of Macedonia and Greece fell to Antipater until his death in 319 BC. Years of conflict led to the establishment of the Antigonid dynasty, which lasted until the Roman invasion. Philip V won the first Macedonian war (212–205 BC) against Rome, but subsequent wars with Rome led to Macedonia being divided into four republics in 168 BC (1 Macc. 8:5). Twenty years later Rome annexed Macedonia, and in 146 BC Rome made Greece a protectorate administered from Macedonia.

During Rome’s own civil wars, many of the battles were fought in Greece and Macedonia. For example, at the battle of Philippi in 41 BC, Octavian defeated Brutus and Cassius, the assassins of Julius Caesar. In 27 BC Octavian, later known as Augustus, turned Macedonia into a senatorial province and separated it from Achaia. In AD 15 Tiberius combined Macedonia, Achaia, and Moesia into one large imperial province. However, in AD 44 Claudius again separated Macedonia from Achaia and made them senatorial provinces. This was the political status when Paul traveled through “Macedonia and Achaia” during his missionary journeys (Acts 19:21; Rom. 15:26; 1 Thess. 1:7).

The Journeys of Paul

From the time that Paul received his vision of a Macedonian man calling him to proclaim the gospel (Acts 16:9), Macedonia played a significant role in Paul’s journeys and the early church. He established three churches there and wrote three letters to them (Philippians and 1–2 Thessalonians). Several of Paul’s companions were Macedonians, including Sopater, Aristarchus, Secundus, and Jason (Acts 17:4–7; 20:4). In Paul’s correspondence he spoke of Macedonia at least sixteen times in six different letters. Answering the Macedonian call during his second missionary journey, Paul arrived in Philippi, which was “a Roman colony and a leading city of that district of Macedonia” (Acts 16:12). There he led Lydia, the first known European convert, to the gospel. After casting an evil spirit out from a slave girl, Paul and Silas were imprisoned, and they led the Philippian jailer and his family to the gospel (Acts 16:16–40). Lydia and the Philippian church generously supported Paul’s ministry and the church in Jerusalem (Rom. 15:26–27; 2 Cor. 8:1–5; Phil. 4:15–17).

Paul then traveled along the paved Via Egnatia to Thessalonica, where he established a church composed of “some” Jews and a “great many” Greeks and leading women (Acts 17:4). He stayed there at least three Sabbaths before opposition drove him to Berea (17:1–9), where many examined the Scriptures and more eagerly accepted the gospel (17:11). From Berea, he left Macedonia for Athens and Corinth in Achaia. Paul later returned to Macedonia during his third missionary journey (20:1–6).

Machaerus

A fortress located four miles east of the Dead Sea, Machaerus is not named in Scripture, but the Jewish historian Josephus lists it as the place where Herod Antipas imprisoned and beheaded John the Baptist (Ant. 18.119; cf. Matt. 14:1–12). It is situated on a prominent height between Wadi Zarqa Ma’in and Wadi Heidan. Originally fortified by the Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus and destroyed by the Romans in the first century BC, the fortress was rebuilt by Herod the Great, who continued to use the site, as did his son Antipas. Machaerus is identified with the ruins near the modern village of Mukawir. Excavated remains date to the first centuries BC and AD, as well as to the final Roman destruction in AD 72.

Machbanai

One of the eleven Gadite army commanders who defected from Saul to support David before he became king (1 Chron. 12:13).

Machbenah

The son of Sheva and the brother of Gibea in the genealogy of Judah (1 Chron. 2:49). The name may also refer to a place in the Judean hills south of Hebron, but the precise identification is uncertain.

Machi

From the tribe of Gad of the wilderness generation, he was the father of Geuel, one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore Canaan (Num. 13:15).

Machir

(1) The oldest son of Manasseh and a grandson of Joseph (Josh. 17:1). He was the father of Gilead, Peresh, and Sheresh (Josh. 17:3; 1 Chron. 7:16) and an unnamed daughter (1 Chron. 2:21). His children were “placed at birth on Joseph’s knees” (Gen. 50:23), an idiom for legal adoption and inheritance rights. This places the Makirite clan, which Makir headed (Num. 26:29), in Egypt and under the house of Joseph. Makir had a brother, Asriel (1 Chron. 7:14), and a wife, Maakah (1 Chron. 7:16).

After assisting the other Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan (Num. 32:39–40), the descendants of Makir captured Transjordan Gilead, which Moses earlier had allotted to Makir (Deut. 3:15). In the Song of Deborah, Makir is named in a geographical listing of the tribes as they leave to battle Sisera (Judg. 5:14). Makir occurs in the list (after Ephraim-Benjamin and before Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali) where Manasseh typically would be listed.

(2) The son of Ammiel from Lo Debar and a descendant of Manasseh. Saul’s son Mephibosheth lived in his house (2 Sam. 9:4–5). Makir also brought beds, basins, vessels, and food to support David and his people during the time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam. 17:27–29).

Machirites

(1) The oldest son of Manasseh and a grandson of Joseph (Josh. 17:1). He was the father of Gilead, Peresh, and Sheresh (Josh. 17:3; 1 Chron. 7:16) and an unnamed daughter (1 Chron. 2:21). His children were “placed at birth on Joseph’s knees” (Gen. 50:23), an idiom for legal adoption and inheritance rights. This places the Makirite clan, which Makir headed (Num. 26:29), in Egypt and under the house of Joseph. Makir had a brother, Asriel (1 Chron. 7:14), and a wife, Maakah (1 Chron. 7:16).

After assisting the other Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan (Num. 32:39–40), the descendants of Makir captured Transjordan Gilead, which Moses earlier had allotted to Makir (Deut. 3:15). In the Song of Deborah, Makir is named in a geographical listing of the tribes as they leave to battle Sisera (Judg. 5:14). Makir occurs in the list (after Ephraim-Benjamin and before Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali) where Manasseh typically would be listed.

(2) The son of Ammiel from Lo Debar and a descendant of Manasseh. Saul’s son Mephibosheth lived in his house (2 Sam. 9:4–5). Makir also brought beds, basins, vessels, and food to support David and his people during the time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam. 17:27–29).

Machnadebai

A descendant of Binnui, he is listed among the Israelites who sent away their foreign wives during the postexilic reforms of Ezra (Ezra 10:40).

Machpelah

A cave at Hebron purchased by Abraham as a burial place for his wife Sarah (Gen. 23). Machpelah became the burial site for most of the patriarchs and their wives. Abraham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, and Jacob and Leah were buried in the same cave (Gen. 49:31). By starting this family burial site in Canaan, Abraham marked Canaan as the ancestral homeland for future Israelites, as opposed to Ur or Harran, where his family had lived earlier. At about the time of Jesus, a massive structure sixty feet high was erected over the cave, apparently by Herod the Great. Still intact, this building has been used through the years as a Jewish memorial, a Crusader church, and now a Muslim mosque. Six cenotaphs (representative tombs) dominate the interior of the building, commemorating the patriarchs and their wives originally buried in the cave below.

Macnadebai

A descendant of Binnui, he is listed among the Israelites who sent away their foreign wives during the postexilic reforms of Ezra (Ezra 10:40).

Madaba

A Moabite city and surrounding territory in the Transjordan. Numbers 21:30 mentions it as a site that had been taken from the Moabites by Sihon king of the Amorites, which was defeated and incorporated into Israel and given to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:9, 16). Later in history it is reported as a staging area for the army of the king of Maakah, who had been hired to support Hanun of Ammon in his fight against David (1 Chron. 19:7). Isaiah refers to it in an oracle against Moab (Isa. 15:2). It is also mentioned on the ninth-century BC Moabite Stone (lines 8, 30) as having been freed from Israel by Mesha king of Moab. It is identified with the archaeological site Madaba (or Madeba).

Madai

In the Table of Nations (Gen. 10:2; see also 1 Chron. 1:5, a genealogy of the three sons of Noah that reflects later nations and languages), Madai is the third of Japheth’s seven sons. He is considered to be the ancestor of the Medes, a people who lived in the Iranian plateau.

Madian

Midian was one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah (Gen. 25:1–2). Just before dying, Abraham leaves everything to Isaac and sends Midian and his brothers away “to the land of the east” (25:5–6). The biblical narrative regards him as the progenitor of the Midianites, who inhabited what is now southern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The relations between the Israelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generally adversarial. Moses’ experience is the exception: After fleeing Egypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has an amicable relationship with Jethro, her father (also named Reuel), who was also a priest (Exod. 2–3). Jethro even accompanies the Israelites during part of their wilderness wanderings and gives Moses advice on leading the people (Exod. 18).

The remaining references to the Midianites in the OT are largely antagonistic. In Genesis, the merchants who buy Joseph from his brothers and take him down to Egypt are Midianite (37:25–36). (The merchants are also referred to as Ishmaelites in the same narrative, and it may well be that the term “Ishmaelite” could both refer to Ishmaelites proper and serve to denote Arabic nomadic peoples in general; see also Judg. 8:22–24.) In Numbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop the Israelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to curse them (Num. 22–24). Although this attempt fails, because God will not allow Balaam to curse the Israelites, idolatrous sexual relations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to put a plague on his own people (Num. 25). One of God’s last instructions to Moses before his death is to make war against the Midianites to exact revenge for their causing the Israelites to sin (Num. 31). On the other hand, when the Israelites continue their cycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to other nations, including the Midianites (Judg. 6–9). Israelite victories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated in various later passages in the OT (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Hab. 3:7).

Madmannah

(1) A place in the Negev, the southernmost region of Judah (Josh. 15:31). Some want to translate the name as “Dung Heap.” However, there is a probable connection with the personal name “Madmannah” in 1 Chron. 2:49, and it is implausible that a person would be given a name carrying that meaning (see also Madmen; Madmenah). Joshua 19:5 puts a city, Beth Markaboth (“house of the chariots”), in a list where one might expect Madmannah; thus it is likely that the name of this city may have changed. The city might be identified today with Khirbet umm Deimneh. (2) The son of Shaaph and a grandson of Maakah, Caleb’s concubine (1 Chron. 2:49).

Madmen

A Moabite town of uncertain location (Jer. 48:2). It appears in an oracle against Moab and employs a wordplay when it states that Madmen will be “silenced” (from the Hebrew verb damam). Some believe that it is related to the Hebrew word for “dung heap,” and that its actual reference is to the Moabite city Dimon. See also Madmannah; Madmenah.

Madmenah

A place whose name has been etymologically connected to the Hebrew word for “dung heap.” The town is mentioned in a prophetic, not actual, description of an Assyrian attack on Jerusalem (Isa. 10:31). Although the Assyrians advance, getting as close to Jerusalem as Madmenah, God stops them before they can take Jerusalem. See also Madmannah; Madmen.

Madon

A town mentioned as part of the Canaanite northern coalition against Joshua led by Jabin king of Hazor (Josh. 11:1). Joshua defeated this coalition, and Madon’s king, Jobab, is listed as one defeated by the Israelites (Josh. 12:19). Its exact location is uncertain.

Magadan

A region probably on the western side of the Sea of Galilee. Jesus went here after feeding the four thousand (Matt. 15:39 [KJV: “Magdala”]). However, the parallel account in Mark names the location where Jesus and his disciples traveled to as Dalmanutha (Mark 8:10). The exact location is unknown.

Magbish

A site in Judah or possibly Benjamin of otherwise unknown location. Ezra 2:30 mentions that 156 exiles from this place returned from Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubabbel.

Magdala

Magdala, located four miles north of Tiberias, was a center for fishing and boats on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee around the first century AD. Its Greek name was “Taricheae.” “Magdala” appears only in the KJV of Matt. 15:39, where other versions follow the better reading, “Magadan.” Mary Magdalene (Mary from Magdala) was one of Jesus’ closest followers (Matt. 27:55–56; John 20:1).

Magdalene

Magdala, located four miles north of Tiberias, was a center for fishing and boats on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee around the first century AD. Its Greek name was “Taricheae.” “Magdala” appears only in the KJV of Matt. 15:39, where other versions follow the better reading, “Magadan.” Mary Magdalene (Mary from Magdala) was one of Jesus’ closest followers (Matt. 27:55–56; John 20:1).

Magdiel

One of the chiefs of Edom (Gen. 36:43; 1 Chron. 1:54). “Magdiel” is also likely the name of an Edomite tribe.

Maggot

A general term for the larvae of any fly. Associated with decay and destruction (Exod. 16:20, 24; Isa. 14:11), the word connotes a sense of disgusting brevity and insignificance (Job 25:6).

Magi

According to Matt. 2:1–12, “Magi from the east” visited Jesus after his birth. It is unclear how old Jesus was at this time, and some have proposed that the visit occurred as late as his second year, based on Herod’s order to kill all the male children in Bethlehem under the age of two (Matt. 2:16). The tradition that the visit occurred shortly after Jesus’ birth (as reflected in the celebration of Epiphany on January 6) and the artistic tradition of depicting the magi alongside the shepherds of Luke 2:8–20 cannot be confirmed from the biblical accounts. The magi visited Jesus in a house (Matt. 2:11), not in an inn or stable (cf. Luke 2:7). The magi appear only in Matt. 2:1–12, and the shepherds only in Luke 2:8–20. The contrasting stories of magi and shepherds probably represent the distinct theological interests of Matthew and Luke. The story of the magi and their gifts recalls Ps. 72:10; Isa. 60:6.

The word “magi” suggests neither wise philosophers in the Greco-Roman sense nor the kings of later artistic depictions, but rather the sages of Eastern wisdom. Whoever they were, the magi were observers of the heavens. On the basis of Matthew’s portrayal of the magi’s knowledge of Hebrew Scripture (Matt. 2:5–6), some have suggested that the magi were Jews of Mesopotamia. The number and names of the magi are not mentioned in Matthew, but tradition has assigned them both names (Melchior, Caspar, Balthasar) and number. The tradition of there being three wise men perhaps is derived from the three gifts mentioned in Matt. 2:11, but this inference probably is not intended by the evangelist.

Elsewhere in the NT, the Greek noun magos and the related verb mageuō have the negative connotation of sorcery and magic (Acts 8:9–11; 13:6, 8).

Magic

Divination and magic were fairly common practices throughout the biblical period. Divination was especially prevalent in the ancient Near East during the OT era, but many divination and magic/sorcery practices continued into the NT era throughout the Mediterranean region as well. Divination, which encompasses a wide range of magic-related practices, generally refers to various techniques used to communicate with supernatural entities such as gods and spirits in order to determine the future, ward off evil, or change something for the better. Divination emphasizes obtaining information that would otherwise be unknown to humans. Magic and sorcery, on the other hand, while overlapping to some degree with divination, use curses and spells to influence and affect people, often with the intention of harming one’s enemies, but also to enhance the fortunes of those issuing the spells. Thus, magic and sorcery generally emphasize influencing people or events through supernatural or occult means. However, often the practices overlap and are frequently carried out by the same person. Likewise, especially in the OT and throughout the ancient Near East during the OT era, the terminology for diviners, magicians, and sorcerers was quite fluid and not precise or restrictive.

The nonbiblical literary texts of Israel’s neighbors in the ancient Near East (especially Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia) contain hundreds of references to various types of divination and magic. The most common divination techniques involved (1) watching birds and the patterns of their flight; (2) observing drops of oil spreading across the surface of water in a bucket; (3) astrology; and (4) removing and observing the entrails of animals, especially the liver. From observing these things, the skilled diviner supposedly could interpret the future and advise a king (or other patron) about what course to follow. Magic included the casting of spells as well as the wearing of charms and amulets.

The book of Acts clearly indicates that magic and sorcery (and probably divination) were still quite prevalent in the NT era. Peter confronts a sorcerer, Simon, in Acts 8:9–24. In numerous early nonbiblical Christian writings, there are references to this same Simon as a powerful sorcerer who contended with Peter in various ways. Later in Acts, Paul and Barnabas encountered a Jewish sorcerer, Bar-Jesus, at the very beginning of their first missionary journey (Acts 13:6), perhaps indicating that this type of hostile power was fairly prevalent in many of the places where the early church was taking root. Likewise, in Acts 19:19, when the citizens of Ephesus responded to the gospel in large numbers, “a number who had practiced sorcery brought their scrolls together and burned them,” indicating that sorcery was widespread in Ephesus.

In the OT, the practice of divination and numerous other kinds of magic and sorcery was strictly prohibited. Deuteronomy 18:9–14 presents a list of prohibited practices (although the precise translation of the Hebrew terms in this text is difficult). There, divination and all other related pagan methods of seeing or determining the future are described as detestable. Likewise, a wide range of practices relating to sorcery, magic, and witchcraft are prohibited (casting spells, consulting with the dead, etc.). In contrast, this passage is followed by a description of the proper way to engage with the supernatural: through true biblical prophets chosen by God and speaking in his name (Deut. 18:17–22).

Likewise, in the NT, especially in the book of Acts, those who had the Spirit were proved repeatedly to be infinitely more powerful than even the most famous of sorcerers and those who practiced witchcraft. Paul includes “witchcraft” (Gk. pharmakeia, which probably includes sorcery and magic) in his list of “acts of the flesh” (Gal. 5:19–20). Finally, the book of Revelation pronounces judgment on those who practice magic arts and sorcery (9:21; 18:23; 21:8; 22:15).

Magic Band

A condemned object in Ezekiel’s denunciation of false prophetesses who prophesied out of their own inspiration (Ezek. 13:18). It was a sewn object placed on the wrist and associated with veils of various lengths. Although the exact function is unknown, this item was used in magical practices involving “the hunt for the soul.” The Israelites likely derived the practice from Mesopotamia, a civilization entrenched in magic.

Magic Charm

A condemned object in Ezekiel’s denunciation of false prophetesses who prophesied out of their own inspiration (Ezek. 13:18). It was a sewn object placed on the wrist and associated with veils of various lengths. Although the exact function is unknown, this item was used in magical practices involving “the hunt for the soul.” The Israelites likely derived the practice from Mesopotamia, a civilization entrenched in magic.

Magistrate

A government official with administrative or judicial functions. In the OT, the NIV and other modern translations use the term “magistrate” to render Aramaic words in Ezra 7:25 and Dan. 3:2–3 that denote a leadership position with a role in administering justice. In the NT, these Bible versions use the term exclusively in Luke-Acts, primarily for the leaders in Philippi before whom Paul and Silas are accused in Acts 16 (see also Luke 12:58). The KJV also uses the term in Judg. 18:7; Luke 12:11; and Titus 3:1 to refer to rulers or judges.

Magnificat

The first word of the Latin translation (Magnificat anima mea Dominum) of Mary’s song (Luke 1:46–55) that celebrates God’s humiliation of the proud and his vindication of the lowly. It resembles the OT song of Hannah (1 Sam. 2:1–10). Three Latin manuscripts attribute the Magnificat to Elizabeth rather than to Mary.

Magog

This infamous pair is known to most readers of the Bible from Rev. 20:8. They stand for all the nations of the world, which are enticed by Satan to attack the saints in the end times. This text universalizes Ezek. 38–39, where “Gog, of the land of Magog, the chief prince of Meshek and Tubal” (38:2–3), is the commander of a coalition (38:2–7) to be gathered in an unprovoked attack on a restored, defenseless Israel. He acts not on his own initiative but rather is impelled and ultimately destroyed by God (38:21–23; 39:2–6). Some have suggested that the mysterious Gog derives from the historical figure Gyges, a seventh-century BC king of Lydia located in western Asia Minor, or Gaga, a god mentioned in the Ras Shamra texts of ancient Ugarit. Others believe that the name “Gog” is derived from “Magog,” since Magog, the land “in the far north” from which Gog came (Ezek. 38:2, 15; 39:6), can be translated as “place of Gog.” Magog is associated in the Table of Nations (Gen. 10:2) with Meshek and Tubal, eponymous sons of Japheth whose territories are presumed to lie somewhere in the vicinity of modern Turkey.

Magor-Missabib

After being punished as a false prophet by the priest Pashhur, Jeremiah renames him “Magor-Missabib,” which means “terror on every side” (Jer. 20:1–6). Since the priest epitomizes the sins of Judah as well as the Judeans’ resistance to God’s message through Jeremiah, he also represents the punishments that will come not just to him but to all Judeans.

Magpiash

One of the lay leaders who sealed the reaffirmed covenant of God with Judah after the reestablishment of the law and the rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 10:20).

Mahalab

A site in Asher according to Josh. 19:29 NRSV. However, there are textual issues associated with this name. This reading is based on the LXX, whereas the Hebrew reads mekhebel (NET: “from Hebel”). Further, comparison with Judg. 1:31 suggests that this site is the same as that of Ahlab.

Mahalah

(1) One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. They appealed to Moses for special provision to allow them to receive their father’s inheritance in the promised land because he had no sons (Num. 26:33; 27:1–11; 36:11). Once in the land, the daughters renewed their petition before Joshua, and they were given an allotment among the brothers of their father within the tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 17:3). (2) A son or daughter of Hammoleketh, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:18).

Mahalaleel

(1) A patriarch listed in Gen. 5 among Adam’s descendants (cf. 1 Chron. 1:2). He was fathered by Kenan in the fourth generation after Adam; he was 65 when he fathered Jared, and he lived to be 895 years old (Gen. 5:12–17). In Luke 3:37 the Greek form of the name is “Mahalaleel” (KJV: “Maleleel”). (2) The father of Shephatiah and a descendant of Judah through Perez (Neh. 11:4).

Mahalalel

(1) A patriarch listed in Gen. 5 among Adam’s descendants (cf. 1 Chron. 1:2). He was fathered by Kenan in the fourth generation after Adam; he was 65 when he fathered Jared, and he lived to be 895 years old (Gen. 5:12–17). In Luke 3:37 the Greek form of the name is “Mahalaleel” (KJV: “Maleleel”). (2) The father of Shephatiah and a descendant of Judah through Perez (Neh. 11:4).

Mahalath

(1) A granddaughter of Abraham and the daughter of Ishmael who married Esau (Gen. 28:9). In Gen. 36:3 she is named “Basemath.” (2) A wife of King Rehoboam. She was the daughter of David’s son Jerimoth and Abihail (2 Chron. 11:18). (3) A term of uncertain meaning found in the superscriptions of Pss. 53; 88. The term is likely a musical or choreographic instruction. In Ps. 88 the term is followed by le’annot (which can mean either “to inflict” or “to sing out”) and may indicate a kind of lamentation rite, a type of responsive performance by two groups, or a completed rite of affliction.

Mahalath Leannoth

(1) A granddaughter of Abraham and the daughter of Ishmael who married Esau (Gen. 28:9). In Gen. 36:3 she is named “Basemath.” (2) A wife of King Rehoboam. She was the daughter of David’s son Jerimoth and Abihail (2 Chron. 11:18). (3) A term of uncertain meaning found in the superscriptions of Pss. 53; 88. The term is likely a musical or choreographic instruction. In Ps. 88 the term is followed by le’annot (which can mean either “to inflict” or “to sing out”) and may indicate a kind of lamentation rite, a type of responsive performance by two groups, or a completed rite of affliction.

Mahali

(1) A grandson of Levi, son of Merari, and brother of Mushi. He was the head of a Levite clan (Exod. 6:16–19; Num. 3:17–20). Mahli’s son Eleazar died without a son (1 Chron. 23:21–22). (2) A great-grandson of Levi, he was the son of Mushi (1 Chron. 6:47; 23:23) and a nephew to the Mahli of Exod. 6:16–19; Num. 3:17–20.

Mahanaim

This city, whose name means “two camps,” was named by Jacob when he met the angels of God right before his encounter with God at Peniel (Gen. 32:2). After the conquest and settlement, Mahanaim was located on the border of Gad and Manasseh and set aside as a Levitical city (Josh. 13:26, 30; 21:38). It served as the capital for Saul’s son Ish-Bosheth until his murder led to the unification of David’s kingdom (2 Sam. 2:8, 12, 29). David sought refuge here when pursued by Absalom and used it as his headquarters when fighting against his son (2 Sam. 17:24, 27; 19:32). Solomon made it the seat of one of his administrative districts (1 Kings 4:14). Situated east of the Jordan and north of the Jabbok Rivers, its precise location remains uncertain. According to the Song of Songs 6:13 the woman asks the man why he looks at her as on the “dance of Mahanaim,” which is better translated the “dance of two war camps.” Whatever the translation, the context makes it clear she is referring to the fact that he cannot take his eyes off of her.

Maharai

A descendant of Zerah and one of David’s thirty mighty warriors. He was one of two mighty warriors from Netophah, less than ten miles south of Jerusalem (2 Sam. 23:28–29; 1 Chron. 11:30). Maharai’s division of twenty-four thousand soldiers was on duty in the tenth month of the year (1 Chron. 27:13).

Mahath

(1) A descendant of Levi through Kohath and Amasai, and also an ancestor of Heman the musician (1 Chron. 6:35). (2) A descendant of Levi through Kohath and Amasai, he worked as a Levitical supervisor under Konaniah and Shimei to reopen the temple during King Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chron. 29:12; 31:13).

Mahavite

A designation indicating that Eliel, one of David’s thirty mighty warriors, was from Mahavah (1 Chron. 11:46).

Mahazioth

One of Heman the seer’s fourteen sons, who were Levites set apart for ministering in the temple with music (1 Chron. 25:1, 4–6, 30).

Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz

A name whose precise translation is disputed but means something close to “the spoil speeds, the prey hastens.” God commanded Isaiah to give one of his sons this name as part of a prophecy that Judah would soon be delivered from the Syro-Ephraimite threat (Isa. 8:1–4). Specifically, the prophecy assured Judah that this turn of events would occur before Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz could speak. This prophecy dealt with the same threat as in Isa. 7 but added the assurance that the promised deliverance would take place swiftly. The prophecy found fulfillment when Assyria plundered Ephraim in 733 BC and conquered Damascus in 732 BC. The birth of Maher-Shalal-Hash-Baz can therefore be dated with some confidence to 734 BC.

Mahlah

(1) One of the five daughters of Zelophehad. They appealed to Moses for special provision to allow them to receive their father’s inheritance in the promised land because he had no sons (Num. 26:33; 27:1–11; 36:11). Once in the land, the daughters renewed their petition before Joshua, and they were given an allotment among the brothers of their father within the tribe of Manasseh (Josh. 17:3). (2) A son or daughter of Hammoleketh, a descendant of Manasseh (1 Chron. 7:18).

Mahli

(1) A grandson of Levi, son of Merari, and brother of Mushi. He was the head of a Levite clan (Exod. 6:16–19; Num. 3:17–20). Mahli’s son Eleazar died without a son (1 Chron. 23:21–22). (2) A great-grandson of Levi, he was the son of Mushi (1 Chron. 6:47; 23:23) and a nephew to the Mahli of Exod. 6:16–19; Num. 3:17–20.

Mahlites

The descendants of Mahli, son of Merari and grandson of Levi (Num. 3:33). The Mahlites were one of several Levite clans (Num. 26:58). Sherebiah, a Mahlite, accompanied Ezra from Babylon to Jerusalem (Ezra 8:18).

Mahlon

The first husband of Ruth the Moabite (Ruth 4:9). When famine struck Judah, Mahlon traveled with his family to Moab in search of food (1:1–2). There, Mahlon took Ruth as his wife, but he died after living about ten years in Moab (1:4–5). Ruth’s second husband, Boaz, maintained Mahlon’s name and property by taking Ruth as his wife and fathering a son on Mahlon’s behalf (Ruth 4:10, 17; cf. Deut. 25:5–6).

Mahol

The father of Heman, Kalcol, and Darda. His sons were renowned wise men (Solomon was lauded as surpassing their wisdom [1 Kings 4:31]). Some suggest that the title “sons of Mahol” may refer to members of a musicians’ guild or a group of temple dancers. It was not unusual to observe prophetic wisdom in musicians (1 Sam. 10:5; 2 Kings 3:15–19; 1 Chron. 25:1–6).

Mahseiah

The grandfather of Baruch, Jeremiah’s scribe (Jer. 32:12), and of Seraiah, the quartermaster of King Zedekiah of Judah (Jer. 51:59).

Maid

The KJV translation for a young girl, an unmarried woman or virgin, or a female servant. At least five Hebrew words are used to refer to such women. Betulah refers to an unmarried virgin or a young woman who has had no sexual experience (Gen. 24:16; Job 31:1; Exod. 22:16–17). A man who forcefully lay with such a woman was expected to marry her (Deut. 22:13–19). When David was old, a virgin was found to lie at his side to keep him warm (1 Kings 1:2). Israel as a nation is identified as a young virgin (Jer. 31:4). The second term is ’amah, translated “bondwoman,” “maidservant,” “maid,” “bondmaid,” “servant,” or “female servant” (Gen. 20:17; Exod. 2:5). The third is shipkhah, which refers to a female slave who is of close kinship to her master (Gen. 29:24). The fourth is na’arah, which is translated “unmarried girl” (Esther 2:4 [NIV: “young woman”]) or “servant” (Esther 4:4 [NIV: “female attendant”]; Ruth 2:23). The fifth is ’almah, which is translated “girl” (Exod. 2:8), “virgin” (Isa. 7:14), or “maiden” (Prov. 30:19 [NIV: “young woman”]).

In the NT, several Greek words are sometimes translated as “maiden” in the KJV. Parthenos refers to a “virgin,” male or female (Matt. 1:23; Acts 21:9; Rev. 14:4). Pais generally means “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child” (Luke 8:51, 54). Paidiskē refers to a “female slave,” “servant maid,” or “servant girl” (Mark 14:66; Luke 12:45). The word korasion refers to a “girl” or “little girl” (Matt. 9:24–25). Nymphē refers to a “young wife” or “bride” (Luke 12:53; Rev. 21:2).

Maiden

The KJV translation for a young girl, an unmarried woman or virgin, or a female servant. At least five Hebrew words are used to refer to such women. Betulah refers to an unmarried virgin or a young woman who has had no sexual experience (Gen. 24:16; Job 31:1; Exod. 22:16–17). A man who forcefully lay with such a woman was expected to marry her (Deut. 22:13–19). When David was old, a virgin was found to lie at his side to keep him warm (1 Kings 1:2). Israel as a nation is identified as a young virgin (Jer. 31:4). The second term is ’amah, translated “bondwoman,” “maidservant,” “maid,” “bondmaid,” “servant,” or “female servant” (Gen. 20:17; Exod. 2:5). The third is shipkhah, which refers to a female slave who is of close kinship to her master (Gen. 29:24). The fourth is na’arah, which is translated “unmarried girl” (Esther 2:4 [NIV: “young woman”]) or “servant” (Esther 4:4 [NIV: “female attendant”]; Ruth 2:23). The fifth is ’almah, which is translated “girl” (Exod. 2:8), “virgin” (Isa. 7:14), or “maiden” (Prov. 30:19 [NIV: “young woman”]).

In the NT, several Greek words are sometimes translated as “maiden” in the KJV. Parthenos refers to a “virgin,” male or female (Matt. 1:23; Acts 21:9; Rev. 14:4). Pais generally means “a young girl,” “maiden,” or “child” (Luke 8:51, 54). Paidiskē refers to a “female slave,” “servant maid,” or “servant girl” (Mark 14:66; Luke 12:45). The word korasion refers to a “girl” or “little girl” (Matt. 9:24–25). Nymphē refers to a “young wife” or “bride” (Luke 12:53; Rev. 21:2).

Maimed

Several Hebrew and Greek words referring to bodily mutilation are translated as “maimed” or sometimes as “crippled” or “lame.” In ancient Israel such physical defects made Levites ineligible for priestly service (Lev. 21:16–23) and rendered animals unfit for sacrifice (22:22). In Jesus’ time the maimed were on the fringes of society because their condition was considered a sign of God’s contempt for them. Christ’s public ministry therefore scandalized the Jewish establishment of his day because he healed and associated with social outcasts like the maimed. In one of his parables the “poor and maimed and blind and lame” (Luke 14:21 RSV) would be brought to the banquet, but the host would reject those who were invited but made excuses not to attend.

Makaz

A city in Solomon’s second administrative district (1 Kings 4:9), one of four cities for which Ben-Deker was the officer. Each officer supplied food and provisions for the king and his household for one month in the year.

Makbannai

One of the eleven Gadite army commanders who defected from Saul to support David before he became king (1 Chron. 12:13).

Makbenah

The son of Sheva and the brother of Gibea in the genealogy of Judah (1 Chron. 2:49). The name may also refer to a place in the Judean hills south of Hebron, but the precise identification is uncertain.

Makheloth

The tenth encampment of the Israelites after leaving Mount Sinai (Num. 33:25–26). Since its meaning (“to assemble”) is the same as for Kehelathah (Num. 33:22–23), some have suggested that they are the same location.

Maki

From the tribe of Gad of the wilderness generation, he was the father of Geuel, one of the twelve spies sent by Moses to explore Canaan (Num. 13:15).

Makir

(1) The oldest son of Manasseh and a grandson of Joseph (Josh. 17:1). He was the father of Gilead, Peresh, and Sheresh (Josh. 17:3; 1 Chron. 7:16) and an unnamed daughter (1 Chron. 2:21). His children were “placed at birth on Joseph’s knees” (Gen. 50:23), an idiom for legal adoption and inheritance rights. This places the Makirite clan, which Makir headed (Num. 26:29), in Egypt and under the house of Joseph. Makir had a brother, Asriel (1 Chron. 7:14), and a wife, Maakah (1 Chron. 7:16).

After assisting the other Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan (Num. 32:39–40), the descendants of Makir captured Transjordan Gilead, which Moses earlier had allotted to Makir (Deut. 3:15). In the Song of Deborah, Makir is named in a geographical listing of the tribes as they leave to battle Sisera (Judg. 5:14). Makir occurs in the list (after Ephraim-Benjamin and before Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali) where Manasseh typically would be listed.

(2) The son of Ammiel from Lo Debar and a descendant of Manasseh. Saul’s son Mephibosheth lived in his house (2 Sam. 9:4–5). Makir also brought beds, basins, vessels, and food to support David and his people during the time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam. 17:27–29).

Makirites

(1) The oldest son of Manasseh and a grandson of Joseph (Josh. 17:1). He was the father of Gilead, Peresh, and Sheresh (Josh. 17:3; 1 Chron. 7:16) and an unnamed daughter (1 Chron. 2:21). His children were “placed at birth on Joseph’s knees” (Gen. 50:23), an idiom for legal adoption and inheritance rights. This places the Makirite clan, which Makir headed (Num. 26:29), in Egypt and under the house of Joseph. Makir had a brother, Asriel (1 Chron. 7:14), and a wife, Maakah (1 Chron. 7:16).

After assisting the other Israelite tribes in the conquest of Canaan (Num. 32:39–40), the descendants of Makir captured Transjordan Gilead, which Moses earlier had allotted to Makir (Deut. 3:15). In the Song of Deborah, Makir is named in a geographical listing of the tribes as they leave to battle Sisera (Judg. 5:14). Makir occurs in the list (after Ephraim-Benjamin and before Zebulun, Issachar, and Naphtali) where Manasseh typically would be listed.

(2) The son of Ammiel from Lo Debar and a descendant of Manasseh. Saul’s son Mephibosheth lived in his house (2 Sam. 9:4–5). Makir also brought beds, basins, vessels, and food to support David and his people during the time of Absalom’s rebellion (2 Sam. 17:27–29).

Makkedah

A city in the foothills west of the Judean hill country that figures prominently in the account of Israel’s conquest of southern Canaan. Following the battle at Gibeon in which the sun stood still (Josh. 10:12–13), Joshua and the Israelite army chased the enemy coalition out of the hills as far as Makkedah (10:10), one of the cities in Canaan ruled by a king (12:16). After the battle Joshua killed the five confederate Amorite kings in a ceremony at a cave at Makkedah, where they had sought refuge (10:16–27). Israel’s army then camped there before conquering the city (10:21, 28). Makkedah was in the vicinity of Lachish (15:37–41), but its exact location is uncertain.

Maknadebai

A descendant of Binnui, he is listed among the Israelites who sent away their foreign wives during the postexilic reforms of Ezra (Ezra 10:40).

Maktesh

In Zeph. 1:11 the KJV transliterates the Hebrew word maktesh as the name of a district in or near Jerusalem. The word means “mortar”; thus, some versions translate it as the name “Mortar” (ESV, NASB, NRSV), while the NIV describes the area as “the market district.”

Malachite

Green in color, malachite is a basic carbonate of copper. A significant ore of copper, this mineral polishes well and is used especially as a gem or for making various ornamental items. Malachite was one of several different kinds of stones in the mosaic pavement of the royal palace of King Xerxes (Ahasuerus) (Esther 1:6 [NIV: “porphyry”; KJV: “red marble”]).

Malcam

(1) Descended from Benjamin, he was the fourth of seven sons born to Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh after he divorced Hushim and Baara and was the head of a family (1 Chron. 8:9–10 [KJV: “Malcham”]). Malkam was born in the land of Moab (1 Chron. 8:8), either during the time when Moab was subservient to Israel (cf. 2 Sam. 8:2; 2 Kings 3:5) or during a time of peace (cf. Ruth 1; 1 Sam. 22:3–4). (2) The name appears elsewhere as an object of Judah’s idolatry (Zeph. 1:5 [NIV: “Molek”; KJV: “Malcham”]) and may simply be a variant spelling for “Milcom” (so the NRSV), god of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11:5, 33; Jer. 49:1, 3; cf. Amos 1:15, where the Hebrew term is translated as “[her] king” [NIV]).

Malcham

(1) Descended from Benjamin, he was the fourth of seven sons born to Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh after he divorced Hushim and Baara and was the head of a family (1 Chron. 8:9–10 [KJV: “Malcham”]). Malkam was born in the land of Moab (1 Chron. 8:8), either during the time when Moab was subservient to Israel (cf. 2 Sam. 8:2; 2 Kings 3:5) or during a time of peace (cf. Ruth 1; 1 Sam. 22:3–4). (2) The name appears elsewhere as an object of Judah’s idolatry (Zeph. 1:5 [NIV: “Molek”; KJV: “Malcham”]) and may simply be a variant spelling for “Milcom” (so the NRSV), god of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11:5, 33; Jer. 49:1, 3; cf. Amos 1:15, where the Hebrew term is translated as “[her] king” [NIV]).

Malchiah

(1) An ancestor of the musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:40). (2) A descendant of Aaron, he was the leader of a priestly division during David’s reign (1 Chron. 24:9). (3) The ancestor of Pashhur, who came to Jeremiah with a request from King Zedekiah (Jer. 21:1). (4) An ancestor of Adaiah, who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:12; Neh. 11:12). (5) A descendant of Parosh, he sent away his foreign wife during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:25). (6) A descendant of Harim, he sent away his foreign wife during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:31). (7) The son of Harim, he repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall and the Tower of the Ovens (Neh. 3:11). (8) The son of Rekab, ruler of the district of Beth Hakkerem, he repaired the Dung Gate of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:14). (9) One of the goldsmiths who repaired part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:31). (10) One of the leaders who stood with Ezra when he read the law of Moses to the people (Neh. 8:4). (11) A priest who signed Ezra’s covenant after the exile (Neh. 10:3). (12) A priest who sang during the dedication of the wall (Neh. 12:42). Some of these references may speak of the same person.

Malchiel

A grandson of Asher (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:31) and the ancestor of the Mal-kie-lites (Num. 26:45).

Malchielites

A grandson of Asher (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:31) and the ancestor of the Mal-kie-lites (Num. 26:45).

Malchiram

The second son of King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) of Judah, who was carried off into Babylonian exile in 597 BC (1 Chron. 3:18).

Malchishua

The son of King Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49; 1 Chron. 8:33; 9:39). He was struck down and killed on Mount Gilboa during a battle with the Philistines (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chron. 10:2).

Malchus

A slave of the high priest whose ear was cut off by Peter on the night of Jesus’ arrest in Gethsemane (John 18:10). The name means “king,” and he may have been a leading servant of the high priest. All four Gospels mention that the high priest’s slave had his ear cut off by one of Jesus’ disciples. Only John reports that the slave’s name was “Malchus” and that Peter was the perpetrator, and only Luke reports that Jesus healed his ear (Luke 22:51). While Peter was standing outside Jesus’ trial, a relative of Malchus who was also a servant of the high priest accused Peter of being with Jesus in the garden (John 18:26).

Malefactors

In Luke 23:32–33, 39 the KJV translates the Greek word kakourgos as “malefactor,” referring to two “criminals” (NIV) crucified beside Jesus. In Matthew and Mark the two are referred to as lēstai (“thieves, robbers”). This was a derogatory way in which the Romans referred to rebels or insurrectionists, as common criminals. Like Barabbas, these two probably were arrested as part of a rebellion against the Roman government (Mark 15:7).

Maleleel

(1) A patriarch listed in Gen. 5 among Adam’s descendants (cf. 1 Chron. 1:2). He was fathered by Kenan in the fourth generation after Adam; he was 65 when he fathered Jared, and he lived to be 895 years old (Gen. 5:12–17). In Luke 3:37 the Greek form of the name is “Mahalaleel” (KJV: “Maleleel”). (2) The father of Shephatiah and a descendant of Judah through Perez (Neh. 11:4).

Malice

Wickedness, hatred, or ill intentions (Num. 35:20; Mark 7:22; Eph. 4:31; 1 Pet. 2:1). Malice characterizes the lives of those who are under the wrath of God (Rom. 1:29), but for believers in Christ, malice is a thing of the past (Titus 3:3).

Malkam

(1) Descended from Benjamin, he was the fourth of seven sons born to Shaharaim by his wife Hodesh after he divorced Hushim and Baara and was the head of a family (1 Chron. 8:9–10 [KJV: “Malcham”]). Malkam was born in the land of Moab (1 Chron. 8:8), either during the time when Moab was subservient to Israel (cf. 2 Sam. 8:2; 2 Kings 3:5) or during a time of peace (cf. Ruth 1; 1 Sam. 22:3–4). (2) The name appears elsewhere as an object of Judah’s idolatry (Zeph. 1:5 [NIV: “Molek”; KJV: “Malcham”]) and may simply be a variant spelling for “Milcom” (so the NRSV), god of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11:5, 33; Jer. 49:1, 3; cf. Amos 1:15, where the Hebrew term is translated as “[her] king” [NIV]).

Malki-Shua

The son of King Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49; 1 Chron. 8:33; 9:39). He was struck down and killed on Mount Gilboa during a battle with the Philistines (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chron. 10:2).

Malkiel

A grandson of Asher (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:31) and the ancestor of the Mal-kie-lites (Num. 26:45).

Malkielites

A grandson of Asher (Gen. 46:17; 1 Chron. 7:31) and the ancestor of the Mal-kie-lites (Num. 26:45).

Malkijah

(1) An ancestor of the musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:40). (2) A descendant of Aaron, he was the leader of a priestly division during David’s reign (1 Chron. 24:9). (3) The ancestor of Pashhur, who came to Jeremiah with a request from King Zedekiah (Jer. 21:1). (4) An ancestor of Adaiah, who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:12; Neh. 11:12). (5) A descendant of Parosh, he sent away his foreign wife during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:25). (6) A descendant of Harim, he sent away his foreign wife during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:31). (7) The son of Harim, he repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall and the Tower of the Ovens (Neh. 3:11). (8) The son of Rekab, ruler of the district of Beth Hakkerem, he repaired the Dung Gate of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:14). (9) One of the goldsmiths who repaired part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:31). (10) One of the leaders who stood with Ezra when he read the law of Moses to the people (Neh. 8:4). (11) A priest who signed Ezra’s covenant after the exile (Neh. 10:3). (12) A priest who sang during the dedication of the wall (Neh. 12:42). Some of these references may speak of the same person.

Malkiram

The second son of King Jehoiachin (Jeconiah) of Judah, who was carried off into Babylonian exile in 597 BC (1 Chron. 3:18).

Mallothi

A son of Heman (seer of King David), he was the chief of a section of tabernacle musicians during the reign of David. He and his brothers were under the direction of their father with cymbals, harps, and lyres in service of the house of God (1 Chron. 25:4, 26).

Mallow

A plant, probably a species of the genus Atriplex, more commonly known as a saltwort. This is a large, bushy shrub that thrives in sandy, salty soil. The mucilaginous plant has many medicinal uses. Although “mallow” is found in Job 30:4 (NRSV [NIV: “salt herb”]), this reference is most likely to another plant (Atriplex halimus L.) known as sea purslane. This plant better fits the description of a marsh plant gathered for food by the poor during a time of famine. The NRSV follows the LXX by inserting “mallow” into Job 24:24 in a comparison of fading flowers to the unrighteous. Most other translations follow the Hebrew and read “all others.” While the NRSV translates Job 6:6b as “is there any flavor in the juice of mallows?” most translations take the relevant word to refer to the white of an egg. See also Purslane.

Malluch

(1) Great-grandfather of Ethan, one of the Levite musicians appointed by David to minister in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 6:44). (2, 3) Two of those who were guilty of marrying foreign women in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:29, 32). (4, 5) Two of those who signed the covenant renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:4, 27). The first of these may be the same priest mentioned in Neh. 12:2 (see #6). (6) One of the priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12:2). In Neh. 12:14, Malluk’s family is included among the priestly families during the time of the high priest Joiakim. The spelling “Malluchi” (see 12:14 ESV, NASB, NRSV) may be a transcriptional error (the LXX has Malouch [“Malluch”] and the Qere suggests Melichu [KJV; NKJV]).

Malluchi

(1) Great-grandfather of Ethan, one of the Levite musicians appointed by David to minister in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 6:44). (2, 3) Two of those who were guilty of marrying foreign women in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:29, 32). (4, 5) Two of those who signed the covenant renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:4, 27). The first of these may be the same priest mentioned in Neh. 12:2 (see #6). (6) One of the priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12:2). In Neh. 12:14, Malluk’s family is included among the priestly families during the time of the high priest Joiakim. The spelling “Malluchi” (see 12:14 ESV, NASB, NRSV) may be a transcriptional error (the LXX has Malouch [“Malluch”] and the Qere suggests Melichu [KJV; NKJV]).

Malluk

(1) Great-grandfather of Ethan, one of the Levite musicians appointed by David to minister in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 6:44). (2, 3) Two of those who were guilty of marrying foreign women in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:29, 32). (4, 5) Two of those who signed the covenant renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:4, 27). The first of these may be the same priest mentioned in Neh. 12:2 (see #6). (6) One of the priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12:2). In Neh. 12:14, Malluk’s family is included among the priestly families during the time of the high priest Joiakim. The spelling “Malluchi” (see 12:14 ESV, NASB, NRSV) may be a transcriptional error (the LXX has Malouch [“Malluch”] and the Qere suggests Melichu [KJV; NKJV]).

Malta

An island of strategic importance about sixty miles south of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, Malta was famous in ancient times for shipwrecks. It is the location of Paul’s shipwreck on his way to Rome for trial (Acts 28:1). After the shipwreck, Paul was stuck on the island for three months and was taken care of by the island’s residents. Here Paul was bitten by a viper but suffered no ill effects. Today Saint Paul’s Bay is the accepted location of the shipwreck.

Mammon

A transliteration of the Greek rendering of the Aramaic noun mamōnas, which signifies “wealth” and is translated by the NIV as either “money” or “worldly wealth” (Matt. 6:24; Luke 16:9, 11, 13). Only Jesus uses the term in the Bible. Since the early church retained the Aramaic, it is likely that the word itself retains significance. Jesus warns, “You cannot serve both God and mammon [NIV: “money”]” (Matt. 6:24 KJV). In this case, mammon is placed in parallel with God, which suggests that it has taken on the significance of an idol. Like all false gods, mammon promises pleasure to worshipers but ultimately enslaves them. However, Jesus also uses the term in a broader sense, “worldly wealth,” where it is not necessarily possessive and can be mastered and shrewdly redirected to advance the kingdom of God (Luke 16:9, 11).

Mamre

A site near Hebron where Abraham settled (Gen. 13:18; 14:13; 18:1). Its location was identified in association with “great trees.” Abraham acquired a burial area in Machpelah, described as being in the vicinity of Mamre (23:17, 19; 25:9; 49:30; 50:13), where a number of the patriarchs and matriarchs were buried. Later, Isaac lived in the area (35:27). A man named “Mamre” helped Abraham defeat a coalition of eastern kings (14:24); perhaps the site was named after him. Today archaeologists identify Mamre with Haram Ramet el-Khalil, two miles north of Hebron.

Man

Origins, Composition, and Constitution

Origins. The Bible is not unique in offering an account of human origins. Interesting accounts are found in Sumerian (Enki and Ninmah, Hymn to E-engurra), Akkadian (Atrahasis Epic, Enuma Elish), and Egyptian texts (Pyramid Texts, Instruction of Merikare). These texts provide a helpful window into the biblical world and show the common concern to explain the origin and role of humanity in the world.

One distinct feature of ancient Near Eastern texts is that they generally speak of human origins in a collective sense. Specialists refer to this phenomenon as polygenesis. Such a collective creation better serves the purpose of the gods, who have made the human race as a labor force. In the Bible, however, the book of Genesis describes an original human pair who are the progenitors of the human race. This phenomenon is referred to as monogenesis. Humanity is not merely created to serve and do the work of the gods. Instead, it is a special creation of God, intended to bear his image.

Composition. The composition of humanity is described in Gen. 2:7: “The Lord God formed a man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.” Humanity is not distinct from animals in having the breath of life (1:30). Indeed, the description of the composition of humanity is also quite, well, human. Genesis describes humans as made from the dust. Dust is not fertile, nor is it pliable. It refers to the earth and that which is dead. The wordplay between “man” (’adam) and the “ground” (’adamah) appears to be a major focus of the text (2:7) and suggests that the major connection being established concerns the first humans as archetypes.

Constitution. Certain passages of Scripture have led interpreters to posit a trichotomous nature of humanity (i.e., mind, body, soul; cf. 2 Cor. 4:16; 5:1–9; 1 Thess. 5:23). Likewise, even though the Greek language can bifurcate the soul (psychē) and the body (sōma), a kind of dualism should not be inferred from this (cf. Matt. 6:25; 27:50; Luke 10:27; 2 Cor. 4:11). Either approach is foreign to the unified biblical mind-set. The only dualism in the anthropological perspective of the NT is in the nature of humanity in relation to Christ’s new creative work.

Form and Function

Form: male and female. Just as God created man (’ish), he also created woman (’ishah) (Gen. 1:26–27). Although woman is initially created as a “suitable helper” (2:18), it should be noted that the underlying Hebrew term (’ezer) is used almost exclusively in reference to God elsewhere. This suggests that “suitable helper” does not indicate a difference of essence, value, or status.

The Bible describes woman as coming from the “side” of man, probably communicating something about their equality (Gen. 2:21–22). Thus, it should be understood that just as all humanity shares a connection to the ground, so also a man shares an intimate connection with a woman. Although the phrase “one flesh” often is taken as a euphemism, it probably is a remarkably descriptive statement of the archetypal nature of Adam and Eve (cf. 2:24).

Function: image of God. The distinction between humanity and the other animals created by God is that humans are created in God’s image. The concept of the image of God, however, is not unique to the biblical text (Gen. 1:26–27; cf. Instruction of Merikare). Throughout the ancient Near East, kings were thought to actually be the image of a god. In the Christian understanding, only Christ is the image of God (2 Cor. 4:4), whereas humanity is created in the image of God. Although this may imply a kingly role with regard to humanity’s function over the rest of creation, the main parallel should be seen in how images are meant to represent a god’s presence.

Humanity in Pauline Thought

Paul’s conception of humanity is thoroughly eschatological insomuch as his vision of Christ as the image of God is identified with Christ as “risen Lord.” Christ as the image of God is the final destiny of the humanity that is “in Christ” (1 Cor. 15:23–28; 44–49; Eph. 1:9–10). Because of the effects of sin, creation has been subjected to futility (Rom. 8:19–22), and humanity to death (Rom. 5:12–14; 1 Cor. 15:21–22). Yet Paul’s outburst of “new creation” (Gal. 6:15; cf. 2 Cor. 5:17) indicates his understanding of the cosmological, and therefore anthropological, effects of being united with Christ. Indeed, if God is making the “former things” into “new things” (2 Cor. 5:17; cf. Isa. 65:17–19), this new creative act certainly impacts humanity. That reality is already partially realized in the elimination of distinctions in this present “evil age” (Gal. 1:4), for in Christ “there is neither Jew nor Gentile, neither slave nor free, nor is there male and female, for you are all one” (Gal. 3:28; cf. 1 Cor. 12:12–13; Gen. 17). Until the end, the Christian lives in the tension of already beginning to experience the act of new creation and not yet completely disinheriting the effects of sin (Rom. 8:18–30; 2 Cor. 12:5–10).

Man of Lawlessness

At 2 Thess. 2:3 various Greek manuscripts speak of either “the man of lawlessness [anomia]” or “the man of sin [hamartia],” by which Paul refers to the antichrist, who will usher in the last days. See also Antichrist; Lawless, Lawlessness.

Man of Sin

At 2 Thess. 2:3 various Greek manuscripts speak of either “the man of lawlessness [anomia]” or “the man of sin [hamartia],” by which Paul refers to the antichrist, who will usher in the last days. See also Antichrist; Lawless, Lawlessness.

Manaen

One of the prophets and teachers in the church at Antioch. His name is a Greek rendering of the Hebrew name “Menahem.” Manaen was “brought up with” Herod Antipas the tetrarch (Acts 13:1). It has been suggested that boys raised as companions of royal princes were so described and retained this title as adults. Since he knew Herod, Manaen may well have served as a source of information for the writing of Luke’s Gospel (cf. Luke 3:19–20; 9:7–9; 13:31; 23:7–12). An earlier Manaen was an Essene acquaintance of Herod the Great (father of Herod Antipas) who predicted Herod the Great’s rise to kingship (Josephus, Ant. 15.373–79).

Manahath

(1) A son of Shobal and a descendant of the Horite Seir (Gen. 36:23; 1 Chron. 1:40). (2) A city or town to which the inhabitants of Geba (Benjamites from the clan of Ehud) were carried into exile (1 Chron. 8:6).

Manahathites

Two Calebite half-tribes: one half from the ancestor Shobal, and the other half from Salma (1 Chron. 2:50–54).

Manasseh

(1) A son of Joseph and grandson of Jacob. He was Joseph’s firstborn, but Jacob blessed Ephraim his brother over Manasseh (Gen. 48:13–20). Joseph received a double portion over his brothers because the two tribes of Israel traced their ancestry back to him through his two sons. In keeping with Jacob’s blessing, the tribe of Ephraim overshadowed the tribe of Manasseh (see Manasseh, Tribe of).

(2) The fourteenth king of Judah (698–642 BC), his rule was so wicked that it secured the doom of his kingdom (2 Kings 20:21–21:18; 2 Chron. 32:33–33:20).

The account of his rule in 2 Kings focuses exclusively on the perversity of his leadership and the negative consequences that flowed from his reign. Many kings promoted or tolerated the worship of pagan deities, but only Manasseh is associated with the practice of child sacrifice, offering up his own son (2 Kings 21:6). He “also shed so much innocent blood that he filled Jerusalem from end to end” (2 Kings 21:16). Such sin elicited a strong reaction from God, who announced that he would “wipe out Jerusalem as one wipes a dish, wiping it and turning it upside down” (2 Kings 21:13).

Interestingly, 2 Chronicles, a postexilic historical work, expands our knowledge about this king to include the account of his end-of-life conversion. This story is absent from 2 Kings because that book tells the history of God’s people in order to explain why they were in exile. Manasseh’s change of life happened when his Assyrian overlords, angry over an unspecified offense, dragged him to their capital with a hook in his nose. Because of Manasseh’s change of heart, God blessed the remainder of his reign, although God did not reverse the judgment of destruction that his sins evoked against Judah (Jer. 15:4).

(3) An Israelite, a descendant of Pahath-Moab, guilty of marrying a foreign woman during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:30).

(4) An Israelite, a descendant of Hashum, guilty of marrying a foreign woman during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:33).

Manassites

Members of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 16:9; 17:12; cf. Deut. 29:8; 2 Kings 10:33; 1 Chron. 26:32).

Mandrake

A plant of the nightshade family common throughout the Mediterranean area. In antiquity it was believed to be an aphrodisiac and an aid in achieving conception. This can be seen in the negotiation between Rachel and Leah for the mandrakes found by Reuben (Gen. 30:14–15). Rachel evidently desired the mandrakes as a cure for her infertility, but the narrative is clear that Rachel’s infertility is overcome later only through the intervention of God (30:22). The same associations also lie behind the reference to the fragrance of the mandrakes in Song 7:13, which is the only other biblical reference to mandrakes.

Manger

A container or basin that holds the feed for domesticated farm animals such as cattle, sheep, or horses (Prov. 14:4; KJV: “crib”). Job speaks of a manger in relation to a wild ox, asking, “Will it stay by your manger at night?” (Job 39:9), implying that mangers are used for domesticated animals only. Isaiah laments Israel’s waywardness, unlike the donkey, which knows its “owner’s manger” (Isa. 1:3). For want of a room at the inn, Mary wrapped Jesus in cloths and placed him in a manger shortly after his birth (Luke 2:7). Nearby, shepherds were told by angels that Christ the Lord had been born in Bethlehem, and that the sign to them would be a baby wrapped in cloths lying in a manger (2:12). They journeyed to Bethlehem and found Jesus just as the angels had said (2:16).

Manna

Miraculous, heavenly bread that God rained down for the Israelites to eat during their wilderness wanderings (Exod. 16:1–35). The word manna likely comes from the Hebrew phrase man hu’ (“What is it?”), reflecting the Israelites’ puzzled response to God’s gracious provision (Exod. 16:15). It resulted from a layer of dew that fell on the camp at night and evaporated in the morning, leaving fine flakes resembling frost on the ground (Exod. 16:14; Num. 11:9). Manna was white like coriander seed and tasted like wafers made with honey and olive oil (Exod. 16:31; Num. 11:8). It could be crushed into a paste and then either boiled or baked (Num. 11:8).

God sent a fresh supply of manna each day to test whether the Israelites trusted him to provide (Exod. 16:4). It was designed to rot away in order to keep the people from hoarding their own supply instead of trusting God (16:19–20). The Israelites were allowed to gather manna for six days, but it did not appear on the ground on the Sabbath. To prepare for the Sabbath, they gathered twice as much on the sixth day, which miraculously lasted through the Sabbath (16:5, 23–26).

Tamarisk bushes in the Sinai region secrete a seasonal, rich, honeylike sap that eventually crystallizes and falls to the ground and is called “manna” to this day. However, this natural phenomenon does not completely explain or match the biblical tradition. Biblical manna was truly a miracle.

Manoah

The father of Samson (Judg. 13:24; 16:31). The Samson story in Judges begins with an introduction of his father, Manoah, a Danite from Zorah whose wife was barren (13:2). An angel of the Lord appears to Manoah’s wife, who is nameless throughout the narrative, and declares that she will have a son and that he must be raised as a Nazirite. Manoah requests that the Lord send this “man” again, which he does. Manoah and his wife finally realize the identity of the angel of the Lord after he has disappeared in the flames of their sacrifice (13:9–21).

Manservant

A male servant, often considered part of the household (Exod. 20:17; 21:26), almost always discussed in conjunction with the maidservant. See also Slave, Servant.

Mansion

On the night of his arrest, Jesus promised his disciples that he was going away “to prepare a place” for them. He assured them that his “Father’s house” had ample room. In John 14:2 the KJV translates the Greek term monē as “mansion.” In the Latin Vulgate, the Greek term is translated mansio, meaning a “dwelling” or “home.” The KJV translators rendered the term as “mansion,” meaning a “dwelling place.” Today, however, the word “mansion” refers to a large, elaborate home and thus can be misleading as a translation of monē. Thus, Jesus promised his disciples that he would prepare eternal places for them to live with him, and so monē is better translated as “dwelling place” or “room,” as in the modern translations.

Manslayer

In Num. 35:6, 11–12 the KJV translates the Hebrew word ratsakh as “manslayer,” referring to a person who had accidentally killed someone (compare “manslaughter” in modern usage). God directed the Israelites to set aside six Levitical cities of refuge to which a manslayer could flee from an avenger in order not to die without a trial (Num. 35:6–15). In 1 Tim. 1:9, the KJV also translates the Greek word androphonos as “manslayer,” where most modern translations render it as “murderer.”

Mantle

An outer garment (usually “cloak,” “garment,” or “robe” in the NIV). A mantle was among the items that Achan stole from the plunder at Jericho (Josh. 7:21). The biblical authors sometimes used “mantle” figuratively in poetic literature (Ps. 89:45 NIV; Isa. 59:17; 61:3; Heb. 1:12 NASB). Elijah’s mantle is the most prominent in the Bible. Elijah cast his mantle over Elisha to signify that Elisha would be his successor (1 Kings 19:16, 19). Later, both Elijah and Elisha used Elijah’s mantle to part the Jordan River (2 Kings 2:8, 13–14). See also 1 Kings 19:13.

Manuhoth

Two Calebite half-tribes: one half from the ancestor Shobal, and the other half from Salma (1 Chron. 2:50–54).

Manure

Human and animal excrement, to be either disposed of because of its uncleanness or appropriated for fertilizer or fueling fires (1 Kings 14:10). Jerusalem had an entrance known as the Dung Gate (Neh. 2:13; 3:13, 14; 12:31). The rabbis required that a person be at least four cubits (about six feet) away from dung (and urine) before reciting the Shema (m. Ber. 3:5; t. Ber. 2:17–18). They avoided alleyways where chamber pots were emptied (t. Ber. 2:19–20). They taught that a person who needs to defecate should not pray (t. Ber. 2:19). The Essenes were even more stringent: they would not defecate on a Sabbath day; on other days, they left their camps, dug a hole with a shovel, and then covered the excrement (Josephus, J.W. 2.147–49; cf. Deut. 23:12–14). Appropriating this background, Paul compares his past separation from Christ to dung (Phil. 3:8 KJV, NET [NIV: “garbage”]).

Maoch

The father of Achish, the king of the Philistine city of Gath who gave David and his family sanctuary during his flight from Saul (1 Sam. 27:2). Maok is called “Maakah” in 1 Kings 2:39.

Maok

The father of Achish, the king of the Philistine city of Gath who gave David and his family sanctuary during his flight from Saul (1 Sam. 27:2). Maok is called “Maakah” in 1 Kings 2:39.

Maon

(1) The son of Shammai, he was a descendant of Caleb and an unnamed wife. Maon also is identified as the father of Beth Zur (1 Chron. 2:45), meaning that he was either the ancestor of the people of Beth Zur or the founder of that city. “Maon” can also have a collective meaning for the people of Maon who founded the city of Beth Zur. (2) One of the towns belonging to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:55), located nine miles south of Hebron. It has been identified as Tell Main today. Abigail’s husband, Nabal, resided here (1 Sam. 25:2). David hid from Saul in the Desert of Maon (1 Sam. 23:24–25).

Maonites

A people group included in a list of Israel’s oppressors during the time of the Judges (Judg. 10:12). This may be the same group as the Meunites, whom the sons of Simeon dispossessed during the reign of King Hezekiah of Judah (1 Chron. 4:41), and against whom King Uzziah successfully battled (2 Chron. 26:7). Some scholars and translations, following the LXX, emend the text to “Midianites.”

Mara

Meaning “bitter,” this name is chosen by Naomi following the death of her husband and sons. Upon her return to Bethlehem, she requests that the people call her “Mara” because God has made her life bitter (Ruth 1:20–21).

Marah

An Israelite encampment in the Desert of Shur (Exod. 15:23) that was reached following a three-day journey after the Israelites crossed the Red Sea (Num. 33:8). The name means “bitter” and describes the bitter, brackish water found there. The Israelites complained against Moses because of the water, and God instructed him to cast a tree into the water, which made it sweet and drinkable. The exact location of Marah is debated and cannot be established with certainty.

Maralah

A border town in the territory of Zebulun (Josh. 19:11 [ESV: “Mareal”]). The location is in the Jezreel Valley, probably north of Megiddo.

Maranatha

Paul uses this term in 1 Cor. 16:22 (KJV; see NIV mg.) when closing that letter. “Maranatha” is actually two Aramaic words, marana tha, meaning “Our Lord, come.” Some suggest that the term should be divided as maran atha, which would mean “Our Lord has come.” This phrase also occurs in the early Christian writing the Didache (10.6) in a liturgical context. Suggestions regarding how to divide and thus translate the term are primarily decided on a contextual basis. Two similar passages suggest that eschatological hope may be a key factor. Near the end of Revelation, the author writes, “Come, Lord Jesus” (Rev. 22:20). Also, Paul, discussing the Lord’s Supper, refers to proclaiming the Lord’s death “until he comes” (in 1 Cor. 11:26). Both of these references are in Greek, but they suggest the future aspect to the early Christian’s hope for Christ’s return, which fits with translating “Maranatha” as “Come, O Lord.” The use of an Aramaic formula indicates an early reference to Jesus in a way normally reserved for God.

Marcus

In Col. 4:10; Philem. 24; 1 Pet. 5:13 the KJV uses this name to translate Markos, otherwise translated as “Mark” (cousin of Barnabas, coworker of Paul and Peter, and likely author of the Gospel that bears his name).

Marduk

Marduk rose in status to become the principal deity in the Babylonian pantheon beginning in the second millennium BC. The Babylonian epic Enuma Elish recounts Marduk’s creation and ultimate triumph over other deities within the Babylonian pantheon (in particular, the primordial goddess Tiamat), and in doing so describes him as the deity primarily responsible for the creation of the universe. Marduk (or “Merodach,” the Hebrew form of the name) is mentioned only once in the Bible, at Jer. 50:2, which announces the impending invasion and defeat of Babylon by a nation from the north. “Marduk” also forms part of the names of the Babylonian kings Awel-Marduk (2 Kings 25:27; Jer. 52:31) and Marduk-Baladan (2 Kings 20:12 [the Hebrew text and the KJV read “Berodach”]; Isa. 39:1), as well as being the origin of “Mordecai” (Esther 2:5).

Marduk-Baladan

The king of Babylon in 721–710 BC, Marduk-Baladan was a Chaldean who later led two Babylonian revolts against the Assyrian king Sennacherib. He also sent emissaries to King Hezekiah of Judah (Isa. 39:1). The Neo-Assyrian Empire had dominated Babylon for nearly half a century. Although there were pro-Assyrian sentiments in some cities, the peoples in Babylon were not unified. Some Babylonians, Chaldeans, and Arameans opposed Assyria. Marduk-Baladan took the throne for nine months in 703 BC and with Elamite support returned in 700 BC, only to be routed by Assyria. Marduk-Baladan’s communication with Hezekiah probably came during his brief control of Babylon. Hezekiah had revolted against Assyria prior to Sennacherib coming to the throne in 704 BC; thus Marduk-Baladan was exploring a possible alliance with Hezekiah against Babylon. Seeing this as a lack of trust in God, Isaiah condemned Hezekiah and prophesied that it would be Babylon that would destroy Judah. In 2 Kings 20:12 the MT reads “Berodach-Baladan” (similar to “Merodach,” the Hebrew form of “Marduk”), but several Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and Latin witnesses agree with the reading in Isa. 39:1.

Mare

A large, four-legged mammal with a continuous hoof, domesticated by humans as early as the second millennium BC. Horses appear throughout the Bible as an asset among pastoral flocks used for transportation and as a beast of war used to pull chariots. Horses did not hold a central place in the life of the ancient Near East, as the ox dominated agricultural work, and the donkey was available to more people. One reason for this was that a crucial piece of technology, the stirrup, did not reach Israel’s area until the late seventh century AD and was entirely unknown to the ancient Near East and to Greco-Roman society. Along with other uses of horses, armed cavalry was not an option, as it was easy to unseat any rider without a secure saddle. Horses were suited for pulling light loads quickly, however, which meant that drawing the chariot was its first natural use. Many cultures and civilizations used them in this fashion, including the Roman Empire in the time of the early church. The evidence indicates that the people of Israel did not appropriate their use until around the time of the monarchy.

Horses first appear in the Bible in Gen. 47:17 as a part of the livestock traded for grain under Joseph’s supervision during a time of famine. Due to the military role of horses and the need to depend on God alone, the king of Israel was forbidden to hold great numbers of horses (Deut. 17:16), and the people were commanded not to obtain horses from the principal supplier of the time, Egypt, which happened despite the prohibition (2 Chron. 1:16). King David first introduced chariots to the armies of Israel when he kept one hundred chariot horses out of a large number he had captured from the kingdom of Zobah (2 Sam. 8:3–4). The use of chariots expanded under Solomon, and he is said to have owned as many as twelve thousand chariot horses (1 Kings 4:26). He also built specific chariot cities in order to solidify Israel’s defenses (1 Kings 10:26). This move was deeply unfaithful, however, and was denounced by the prophets as an indulgence in pagan luxury and sinful self-reliance. Isaiah proclaimed, “Woe to those who go down to Egypt for help, who rely on horses, who trust in the multitude of their chariots and in the great strength of their horsemen, but do not . . . seek help from the Lord” (Isa. 31:1). The very real military advantages that came from chariot warfare gave God’s people a reason, however false, to trust their own power rather than the provision of God.

A gate in Jerusalem was called the Horse Gate (Neh. 3:28; Jer. 31:40), and the royal palace near the city had a gate devoted to horses (2 Chron. 23:15).

Horses are often mentioned as a literary image meant to evoke speed, energy, and strength (Ps. 20:7). Jesus’ own entry into Jerusalem was on a donkey rather than a horse, emphasizing the nonmilitary nature of his messiahship (Matt. 21:5). In Rev. 6:1–8 horses of different colors represent four judgments of God upon the earth.

Mareal

A border town in the territory of Zebulun (Josh. 19:11 [ESV: “Mareal”]). The location is in the Jezreel Valley, probably north of Megiddo.

Mareshah

(1) A son of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:42) who may have given his name to the town called by this name (see #2). (2) Mareshah is listed among the towns in the western foothills of Judah (Josh. 15:44) and is identified today as Tell Sandahanna, one mile south of Beth Guvrin. It was fortified by Rehoboam (2 Chron. 11:8). Zerah, an Ethiopian war leader, advanced as far as Mareshah but was pushed back by King Asa at the Valley of Zephathah, near the site (2 Chron. 14:9–10). Mareshah was the hometown of Eliezer son of Dodavahu, a prophet who spoke against Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 20:37). It is mentioned in a prophetic oracle in Micah (1:15) as a town that will experience destruction. (3) The son of Laadah in the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 4:21).

Mariner

Old Testament

Phoenicians and Philistines. As a people whose ancestral territory lay in the landlocked and timber-poor highlands of Ephraim and Judah, the Israelites of biblical times never achieved prominence in seafaring or shipbuilding. Instead, they relied for their maritime enterprises on alliances with their coastal neighbors, particularly the Phoenician states to the north of Israel, who excelled in seafaring and had access to the abundant timber forests of Lebanon. The Phoenicians (the Punics of classical antiquity) were famous in antiquity for their seafaring. In biblical times, they traded heavily between Syria-Palestine and Egypt and also sailed throughout the Mediterranean, establishing colonies as far away as Tunisia (Carthage) and Spain (Cadiz).

Another seagoing people prominent in the OT were the Philistines, whose base of power was to the west of Judah, along the Mediterranean coast. The Bible associates the Philistines with the five cities of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza. The Philistines were among the Sea Peoples, who came to the Levant from the Aegean beginning in the twelfth century BC (Amos 9:7; Jer. 47:4).

The perennial enmity between the Philistines and the Israelites precluded joint maritime ventures of the sort shared by Israel and the Phoenicians, and the Bible does not describe Philistine maritime activities in any depth. Nevertheless, the seagoing nature of the Philistines is reflected by the fact that their settlements remained confined to the coastal region. They never made a systematic attempt to take over the traditionally Israelite and Judahite highlands. When they did venture into the Judean mountains, it was to assert a military and political presence among the agrarian Israelites and Judahites rather than to establish permanent settlements and Philistine population centers. Twelfth-century BC reliefs at Medinet Habu (in the mortuary temple of Ramesses III) depict a naval battle between the Sea Peoples and the Egyptians. The reliefs include pictures of Philistine ships and sailors.

Israelite seafaring. One of the rare references to Israelite seafaring describes the Danites and the Asherites in connection with ships and harbors (Judg. 5:17; see also Ezek. 27:19). Traditional Danite territory overlapped with the area of Philistine settlement. Asherite territory overlapped substantially with Phoenician territory. It is possible that Judg. 5:17 refers to the fact that the Danites and the Asherites worked in the port cities serving Philistine and Phoenician shipping. In another passage, Zebulun is associated with ports (Gen. 49:13). It is noteworthy that the Israelite coast between Jaffa and Dor (roughly between Philistia and Phoenicia) does not have an abundance of natural harbors. Later, Herod the Great would build the artificial harbor at Caesarea in the first century BC. The great expense of such a project—including the construction of over 2,500 feet of breakwaters made of underwater concrete, mostly imported from Italy—suggests the extent of the need for secure harbors in this region.

Solomon’s fleet. The zenith of Israelite seafaring occurred during the reign of Solomon. Solomon built a fleet of ships at “Ezion Geber, which is near Elath in Edom, on the shore of the Red Sea” (1 Kings 9:26). The purpose of these ships was to bring back gold from Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), possibly a location in the Arabian Peninsula, to which a port on the Red Sea would have offered ready access. The story confirms the aforementioned dependence on the Phoenicians in the area of seafaring: although the ships belonged to Solomon, “Hiram [the Phoenician king of Tyre] sent his men—sailors who knew the sea—to serve in the fleet with Solomon’s men” (1 Kings 9:27). The timber for the ships would also have been imported by Israel from Phoenicia (see 1 Kings 9:11). Even at the height of its power, Israel lacked the human resources to embark on sea voyages independently of the Phoenicians.

The success of Solomon’s project, of course, depended not only on warm relations with the Phoenicians but also on territorial control of the historically Edomite lands between Judah and the Red Sea. This favorable combination of conditions would come and go throughout the biblical period, and with it, Israel’s modest presence on the seas. From the Phoenician point of view, cooperation with Israel was an essential component of gaining access to a Red Sea port, and with it to the products of Arabia, the Horn of Africa, and India. The Phoenicians, as expansive as their travel was in the Mediterranean, could never independently control the long overland route from Phoenicia to the Red Sea, since it ran through the territory of Israel and Edom. Their best hope was a friendly and powerful Israelite ally. This explains the cordial relationship and why Hiram sent not only his sailors to serve Solomon but also craftsmen and supplies for the construction of the temple (1 Kings 5:10–12). Solomon and Hiram jointly operated “a fleet of trading ships” that would return to port every three years bringing “gold, silver, and ivory, and apes and baboons” (1 Kings 10:22).

Jehoshaphat. In the mid-ninth century BC, King Jehoshaphat of Judah attempted to repeat Solomon’s feat of launching a fleet from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 22:48–49; 2 Chron. 20:35–37). According to both accounts, the ships were wrecked before they could set sail. On several other points, however, the two versions of the story disagree in ways that bear on questions of the political and economic conditions of Israelite seafaring.

By this time, Israel and Judah had split into separate kingdoms, with the northern kingdom of Israel being geographically and politically closer to the Phoenicians. The powerful King Ahab of Israel, Jehoshaphat’s contemporary through much of his reign, married Jezebel, the daughter of the Sidonian (Phoenician) king Ethbaal (1 Kings 16:31). According to 1 Kings, King Ahaziah of Israel (Ahab’s son) proposed to cooperate with Jehoshaphat by sending his own men on the voyage, much as Hiram had assisted Solomon in the previous century. Jehoshaphat rejected the suggestion, possibly indicating a bid for Judean autonomy in an era of northern dominance. According to 2 Chronicles, however, Jehoshaphat did cooperate willingly with Ahaziah, and this was the reason that the ships foundered in port: God punished the righteous Jehoshaphat for too close a relationship with his wicked northern counterpart. In 1 Kings 22:47 it is mentioned that at the time of Jehoshaphat’s venture there was no king in Edom. As noted, control of the overland route between Judah and the Red Sea was necessary for the success of any voyage originating from Ezion Geber.

However the contradiction between 1 Kings and 2 Chronicles regarding the involvement of Ahaziah is resolved, both versions of the story highlight the fact that the port at Ezion Geber commanded the interest of the Judeans, the Israelites, and the Phoenicians, and its successful operation probably depended on the cooperation of all three.

Ships of Tarshish. Several biblical texts, including the stories of Solomon and Jehoshaphat, mention “ships of Tarshish” (1 Kings 10:22 NIV mg.). In a number of contexts, such ships are associated with the transportation of metals and metal ores, including iron, lead, tin, gold, and silver (1 Kings 10:22; Ezek. 27:12; Jer. 10:9). The exact derivation of the term “ships of Tarshish” is uncertain, though it is clear from the descriptions of their cargoes that such ships could travel over long distances. As Ezekiel observes, “The ships of Tarshish serve as carriers for your wares. You are filled with heavy cargo as you sail the sea. Your oarsmen take you out to the high seas” (Ezek. 27:25–26).

In the Table of Nations, Tarshish is listed as a descendant of Javan (Gen. 10:4), along with a number of other seafaring peoples of the eastern Mediterranean (“Javan” indicates the peoples of the Aegean and is linguistically equivalent to “Ionia” [see also Ezek. 27:12–22]). Some have suggested, then, that the ships of Tarshish should be associated with Tarsus in southeastern Turkey, an area containing silver mines (also the birthplace of Paul [Acts 9:11]). Others have suggested the Phoenician colony of Tartessus in Spain, another metal-producing area. This location figures in the interpretation of the identification of the destination of Jonah as Tarshish (Jon. 1:3): presumably, if he were avoiding Nineveh and departing from Joppa, he would head toward Spain, in the exact opposite direction, rather than toward Tarsus in Cilicia.

In addition to these two geographical options, some have attempted to explain the expression “ships of Tarshish” as deriving from the Akkadian term for smelting or refining: perhaps the many references to cargoes of metals indicate that the ships were used to transport metal ore to refining centers. Finally, one scholar has proposed that the term is related to the Greek word tarsos, meaning “oar.”

Descriptions of ships and seafaring. Ezekiel, in his lament concerning the Phoenician city of Tyre (Ezek. 27), relates a number of details related to Phoenician seafaring. The picture largely confirms the descriptions of how Solomon built and manned his fleet with the assistance of his Tyrian ally. Timber for the construction of the ship came from Lebanon and Cyprus, among other places (vv. 5–6). Sails were made from Egyptian linen (v. 7), and as noted above, the oarsmen and sailors were from the Phoenician city-states (vv. 8–9). Ezekiel goes on to list a large number of ports of call as well as a dazzling variety of cargoes (vv. 12–24). Notably, Ezekiel has the Judahites and the Israelites offering the products of their agrarian economy—“wheat from Minnith and confections, honey, olive oil and balm” (v. 17)—thus filling out the picture of what the Israelites gave in exchange for the precious metals and luxury items imported by their country from elsewhere.

In 1999 archaeologists explored two eighth-century BC Phoenician ships that had sunk thirty miles west of Ashkelon. The ships, each measuring about fifty feet in length, contained large cargoes of wine and were headed either for Egypt or for the Phoenician colonies in the western Mediterranean.

Ships and sailing figure prominently in the story of Jonah, who boarded a ship bound for Tarshish (see discussion above) at Joppa on the Mediterranean coast. In the story we see a number of features of ancient sea travel. Jonah paid a fare for his voyage (Jon. 1:3). Not only the biblical author (see 1:4), but also the presumably non-Israelite sailors, believed that the great storm was the doing of a god, and that it could be calmed by appealing to that god (1:6)—although cargo was thrown overboard for good measure. When Paul was caught in a storm in the first century AD, the same strategies were still in use (Acts 27:38). The religious habits of ancient sailors, particularly their reverence for the gods who controlled the stormy seas and thus held their lives in the balance, are illuminated by the discovery of stone anchors in several temples (presumably left by sailors as offerings), including at the port cities of Ugarit, Kition, and Byblos.

Psalm 107:23–32 speaks of God’s care of sailors from an Israelite perspective. In the psalm, those who “went out on the sea in ships,” the “merchants on the mighty waters” (i.e., the deep, open sea), witness firsthand the works of the God of Israel, which include both the raising and the quieting of the storm. This passage vividly expresses the terror of being caught in a storm and the great relief and gratitude felt by sailors who reached safe haven.

Noah’s Ark

According to the biblical account, Noah’s ark was 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet high (300 cubits by 50 cubits by 30 cubits [Gen. 6:15]). It had three decks, a roof, and a window. By comparison, the ship of Uta-napishti in the Epic of Gilgamesh is described as having six decks (and thus seven stories), edges of 180 feet (ten dozen cubits) in each dimension, and occupying the space of an acre (a rough approximation of the dimensions given). Both ships are described as providing space for the builder’s family and every living creature. In the Atrahasis Epic, the boat is roofed, but its dimensions are not given.

Because of the character of Gen. 6–8, it is inappropriate to draw conclusions from the story regarding shipbuilding in historical antiquity. According to the specifications given in the biblical text, Noah’s ark would have been the largest wooden ship in history, equaled only by the United States schooner Wyoming, completed in 1909. While the overall length of the Wyoming was also 450 feet, nearly 100 feet of length was accounted for in the fore and aft booms, so that the hull length was only 350 feet. Even with early twentieth-century shipbuilding technology, its extravagant length rendered the Wyoming unseaworthy, and the ship foundered in 1924. The largest documented wooden ships of antiquity include the Greek Syracusia (third century BC; 180 feet), described by Athenaeus; the Roman Isis (second century AD; 180 feet), described by Lucian; Caligula’s “Giant Ship” (first century AD; 341 feet), recovered in modern times and possibly corresponding to a ship described by Pliny the Elder; and Ptolemy IV’s Tessarakonteres (third century BC), reported by Plutarch to have been about 425 feet long. This last ship was not designed for cruising in open water.

New Testament

Fishing in the Sea of Galilee. Several of Jesus’ disciples worked as fishermen on the Sea of Galilee, and the Gospels document their use of small boats for fishing and traveling across the sea. Fishing was done with nets thrown both from boats and from the shore (Mark 1:16, 19). The boats used by fishermen on the Sea of Galilee may have been small enough to pull up onto the beach (Luke 5:2), or to be nearly capsized by a large catch of fish (Luke 5:7) or by a violent storm (Mark 4:37). They were large enough to transport several men and even to sleep in (Mark 4:38). Such boats could be rowed or sailed; in Mark 6:48 the disciples had to resort to rowing because of an unfavorable headwind. On one occasion, Jesus stood in a boat to preach to a crowd gathered on the shore (Mark 4:1). The Sea of Galilee is about eight miles wide and thirteen miles long. On several occasions, Jesus traveled by boat across the sea to avoid having to walk long distances around its circumference (e.g., Matt. 9:1; 14:22; 15:39).

In 1986 archaeologists recovered a fishing boat dating to the mid-first century AD on the shore of the Sea of Galilee. The boat had been scuttled near the shore and was preserved under mud. The “Jesus Boat,” as it was dubbed, measures twenty-seven feet in length and has a beam seven and a half feet long. Numerous species of wood were used in its construction and repairs throughout its useful life. While there is no evidence to link the boat to Jesus or his disciples, radiometric dating places it in the correct period, and it provides a likely model of the type of boat portrayed in the Gospels.

A second source of information regarding ships and sailing in the NT is the account in Acts of Paul’s many sea voyages. As in the case of Jehoshaphat, the Tyrians, Jonah, and Jesus’ disciples, Paul learned firsthand the perils of seafaring in small wooden boats: among his many traumas, along with beatings and stonings, he recalled, “Three times I was shipwrecked, I spent a night and a day in the open sea” (2 Cor. 11:25).

Paul’s journeys. A survey of Paul’s sea travels on his four journeys gives some idea of the routes that could be taken by a paying traveler in the eastern Mediterranean and Aegean.

1. Paul’s first missionary journey included voyages from Seleucia in Syria to the port of Salamis in Cyprus (Acts 13:4) and from Cyprus (Paphos) to Perga on the southern coast of Asia Minor (13:13). After journeying through the interior, Paul returned to Attalia, where he embarked for the return trip to Syria, presumably passing again through the port at Salamis (14:26).

2. The second missionary journey began not with a sea voyage but rather with a trek through the interior of Syria and Cilicia, illustrating that although sea travel was by far a more rapid means of travel, the overland routes were by no means impossible (Acts 15:39). Paul would repeat this land route during his third journey (19:1). Sea travel was fast, but when one had plenty of friends along the alternative land route, a sea journey was considerably less enjoyable. It is during the second journey that we have the first recorded accounts of Paul sailing in the Aegean. From Troas in Asia Minor, he sailed the short distance to Macedonia (16:11), putting in midway at the island of Samothrace. Apparently, Paul traveled by sea down the coast from Berea to Athens (17:14). At the conclusion of his second journey, Paul sailed from Corinth to Caesarea, with a stop at Ephesus (18:18–22). Not counting any intervening ports of call not mentioned in the text, this would be the longest single leg of sea travel so far mentioned.

3. The third missionary journey once more began with a long overland trip from Syria through Asia Minor; by this time, Paul had many associates along the way to visit. Again, he sailed in the Aegean, from Ephesus to Macedonia (Acts 20:1) and back (20:6). At one point, Paul opted to travel overland, from Troas to Assos, while his companions sailed down the coast (20:13). Meeting up with them, he sailed on, hugging the coast of Asia Minor, then sailing south of Cyprus along an open-water route to Tyre. From Tyre, the ship again hugged the Palestinian coast, stopping in several ports before Paul disembarked at Caesarea (21:7). Paul’s journeys illustrate the variety of itineraries taken by ships. They were capable of sailing in deep water, but they would also hug the coast when there were reasons to make frequent stops.

4. Paul’s fourth journey, which he made in custody on his way to a trial before the emperor at Rome, was to be the most dangerous. From the account in Acts we can glean a number of details of life at sea in the first century AD. The ship bound for Italy was large, and it carried 276 passengers and crew (Acts 27:6, 37), including soldiers and prisoners, at least one companion of a prisoner (Paul’s friend Aristarchus [27:2]), a ship’s pilot, and the ship’s owner (27:11). Sailors used celestial navigation (27:20) and took soundings in shallow water (27:28). We see also that the ship’s course could be determined by the direction of the prevailing winds: twice during the journey Paul’s ship was forced to sail to the lee of large islands (Cyprus and Crete)—a longer journey, but the only option for a ship that was not rigged to sail close-hauled.

When extended periods of unfavorable weather were forecast, one option was simply to put in at a port until conditions improved, preferably in a harbor that was in the lee of an island (Acts 27:12). We learn something of the measures that were taken in heavy weather, many of which are still used in modern times: ropes were tied around the hull of the ship to prevent it from breaking up in rough seas (27:17), the lifeboat was brought onto the deck and made fast (27:17), sea anchors were deployed to keep the bow of the ship oriented into the oncoming waves (27:7), the rudder was lashed amidships (27:40), valuable cargo and gear were jettisoned (27:19, 38), and, as in the days of Jonah, sailors and passengers prayed for divine deliverance (27:29; see also the protective emblems in 28:11).

When all other means had been exhausted, a ship could be run aground on a sandy beach (Acts 27:39), a measure that would have risked damage to the boat but saved lives. In the case of Paul’s ship, the decision to run aground ultimately resulted in the destruction of the ship (27:41).

Metaphors and illustrations. Several NT authors draw illustrations from the nautical world. James likens the harmful power of evil speech to the rudder of a ship: although it is a small device, by it the pilot can control a great ship (James 3:4–5). Elsewhere, he compares the doubting of the unwise person to being lost at sea in a storm (James 1:6; cf. Eph. 4:14). In 1 Tim. 1:19 the loss of faith and good conscience is likened to a shipwreck. Hebrews 6:19 describes the assurance of God’s faithfulness as an anchor for the soul.

Marketplace

The public space in a town set up for commerce and public gatherings; also, a region renowned for its trade. Ancient Palestinian towns conducted business at the city gate, including the marshaling of troops (2 Chron. 32:6) and holding of religious assemblies (Neh. 8:1). The Phoenician seaport of Tyre was labeled the “marketplace of the nations” (Isa. 23:3), where numerous goods, such as metalwork, ivory, fine fabrics, spices, and livestock, were exchanged with neighboring nations (Ezek. 27:12–23).

By NT times, Herod the Great had rebuilt many Palestinian cities with a central Greek-style marketplace, or agora, where children played (Matt. 11:16; Luke 7:32), day laborers gathered (Matt. 20:3), and religious leaders networked (Matt. 23:7; Mark 7:4; 12:38; Luke 11:43; 20:46). In the smaller Galilean villages, Jesus healed sick people in the marketplaces (Mark 6:56). Paul suffered hostile magistrates and mobs in the Greek marketplaces of Philippi and Thessalonica (Acts 16:19; 17:5), while in Athens the marketplace was his venue for preaching to the public and curious philosophers (Acts 17:17–18). Jesus berated the sellers in the Jerusalem temple courts for imitating a marketplace (John 2:16), and Paul assured the Corinthians that they may eat meat of unknown provenance sold in the marketplace (1 Cor. 10:25).

Maroth

A town in the lowland (Shephelah) of Judah. In his prophetic judgment against Samaria and Jerusalem, Micah speaks of Maroth, whose name sounds like the Hebrew word for “bitter,” as writhing in pain (Mic. 1:12) and under attack by enemies even to the gate of Jerusalem. It may be the same town as Maarath (Josh. 15:59).

Marriage

An intimate, exclusive, lifelong covenant relationship between a man and a woman wherein a new family is established.

Theology of Marriage

The biblical basis for marriage is recorded in Gen. 2:18–24, which establishes a number of important points relating to marriage.

First, in Gen. 2:18 God highlights the first expressed inadequacy within creation: the man is alone. The solution to the man’s solitude is found not among the animals (a fact demonstrated by the careful search expressed by having the man name each of them) but in a creature specifically created to address the problem of his solitude: woman. She is created from his “rib” (a better translation is “side”), so that she is more like him than any of the animals. In spite of this, she is not a clone, but rather a complement to him. She is described as a “helper suitable for him,” which highlights her fulfillment of the inadequacy God had previously identified.

Second, the role of the wife is not restricted to providing a means by which to fulfill the command to fill the earth (through bearing children), for the problem identified in Gen. 2:18 cannot be reduced to this alone. The OT establishes that human beings are relational and social, and that isolation is not good, quite aside from considerations relating to childbearing. Indeed, when marriage is employed as a metaphor for the relationship between God and his people (see below), it can be conceptualized quite apart from the notion of procreation, suggesting that the latter should not be considered the primary purpose of marriage.

Third, Gen. 2:23 describes the relationship between the man and the woman in terms strongly reminiscent of the traditional kinship formula used with reference to family members elsewhere in the OT: “bone of my bones, and flesh of my flesh” (cf., e.g., Gen. 29:14; Judg. 9:2; 2 Sam. 5:1; 19:13–14—similar to the modern English expression “my flesh and blood”; see also Matt. 19:5; Eph. 5:31). Although “be united” (other translations use “cleave”) and “one flesh” are frequently understood to refer to sexual union, this is not the only, or even the primary, implication of the words. Genesis 2:24 expresses the unification of the husband and the wife as the antithesis of the man’s leaving his father and mother. These terms (“leave” or “forsake,” “be united” or “cleave”) are used elsewhere in covenantal contexts. “Cleave” is usually used of people in the sense of clinging to another out of affection and loyalty (Gen. 34:3; Ruth 1:14; 2 Sam. 20:2; 1 Kings 11:2). It is also frequently used of Israel clinging to God (Deut. 10:20; 11:22; 13:5; 30:20; Josh. 22:5; 23:8). “Forsake” is used of breaking covenants (Deut. 12:19; 14:27; 29:25; Jer. 1:16; 2:13, 17, 19; 5:7; 16:11; 17:13; 19:4; 22:9). The verb also appears in the context of marital divorce in Prov. 2:16–17; Isa. 54:6; 62:4.

The implication of Gen. 2:24 is that the man was formerly “united” to his parents in a familial relationship, but when he marries, the covenantal relationship with his parents is superseded by the new relationship with his wife. Thus, in establishing the covenantal relationship of marriage, the man and the woman form a new family unit (they become “one flesh,” which parallels the kinship formula more fully expressed in Gen. 2:23). It is noteworthy that Gen. 2 thus defines a family as husband and wife; a family is formed before any children are born. Furthermore, the emphasis on the priority of the relationship between husband and wife is particularly striking, given both the importance of honoring one’s parents (Exod. 20:12; Deut. 5:16) and the distinctly patrilocal nature of inheritance whereby sons would remain in the parents’ household after marriage and ultimately inherit a share of it, but daughters would leave their parents’ house to be with their husbands.

Fourth, the description of the woman as the man’s “helper” cannot alone be used to demonstrate that the wife’s role was either subordinate or superior to her husband’s. Although the term is elsewhere often used as a description of God, it is also used of subordinate helpers, and other contextual indications determine the relative status of the helper aside from the use of the term itself.

Marriage in the Old Testament

The Bible presents few formal legal, liturgical, or cultic requirements for marriage (whereas there are specific laws dealing with divorce), although it does record some details of specific marriages from which some insight into marriage practices can be gleaned. Marriages often were established through an arrangement between the parents of the husband and those of the wife or between the husband and the parents of his prospective wife (e.g., Gen. 24; 38:6), but there appears to be some diversity, with examples of a man choosing his own wife (e.g., Judah in Gen. 38:2) or instances when the consent of the woman is sought (e.g., Gen. 24:8, 58). The requirement of a formal certificate for divorce (Deut. 24:1, 3), together with examples of marriage contracts from the ancient Near East, are possible evidence that marriage within Israel required certification, although there is no explicit confirmation of this in the OT or in Israel prior to the rabbinic period. The marriages recorded in the OT often involved feasts of varying duration (Gen. 29:22; Judg. 14:12), the bride being accompanied to her home in a festive procession that included music and singing (Ps. 78:63; Jer. 7:34; 16:9), and a blessing pronounced over the bride that she might bear many children (Gen. 24:60; Ruth 4:11). Deuteronomy 22:15 suggests that evidence of the bride’s virginity was retained by the wife’s family to guard against false accusations by a husband seeking divorce.

Another aspect of marriage that appears to have been normative although not legislated was the payment of a mohar, or “bride-price” (Gen. 34:12; Exod. 22:16; 1 Sam. 18:25), as well as the provision of a dowry (1 Kings 9:16). The former was a payment made by the groom’s family to the bride’s family, the latter an amount given by the father to his daughter. Typically, the former appears to have exceeded the latter in value. The bride-price, at least in later times, functioned as insurance should the wife be divorced.

The Bible does not issue any specific age constraints upon those being married, indicating that the OT practice probably did not differ significantly from that of other nations in the ancient Near East, where girls were considered ready for marriage once they had reached puberty or the age of twelve, and boys were generally slightly older. Constraints were placed on the eligibility of marriage partners, and generally marriages were endogamous: marriage partners were chosen from within the clan, tribe, or nation (e.g., Gen. 24:1–9; 27:46–28:5; cf. Deut. 7:3, which prohibits marriage with some, but not all, foreigners, and Deut. 21:10–14, which permits Israelite warriors to take a wife from among female prisoners of war). While there were exceptions to this constraint (e.g., Moses married a Midianite; Bathsheba was married to a Hittite; Boaz married Ruth, a Moabite), in later times the restriction was given legal sanction under Ezra and Nehemiah (Ezra 9:2, 12; Neh. 13:25; cf. Luke 14:26; 18:29).

In spite of the likelihood that many marriages in the OT and the ancient world in general were arranged, the notion of romantic love as both an ideal for marriage and a basis for choosing one’s spouse clearly was known and even regarded as desirable. This is reflected in the approbation given romantic love in Song of Songs as well as in stories such as that of Jacob (Gen. 29:18; see also Judg. 14:1–3; 1 Sam. 18:20).

Socially, marriage was of particular import for a woman in the ancient world, for her well-being usually depended on her place within the house of either her father or her husband. Because inheritance was passed down the male line, women without connection to the house of a man were in a very tenuous state. Inheritance itself was also an important issue in the ancient world, and so great value was placed not just on marriage but also on bearing children (particularly male [see also Firstborn]). Associated with these social functions of marriage in ancient Israel is the fact that the OT permits and records a number of instances of polygamy (always polygyny, never polyandry). This afforded social security to widows (see also Levirate Law, Levirate Marriage) and helped ensure the line of inheritance. It should be noted, however, that neither the welfare aspect of marriage nor the related acceptance of polygamy is based on the biblical foundation for marriage in Gen. 2, and consequently, polygamy does not reflect the biblical ideal for marriage.

The fundamental importance of the marriage relationship is also highlighted by the severity of the penalties for adultery (e.g., Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18; 22:22–24; see also Adultery).

Marriage in the New Testament

Jesus reinforces the importance of marriage, emphasizing its divine origin and lifelong nature (Matt. 19:6; Mark 10:9) as well as its inviolability (Mark 10:2–12). In light of this, Jesus’ assertion that at the resurrection there will be no marriage is surprising (Matt. 22:30). Although Jesus offers no explanation as to why there will be no marriage following the resurrection, it is perhaps likely that the fundamental need identified by God in Gen. 2:18 (the man was alone) will be solved in a different manner in the age to come: the intimate help and companionship ideally found in marriage will be provided in perfected relationship with God and all others.

Paul elaborates somewhat on marriage in the Christian community. Christian marriage ought to be characterized by mutual submission in some respects (1 Cor. 7:4; Eph. 5:21) while reflecting some asymmetrical aspects of the relationship between Christ and the church in others (Eph. 5:22–33). Christians ought to marry within the church (2 Cor. 6:14–18, although this passage is not restricted to marriage); however, those who are married to nonbelievers are not to seek divorce, but are to remain faithful to their spouses for the sake of both the spouse and their children (1 Cor. 7:10–16).

The NT makes reference to some of the marriage customs of the day, including sharing a feast (Matt. 22:2–12; Luke 12:36; John 2:1–11), the expectation that guests be suitably attired (Matt. 22:11–12), and a procession to the groom’s home (Matt. 25:1–13; Luke 12:35–38).

Symbolic Use of Marriage

Marriage is used figuratively in both Testaments. The relationship between God and his people is described with marriage language (Isa. 62:4–5; Jer. 2:2). By using such language, the prophets emphasize the intimacy and unity inherent in the relationship between God and his chosen people, as well as the devastating betrayal when the covenant is broken. The use of the marriage metaphor is thus extended to the use of divorce language to describe God’s treatment of unfaithful Israel (Jer. 3:8), and the notion of adultery and promiscuity is equated with the worship of foreign gods (Ezek. 16; 23). The prophet Hosea’s marriage is itself a graphic representation of God’s relationship with his people and, in particular, their faithlessness; however, it also holds out the anticipation of a new covenant, one wherein God declares, “You will call me ‘my husband’; you will no longer call me ‘my master’ ” (Hos. 2:16). The metaphorical use of marriage to image the relationship between God and his people also reflects the implicit belief in the asymmetrical nature of the relationship between husband and wife in the ancient world.

The NT primarily identifies the church as the bride and Christ as the husband when using marriage language figuratively (e.g., Eph. 5:22–33). In so doing, the NT affirms Christ’s deity by explicitly depicting him in the place occupied by God in the OT’s use of marriage symbolism. Jesus uses marriage in his parabolic teaching about the kingdom of God (Matt. 22:2–14; 25:1–12), as well as in reference to himself as bridegroom when explaining the behavior of his disciples (Mark 2:19–20; Luke 5:34–35). Revelation depicts the return of Christ as the time of the marriage between the bride and the bridegroom (Rev. 19:7; 21:9).

Marrow

Soft, fatty tissue within bones, considered representative of the choicest foods (Ps. 63:5; Isa. 25:6). The imagery of moist marrow connotes vigor and health (Job 21:24). Marrow (KJV, ASV) to the bones is used as a simile for the refreshment (NASB, ESV) or nourishment (NIV) that results from fearing God and departing from evil (Prov. 3:8). The writer of Hebrews describes the penetrating power of the word of God to judge thoughts and attitudes of the heart with the metaphor of dividing joints from marrow (4:12).

Mars Hill

A rocky hill in Athens near the Acropolis, also known as the Areopagus. Mars was the Roman god of war; Ares was his Greek equivalent. “Areopagus” means “Hill of Ares.” The hill is mentioned as the place where Paul answered questions posed by Athenian philosophers (Acts 17:19), though most contemporary translations use “Areopagus,” which also referred to the supreme moral tribunal in Athens. It is unclear whether Paul actually spoke from the hill itself, but it is certain that he was addressing the council.

Marsena

One of seven top-level officials under King Xerxes (Ahasuerus) who advised him to put away Queen Vashti because of her refusal of the king’s command to appear before the banquet (Esther 1:14).

Marsh

A swamp or wet piece of land, usually found near the mouth of a river or on the edge of a lake (Job 8:11; 40:21; Ezek. 47:11).

Marshal

In Jer. 51:27 the prophecy speaks of a tipsar who will lead troops against Babylon. The NRSV renders this word as “marshal” (NIV: “commander”; NLT: “leader”; KJV: “captain”).

Martha

The sister of Mary and Lazarus, who lived in Bethany (John 11:1–2). In Luke 10:38–42 and John 12:1–8, Martha is depicted as interested only in preparing and serving food to her houseguest, Jesus. As such, she is contrasted with Mary, who spends her time with Jesus. In Luke 10 Martha even enlists Jesus’ help in requesting that Mary join her in completing the necessary work. Jesus, however, declares that Martha is “worried and upset about many things” (v. 41) and Mary’s actions are more desirable. In a separate account (John 11:1–44), Mary and Martha send word to Jesus that their brother, Lazarus, is sick. Jesus delays the journey to Bethany in order to demonstrate the glory of God, which results in his raising Lazarus from the dead. Upon hearing of Jesus’ eventual arrival, Martha goes out to meet him and questions the timing of his journey. In their dialogue, Jesus confirms Martha’s faith in him (John 11:27), but before Jesus performs the miracle, she experiences doubt.

Martyr

The English word “martyr” derives from the Greek word family that includes the nouns martys, martyrion, and martyria, involving witness and testimony. The domain of meaning for martys ranges from a legal witness or observer of an event or an act (Matt. 18:16; Mark 14:63; Luke 24:48; Acts 7:58; 2 Cor. 13:1; 1 Tim. 5:19; Heb. 10:28) to a person whose testimony for Jesus results in suffering or death (Acts 22:20; Rev. 17:6; cf. 6:9; 20:4). The word is used throughout Acts to refer to the apostles as witnesses of the resurrection and the gospel (e.g., 1:8; 2:32; 3:15; 5:32; 10:39).

In Revelation the word martys carries the connotation of dying for one’s testimony (2:13; 11:3–7; 17:6; cf. 6:9). Jesus is presented as the ultimate witness or martyr (Rev. 3:14). Those who followed Jesus’ example paid with their lives and were shamed in the eyes of society. However, in Revelation the martyrs receive a position of honor, a position closest to the throne of Christ (7:9–17). See also Witness.

Martyrdom and Ascension of Isaiah

This pseudepigraphical book is commonly dated between the second century BC and the fourth century AD. Chapters 1–5 probably were originally written in Hebrew (though there are no extant Hebrew manuscripts), then at an early period translated into Greek, and later into other languages (Ethiopic, Latin, Slavonic, Coptic). Currently the entire work exists only in Ethiopic.

The first section (chaps. 1–5) describes Isaiah’s martyrdom. In Hezekiah’s twenty-sixth year, Manasseh was to be instructed by Isaiah in righteousness. Instead, Isaiah prophesies that Manasseh would act wickedly, climaxing with Isaiah being sawn in half (cf. Heb. 11:37). This section contains a Christian addition sometimes referred to as the Testament of Hezekiah (3:13–4:22). The second section (chaps. 6–11), a Christian work, describes Isaiah’s vision during the twentieth year of Hezekiah’s reign. In it, the prophet passes through the seven heavens, where he sees the triune God—the Lord Christ, the Holy Spirit, and a glimpse of the glory of God the Father. He then hears God the Father commission the Lord Christ to go to earth, be born as a baby, live, die, be resurrected, and then ascend back up to the seventh heaven.

Mary

(1) The most important Mary of the NT is the mother of Jesus, who becomes pregnant through the Holy Spirit while still a virgin. In contrast with Matthew’s birth narrative, where the emphasis falls on Joseph, Luke’s focuses on Mary. Luke’s Gospel introduces Mary as the one to whom God sends the angel Gabriel (1:26–27). Gabriel announces that Mary will be the mother of the Messiah from David’s line, who will reign over the house of Jacob and have a unique father-son relationship with God. Mary responds in humble obedience as “the Lord’s servant” (1:29–38). When she visits her relative Elizabeth, Mary breaks forth in the Magnificat, a song praising God for caring for the humble, humbling the mighty, and remembering his covenant with Abraham (1:46–55).

After the birth of Jesus and the visit from the shepherds, Mary “treasured up all these things and pondered them in her heart” (2:19). An old man, Simeon, announces that although Jesus will be a light of revelation for the Gentiles and Israel’s glory, Mary will be deeply grieved, and her soul will be pierced by a sword (2:35). This is the first hint in Luke’s Gospel that Mary’s child, the Messiah, will suffer. In the only episode from Jesus’ childhood in the Gospel, Mary scolds her son for remaining in the temple while his family traveled back to Galilee (2:48). In Luke’s Gospel, Mary is a humble and obedient woman who reflects deeply about her experiences surrounding the birth of Jesus and cares greatly for him as well. Beyond the birth narratives, Mary does not figure as a prominent character in the Gospels. In John’s Gospel, Jesus speaks sternly to his mother when she wants him to perform a miracle before his “hour has . . . come” (2:4); however, at the crucifixion, Mary is present, and Jesus places her into the care of the Beloved Disciple (19:25–27). Later traditions about Mary’s immaculate conception, perpetual virginity, sinlessness, and roles as co-mediator of salvation and answerer of prayer are not taught in the Bible.

(2) Another Mary mentioned in the Gospels is the sister of Martha, who is praised by Jesus for not busying herself with domestic duties as Martha does, but rather sits at the feet of Jesus, “listening to what he said” (Luke 10:39–40). This same Mary is mentioned on another occasion as the one “who poured perfume on the Lord and wiped his feet with her hair” (John 11:1–2; cf. 12:1–8). The Synoptic Gospels record a similar event in which a woman, left unnamed, anoints either the feet of Jesus (Luke 7:36–50) or his head (Matt. 26:6–13; Mark 14:3–9). With the exception of Luke, it seems as though John, Matthew, and Mark are recording the same event. In each of these three, Jesus associates the anointing with the preparation of his body for burial.

(3) Mary Magdalene makes a brief appearance during the ministry of Jesus, and Luke describes her as one who had been cured of seven demons (Luke 8:2). It is quite unlikely that she is the “sinful” woman of the preceding narrative (7:37–50), an association that has given rise to the erroneous belief that Mary Magdalene was a prostitute. She is the first to witness the empty tomb (John 20:1). Likewise, she is the first to see the resurrected Lord and is commanded to go and tell the disciples about his resurrection (John 20:11–18; cf. Matt. 28:1; Mark 16:1–6; Luke 24:1–10). She is even present for the crucifixion (Matt. 27:56) and the burial of Jesus’ body (Matt. 27:61).

(4) Mary the mother of James and Joses (Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40) is one of two other Marys who, like Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus, appear at the crucifixion. She may be the same person as #5.

(5) Mary the wife of Clopas (John 19:25) is the second of the two other Marys who, like Mary Magdalene and Mary the mother of Jesus, appear at the crucifixion. She may be the same person as #4.

(6) Another Mary is the mother of John Mark, to whose house Peter comes after he escapes from prison (Acts 12:12).

(7) In Rom. 16:6, Paul sends greetings to Mary, who “worked very hard” for the church in Rome.

Maschil

The classification of thirteen psalms (Pss. 32; 42; 44–45; 52–55; 74; 78; 88–89; 142). All are associated with “authors” (David, the sons of Korah, Asaph, Heman, and Ethan) (see also Superscription). They include individual and communal laments, royal psalms, instruction, and psalms of mixed type, but none are hymns of praise. The root of maskil pertains to understanding or skill. There are two main views as to its meaning. As it relates to “making prudent,” the maskil may be meditative or instructive. Or maskil may be a designation that skilled musicians were required for proper performance.

Mash

The son of Aram, a descendant of Shem (Gen. 10:23). The LXX and the parallel account in 1 Chron. 1:17 read “Meshek” (which the NIV supplies to Gen. 10:23). See also Meshek.

Mashal

(1) A Levitical town in the tribal territory of Asher (1 Chron. 6:74). The name is also found as “Misheal” (KJV) or “Mishal” (Josh. 19:26; 21:30). (2) A technical term for a proverb, parable, riddle, or simile, mashal is used for the Hebrew title of the book of Proverbs (Mishle). The word comes from a Hebrew root meaning “to compare, represent,” “be like.”

Maskil

The classification of thirteen psalms (Pss. 32; 42; 44–45; 52–55; 74; 78; 88–89; 142). All are associated with “authors” (David, the sons of Korah, Asaph, Heman, and Ethan) (see also Superscription). They include individual and communal laments, royal psalms, instruction, and psalms of mixed type, but none are hymns of praise. The root of maskil pertains to understanding or skill. There are two main views as to its meaning. As it relates to “making prudent,” the maskil may be meditative or instructive. Or maskil may be a designation that skilled musicians were required for proper performance.

Masons

Skilled artisans who cut, dress, and place stone for building projects. Professional masons were employed for large public proj-ects such as palaces, temples, and city walls. The first mention of masons in Scripture is in the description of the building of King David’s palace. Apparently, at that time there were no Israelites with these skills, so David relied on Phoenician masons supplied by King Hiram of Tyre (2 Sam. 5:11–12; 1 Chron. 14:1; 22:2–4). These Phoenician masons also worked on Solomon’s temple along with the developing guild of Israelite masons and a draft of forced-labor stonecutters from all Israel (1 Kings 5:13–18).

Structures dating to the Solomonic period and the monarchic period demonstrate the skill that the Israelite masons had acquired. Hezekiah’s water tunnel was carved from solid rock from opposite ends and met in the middle (2 Kings 20:20); the ability to cut and place immense stones (some thirteen to sixteen feet in length) was so accurate that they could be set without mortar, and it was impossible to insert a knife blade between the joints.

Most masonry utilized native limestone, a soft and abundant stone that could be cut locally, but basalt (a hard, volcanic rock) was also employed. Tools of the masons included saws, hammers, chisels, and small sandstone finishing stones. Large blocks were quarried by placing wood wedges into channels carved into the rock, which were then flooded with water so that the wedges swelled and split the rock.

Herod’s numerous building projects (first century BC) also showcased the talent of masons. For Herod’s temple in Jerusalem, massive stones were cut from a limestone quarry approximately one-half mile away from where they would be placed in the foundation wall supporting the Temple Mount. Many of these stones weighed over one hundred tons; the largest, measuring forty-four feet long, eleven feet thick, and sixteen feet high, weighed over four hundred tons. The Herodian stones bear a distinctive chiseled edge with a flat projecting boss, surrounded by a three-inch-wide frame that was recessed below the face by about three-quarter inches. Some of these can be seen today in the Western Wall in Jerusalem.

Professional guilds have a long history in the ancient Near East and were an important part of the economies of Babylonia, Assyria, and Egypt. Although there is less information about the guilds of Palestine, evidence suggests that they had parallel structure and influence. Masons, like other artisans, frequently lived and worked together in a particular location.

Masrekah

The city of Samlah, a king of the Edomites who succeeded Hadad of Avith (Gen. 36:36; 1 Chron. 1:47). Masrekah’s location within Edom is unknown; the city appears only in the record of kings “who reigned in Edom before any Israelite king reigned” (Gen. 36:31; 1 Chron. 1:43).

Massa

One of the twelve “princes,” sons of Ishmael, mentioned in Gen. 25:14; 1 Chron. 1:30, progenitors of tribes that evidently settled in northern Arabia. Although these are the only two places where the name occurs for certain in the OT, it is possible that in Prov. 31:1 the word translated “oracle” should rather be understood as the place name “Massa,” thus resulting in the reading “the sayings of Lemuel king of Massa, which his mother taught him.” The word order in the verse gives credence to this reading, as well as the fact that the tribe of Massa is attested in extrabiblical ancient Near Eastern sources (attested as early as the eighth century BC in Akkadian texts). If this reading is correct, then it is also possible that the same word in Prov. 30:1 should be translated as a tribal name as well: “The sayings of Agur son of Jakeh the Massaite.” This would also accord with the fact that Israelite wisdom was part of the larger international wisdom movement in the ancient world. Some scholars have suggested that the sayings contained in Prov. 30–31 are consonant with an origin in an Arabian tribal cultural context.

Massah

A location on the journey toward Mount Horeb (Sinai) where the Israelites grumbled against God because they had no water. Moses called the place Massah (“testing”) and Meribah (“quarreling”) because of their complaining (Exod. 17:7). Still, at God’s direction, Moses struck the rock at Horeb, and water flowed out. All subsequent references to Massah in the biblical text are about this incident (Deut. 6:16; 9:22; 33:8; Ps. 95:8). Subsequent references to Meribah, however, concern another incident (e.g., Num. 20:13, 24; Deut. 32:51; 33:8). See also Meribah.

Mast

A structural vertical pole on a sailing vessel that supports the rigging and sails. Made from strong timber (Ezek. 27:5), masts must be attached securely (Isa. 33:23) in order to function.

Master

The English word “master” translates several Hebrew and Greek words. A few prominent examples follow. In the OT, ’adon, when it does not refer to God, is translated as “master” (e.g., Gen. 24:14). It often refers to one who is over servants. Ba’al is both the personal name of a Canaanite deity and a generic term for “master.” It is used in reference to the master of servants or the husband in a home (e.g., Exod. 21:3 NASB). The Hebrew words rab and sar are often combined with other words to mean “great” or “chief,” as in “chief [rab] of the magicians” (Dan. 4:9). In the NT, “rabbi” (“my rab”), borrowed from Aramaic, is used of Jesus and denotes his role as teacher and master (John 4:31). The Greek word kyrios is roughly equivalent to the OT word ba’al and refers to one who has complete authority (Matt. 6:24). Jesus’ disciples use epistatēs when they address him as their leader and teacher (Luke 5:5; 8:24). Didaskalos refers to a teacher, but it also carries the weightier connotation of “master” that was ascribed to teachers in the ancient world (Matt. 9:11; 10:25).

Mat

A thin mattress or a makeshift bed. In several Gospel stories invalids appear with mats in public spaces (e.g., John 5:1–15). Once, a paralytic was lowered through a roof into a house on his mat (Mark 2:4). Both of these persons were able to pick up and carry their mats after being healed by Jesus (Mark 2:11–12; John 5:8–9).

Materialism

Both the OT and the NT view wealth as ultimately a result of God’s blessing (Prov. 10:22). Abraham shows the right attitude by refusing to accept plunder from the king of Sodom, recognizing God as the sole source of his riches (Gen. 14:23). Solomon’s wealth was seen as God’s favor (1 Kings 3:13). Wealth and riches are said to be in the house of persons “who fear the Lord” (Ps. 112:1–3). However, material success alone is not necessarily an indication of God’s approval, nor is poverty a sign of God’s disfavor. Fundamentally, neither poverty nor wealth can be superficially tied to divine displeasure or favor.

Balanced view. The Bible articulates a balanced view of wealth. It warns against having an arrogant attitude by failing to acknowledge that the source of wealth is God (Deut. 8:17–18). There is danger in trusting in riches (Pss. 52:7; 62:10). The rich are charged not to be haughty, and to set their hopes not on uncertain riches but rather on God (1 Tim. 6:17–18). The love of money is described as the root of all kinds of evil (1 Tim. 6:9–10), and it is therefore extremely difficult for a rich person to enter the kingdom of God (Matt. 19:24). The foolishness of materialism, making riches the center of one’s life, is shown in the parable of the wealthy farmer (Luke 12:15–21). Instead of monetary greed, the spirit of contentment is commended, because even if lacking on the material level, one still has the Lord (Luke 12:15; Phil. 4:11; Heb. 13:5). Material possessions should be gained rightly; effort and diligence are required (Gen. 3:19; Prov. 10:4). Obtaining wealth through dishonesty and ill-gotten gains is denounced and condemned (Prov. 11:26; 13:11; Jer. 17:11; Mic. 6:12).

God-centered perspective. Wealth and material possessions are to be viewed from a God-centered perspective. God is the one who provides everything; thus we should trust him for our daily needs (Matt. 6:25–34; Luke 11:3). Job’s confession in a time of loss, “The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away; may the name of the Lord be praised,” shows an admirable attitude to emulate (Job 1:21). God is the owner of all things, and we are simply stewards and administrators of God’s wealth. We need to remember that one day we will be accountable for the use of our wealth (1 Cor. 10:31). Jesus teaches us to seek the kingdom of God first rather than his material blessings (Luke 12:31–33). Anything that draws us away from serving God should be avoided. We cannot serve both God and mammon (Matt. 6:24). Our treasures are to be in heaven, meaning that our central focus should be on matters pertaining to the kingdom: “Where your treasure is, there your heart will be also” (Luke 12:32–34).

Responsibility and generosity. With the possession of wealth comes the duty to give generously to those in need (Prov. 11:24; 28:27). Prosperity is given as a means to do good; thus we ought to be rich in good deeds (1 Tim. 6:18). Although it is a duty of the covenant community to take care of the needy in the OT, it still emphasizes the voluntary heart (Deut. 15:5–11). In 2 Cor. 9:7, Paul presents the principle of giving in the NT: “Each of you should give what you have decided in your heart to give, not reluctantly or under compulsion, for God loves a cheerful giver.” It should be not an exaction but a willing gift (9:5).

The Christian should emulate Jesus: “Though he was rich, yet for [our] sake he became poor, so that [we] through his poverty might become rich” (2 Cor. 8:9). Therefore, material offerings to Christ should not be a burden (1 Cor. 9:11). Sacrificial giving is an expression of love to the Lord (2 Cor. 9:12). It also generates thanksgiving to God from those who receive it (2 Cor. 9:11). Worldly wealth should also be used for evangelistic purposes (Luke 16:8). If we are faithful in the use of money, we can be trusted with the kingdom’s spiritual riches (Luke 16:12–13). Although riches do not have eternal value in themselves, their proper use has eternal consequences (Luke 12:33; 1 Tim. 6:19). One of the qualifications of a church overseer is to be free from the love of money, and a deacon must not pursue dishonest gain (1 Tim. 3:3, 8). A good name is to be chosen over great riches (Prov. 22:1). James condemns as sinful the attitude of favoring the wealthy over the poor. Nonpreferential love is the answer to prejudicial favoritism (James 2:1–9).

Mathusala

Dying at 969 years of age, he is the oldest human reported in the Bible. He lived before the flood and was the son of Enoch and the father of Lamech (Gen. 5:25–27). He is remembered later in Scripture in the opening genealogy of Chronicles (1 Chron. 1:3) and in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Luke 3:37).

Matred

The daughter of Me-Zahab and the mother of Mehetabel, who was the wife of King Hadad (some manuscripts read “Hadar”) of Edom (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chron. 1:50). However, the LXX and many Latin translations identify this person as the father of Mehetabel.

Matri

The clan of Matri, in the tribe of Benjamin, was chosen by lot when Samuel was selecting a king for Israel. The clan included Kish, the father of Saul (1 Sam. 10:21).

Matrites

The clan of Matri, in the tribe of Benjamin, was chosen by lot when Samuel was selecting a king for Israel. The clan included Kish, the father of Saul (1 Sam. 10:21).

Matrix

Five times the KJV translates the Hebrew word rekhem (“womb”) as “matrix” (Exod. 13:12, 15; 34:19; Num. 3:12; 18:15).

Mattan

(1) A priest of Baal in Jerusalem who was slain in Jehoiada’s attack against Athaliah queen of Judah (2 Kings 11:18; 2 Chron. 23:17). (2) The father of Shephatiah, an officer of King Zedekiah during the time of Jeremiah (Jer. 38:1).

Mattanah

An encampment site of the Israelites in the wilderness (Num. 21:18–19). The first encampment after God’s provision of well water at Beer. Most scholars understand “Mattanah” to be a Moabite place name. Context suggests that the location is east of the Jordan, possibly Khirbet el-Medeiyineh, about twelve miles southeast of Madaba.

Mattaniah

(1) An uncle of King Jehoiachin. King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon installed Mattaniah as king over Judah and changed his name to “Zedekiah” (2 Kings 24:17). (2) The son of Mika and descendant of Asaph, he was one of the first Levites to resettle the land of Judah after the Babylonian exile (1 Chron. 9:15; Neh. 11:17, 22; 12:8, 35). (3) One of fourteen sons of Heman the musician, he was chosen to minister at the temple with music (1 Chron. 25:4, 16). (4) An ancestor of Jahaziel son of Zechariah (2 Chron. 20:14). (5) A Levite who worked to reopen the temple during Hezekiah’s time (2 Chron. 29:13). (6, 7, 8, 9) Four men, descendants of Elam, Zattu, Pahath-Moab, and Bani, who were guilty of marrying foreign women during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:26, 27, 30, 37). (10) A gatekeeper after the Israelite return from captivity (Neh. 12:25). (11) Grandfather of Hanan, an assistant to those in charge of the temple storerooms under Nehemiah (Neh. 13:13). He may be the same Mattaniah as in 1 Chron. 9:15; Neh. 11:17, 22; 12:8, 35.

Mattatha

An otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:31 as a grandson of David, the son of Nathan, and the father of Menna.

Mattathiah

(1) The son of Amos and the father of Joseph, he was an ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:25). (2) The son of Semein and the father of Maath, he was an ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:26). (3) A priest during the intertestamental period who revolted against Antiochus Epiph-a-nes (1 Macc. 2). One of Mattathias’s sons was Judas Maccabeus, whose purification of the temple (2 Macc. 10:1–8) is commemorated at Hanukkah.

Mattathias

(1) The son of Amos and the father of Joseph, he was an ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:25). (2) The son of Semein and the father of Maath, he was an ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:26). (3) A priest during the intertestamental period who revolted against Antiochus Epiph-a-nes (1 Macc. 2). One of Mattathias’s sons was Judas Maccabeus, whose purification of the temple (2 Macc. 10:1–8) is commemorated at Hanukkah.

Mattattah

A descendant of Hashum who was guilty of marrying a foreign woman, during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:33).

Mattenai

(1, 2) Descendants of Hashum and Bani who were guilty of marrying foreign women during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:33, 37). (3) The head of Joiarib’s priestly family during the time of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:19).

Matthan

Listed in Matthew’s genealogy of Jesus as the son of Eleazar and the father of Jacob (Matt. 1:15).

Matthat

(1) The grandfather of Joseph, Jesus’ earthly father (Luke 3:24). (2) The son of Levi and the father of Jorim, he was a descendant of David through Levi and an ancestor of Joseph, Jesus’ earthly father (Luke 3:29).

Matthew

The traditional author of the first Gospel and one of the twelve apostles (Matt. 10:3). Matthew worked for the government of Herod Antipas as an official for the tax department. This was a responsible position that would have required a good education, fluency in both Greek and Aramaic, and bookkeeping and accounting skills. He was based in Capernaum, a fishing village of Galilee, which lay on the busy Via Maris highway, thus guaranteeing a lucrative income from the tariffs collected on goods from passing travelers (Matt. 9:9). Tax collectors, although holding positions of responsibility, were by no means respected by their fellow Jews. In fact, the Pharisees named tax collectors along with sinners as a despised class (Matt. 9:11; 11:19; Mark 2:16; Luke 7:34; 15:1). Because Matthew was working for an essentially Roman-dominated administration, most Jews would have branded him a traitor to Israel’s national interests.

Only the first Gospel calls him “Matthew” (which means “gift of God”). Mark and Luke refer to him as “Levi” (Mark 2:14; Luke 5:27). He was called by Jesus to be a disciple as he was working in the tax booth. The words “follow me,” which Jesus spoke to him on that occasion, are the only recorded conversation between the two men. Following his call, he invited Jesus into his home and held a banquet in his honor. On that occasion he invited many of his own kind, an act that outraged the moral sensitivities of the Pharisees, who criticized Jesus for it (Mark 2:15–17). Matthew and those like him (e.g., Zacchaeus [Luke 19:1–10]) are a vivid demonstration of the priority of grace in salvation.

Matthias

The apostle chosen to replace Judas Iscariot (Acts 1:15–26). After Judas’s death, Peter called upon the approximately 120 believers in Christ to designate another apostle, one who had been with the apostles from the time of Jesus’ baptism by John to Jesus’ ascension. The choice of a new apostle would fulfill David’s words concerning Judas (see Pss. 69:25; 109:8b). After praying for God’s guidance, the believers cast lots, and Matthias was chosen over the other nominee, “Joseph called Barsabbas (also known as Justus)” (v. 23).

Mattithiah

(1) A Levite in charge of baking the offering bread for the temple (1 Chron. 9:31). (2) A Levite who accompanied the ark of the covenant from the house of Obed-Edom to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:18, 21; 16:5). (3) A son of Jeduthun, also a Levite, who performed musical service in the temple (1 Chron. 25:3, 21). (4) A descendant of Nebo who was guilty of marrying a foreign woman during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:43). (5) One of the thirteen leaders who stood with Ezra as he read the Book of the Law publicly (Neh. 8:4).

Maul

In Prov. 25:18 the KJV translates the Hebrew word mepits as “maul,” referring to a “club” (NASB, NIV, JPS) or “war club” (NRSV, ESV).

Maw

In Deut. 18:3 the KJV translates the Hebrew word qebah as “maw,” referring to one of the choice portions of a sacrificed animal to be reserved for the Levitical priest. More-recent versions translate the Hebrew term as “internal organs” (NIV) or “stomach” (NRSV, ESV).

Mazzaroth

A transliteration of an obscure Hebrew term, mazzarot, found in Job 38:32. The various ways it can be understood include a proper name of a constellation (KJV, ESV), a reference to the twelve signs of the zodiac (REB), and a generic term for a constellation or stars (NIV, NASB).

Me Jarkon

A stream (“waters of Yarkon”) in the territory of Dan (Josh. 19:46). The exact location is unknown, but the stream is likely along the banks of Nahr el-’Auja, four miles north of Joppa and between the Mediterranean and Aphek, the city near the headwaters, which is about nine miles from the coast.

Me-Zahab

A grandparent of Mehetabel, the wife of King Hadad (Hadar) of Edom (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chron. 1:50). Alternatively, some consider the name to indicate a location (meaning “waters of gold”) that was the home of Matred, a parent of Mehetabel. If “Me-Zahab” is a place name, it perhaps can be identified with Dizahab (Deut. 1:1).

Meadow

A lush area of grassland or a piece of low ground near a river. The KJV uses the term at Gen. 41:2, 18, where the reference is to the tall, reedy grass near the banks of the Nile River, as well as in Judg. 20:33 in reference to the “meadows of Gibeah.” Modern translations use “meadow(s)” when referring to a pleasant, grassy place (Isa. 44:4; Jer. 25:37; cf. Hos. 9:13), often a metaphor for the blessing of God. Although this word may refer to a place where animals graze (Ps. 65:13; Isa. 30:23; Hos. 4:16), it is used in Scripture much less frequently than the word “pasture.”

Meals

A banquet is a joyful celebration, usually involving wine, abundant food, music, and dancing. Banquets celebrated special occasions such as the forging of a relationship (Gen. 26:26–30), the coronation of a king (1 Chron. 12:28–40), the completion of the temple (2 Chron. 7:8), victory over one’s enemies (Gen. 14:18–19; Ps. 23:5), weddings (Gen. 29:22; John 2:1–11; Rev. 19:9), birthdays of royals (Mark 6:21), and the reunion of estranged relatives (Luke 15:23–24). Banquets also symbolized one’s status, since they were by invitation only. One’s seating arrangement corresponded to one’s social status in the group, since there were “higher” and “lower” positions (Luke 14:8–9). During the meal, people reclined on bedlike seats.

In the OT, the image of a banquet anticipates a future occasion when God will remove the reproach of his people (Isa. 25:6). It also becomes a metaphor for special access to God, who protects, blesses, and honors his people (Ps. 23:5).

The plot of the book of Esther revolves around banquets. The book opens with two big banquets held by Ahasuerus (Esther 1) that conclude with the removal of Vashti as queen, soon replaced by Esther. Esther invites the king and Haman to a banquet in order to expose the insidious plot of the latter (Esther 7). The book culminates with a great banquet that is the proto­type for an annual banquet celebrating the Jews’ victory over their enemies, Purim (9:2–32).

Jesus uses the banquet as a metaphor for the presence of the kingdom (cf. Matt. 9:14–17). He tells a parable of a king who has planned a wedding banquet for his son. Those who were invited have refused to attend (i.e., the Jewish leaders), so the king commands his servants to go out into the streets and gather as many people as they can find, both good and bad (Matt. 22:1–10).

Jesus also uses the imagery of a banquet to describe the final future manifestation of the kingdom. He exhorts his disciples to be prepared for the unexpected return of the bridegroom, lest they be excluded from the wedding banquet (Matt. 25:1–13). At the Last Supper, he commands the disciples to continue the practice of sharing bread and wine after his departure, to remember his atoning death and to anticipate his future coming (Matt. 26:26–29). This future banquet will celebrate Christ’s final union with his bride, the church (Rev. 19:6–9).

Meaning of Time

Time refers to both the real and the perceived passage of events in sequence. It is important to note that “perceived” and “real” need not be the same. For example, Jacob worked for seven years in order to marry Rebekah, “but they seemed like only a few days to him because of his love for her” (Gen. 29:20 [cf. 2 Pet. 3:8]). Jacob’s perception of time clearly was distinct from the real period of time that passed.

The Biblical Concept of Time

Time, as the sequential ordering of events that occur in space, pervades both human life and the biblical record of God’s dealings with the universe. The Bible recounts God’s plan for his creation, a plan with a beginning and an end, between which elements of the plan unfold in chronological sequence throughout history. The biblical concept of time is distinct from the cyclical concept found in some other religions, both in the ancient Near East and elsewhere. History thus moves toward a divinely predetermined goal through divinely appointed events that occur in sequence at appointed times according to God’s plan. Since God’s purposes for creation are expressed through time, the major points in his plan are apparent in a broad chronological sweep, beginning with creation, ending with judgment and the new creation, and centered upon the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus (cf. Mark 1:15).

That God acts within history to bring about his purposes is highlighted by the use of temporal language to make reference to events that have taken place in the past (Exod. 12:1–3) and are yet to take place (in particular through the use of expressions such as “the last day[s]” in, e.g., Isa. 2:2; Jer. 23:20; John 6:39–54). The emphasis therefore is not on some spiritual or otherworldly domain in which specifically religious experiences and events take place, a domain distinct from the physical world in which we live. Rather, the emphasis is on the way in which God directs and shapes history in order to bring about his purposes.

Furthermore, the Bible acknowledges that all events in history fall within the purview of God’s sovereignty through the acknowledgment that there is an appropriate time appointed for them (Eccles. 3:1–11; Ps. 31:15). God’s sovereignty over time extends to the future, and thus the prophets announce the future actions of God at certain times (Isa. 60:22; Ezek. 22:3; 30:3; Dan. 8:17). More specifically, definite times for the end and final judgment are established (Matt. 8:29), although the timing of the end is known only to the Father (Matt. 24:36; Mark 13:33).

Modern science treats time and space as related and essential components of the physical universe and thus of God’s creation. Since, therefore, time is created, it is not thereby immediately clear precisely what God’s relationship to time is, nor is this an issue directly addressed in the Bible. Although it is common to insist that since time is part of creation, God exists outside of time, it is not possible to deduce from this observation alone that God exists without some analogous notion of time within a divine frame of reference. Nor is the question readily resolved by appeal to biblical texts, for although a number of passages reflect upon God’s knowledge of the end from the beginning and speak of God predestining and foreknowing (terms that implicitly have temporal connotations), these can be read as either reflecting God’s interaction with the temporal aspect of the created universe or as divine accommodation to human language in order to communicate correctly with temporal human beings throughout history. Consequently, no definitive answer to these philosophical questions is available, and so proposals relating to the issue cannot be judged to provide certainty in these matters. All that can be said with certainty is that the Bible presents certain propositions that affirm time’s subservience to God.

Measuring Time

The Bible makes reference to a variety of different measurements of periods of time. These include Jubilees (Lev. 25:10), generations (Deut. 2:14), Sabbath years (Lev. 25:4), years, months, days, and hours. There are no shorter periods of time described by any defined measures in the Bible, reflecting a culture in which timekeeping was not dominated by devices that afforded such determinations (although terms for nonspecific short periods of time do exist, such as rega’, a “moment” [Exod. 33:5; Isa. 26:20]).

A number of passages appear to suggest that a day was considered to begin in the morning and end the following morning (e.g., Deut. 28:66–67; 1 Sam. 30:12; Isa. 28:19; Jer. 33:20). However, there are also texts that seem to suggest a different division of days, specifically the creation account of Gen. 1 (but see also Gen. 19:34; Lev. 7:15; Judg. 19:4–9; 1 Sam. 19:11). Nehemiah 13:19 has the day begin at sunset. By NT times, a full day generally was reckoned as beginning at sunset.

Days were also divided into parts. The Mesopotamian system for dividing the night into three watches appears paralleled in Exod. 14:24; Judg. 7:19; 1 Sam. 11:11, although by NT times the night was divided into four watches, paralleling the Roman and Egyptian practice (Matt. 14:25; Mark 13:35). More precise, shorter divisions of time tended to be later innovations; for example, the OT does not typically use an hour as a measure of time. Nonetheless, there were in the ancient world means by which shorter periods could be measured, such as sundials and water clocks, examples of which can be found dating to the second millennium BC in Mesopotamia and Egypt. The only possible reference to such a device in the Bible appears in Isa. 38:8, where the “stairway of Ahaz” is thought by some to have been used to measure time in some way.

When the LXX uses the Greek word hōra, it refers not to a period of sixty minutes, but usually to a point in time (e.g., Exod. 9:18). In other early Greek literature the term can refer to a variety of periods of time, including a season and a year. By the NT period, however, the division of the day into twenty-four hours had become normative (cf. John 11:9), and the NT makes numerous reference to times based on the hour of the day.

The week was a well-established measure of time, reflected in the creation story as well as in the celebration of the Sabbath. Months were based on a lunar calendar (the Hebrew words for “month,” yerakh and khodesh, are also used to refer to the moon) (see Calendar). Beyond years, the Bible also uses generations as a measure of the passage of time. Finally, other measures less readily associated with specific periods of time are used in the Bible, in particular in some apocalyptic prophetic texts such as Daniel.

Eternity

“Eternity” is another time-related concept that occupies an important place in the Bible. The modern scientific realization that time is part of creation has strengthened the notion, long affirmed by various philosophies, that “eternity” represents that which is outside time and apart from it and so is particularly associated with God’s existence. In contrast to this, however, when the Bible makes reference to “eternity,” it invariably has a temporal aspect, referring either to the distant past, the distant future, or else the entire expanse of time from distant past to distant future (e.g., Exod. 15:18; Ps. 9:5; Mic. 4:5). What is clear, however, is that God’s relationship to the temporal aspect of the universe does reflect that of one who is outside the constraints of that time (e.g., Ps. 90:2; 2 Pet. 3:8).

Mearah

A location associated with the Sidonians and part of the territory left unconquered by Joshua (Josh. 13:4). The Hebrew, me’arah, can be understood as meaning “cave,” or “from Arah” (NIV, NET), or “Mearah” (NRSV, KJV). The LXX reads “before Gaza.”

Measure

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistent metrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economy to law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time, distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world, technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects of the universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers to light-years, milligrams to kilograms.

The metrological systems employed in biblical times span the same concepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, and volume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurements employed during the span of biblical times were not nearly as accurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexisting weight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundings of both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced the systems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers. There was great variance between the different standards used merchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region, time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honest scales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore, inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written records as well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significant differences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurements in the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity and liquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is to be expected, especially when we consider modern-day inconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint = 0.473 liters, while 1 US dry pint = 0.550 liters. Thus, all modern equivalents given below are approximations, and even the best estimates have a margin of error of + 5 percent or more.

Weights

Weights in biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into various animal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom was inscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement. Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significant amounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatly complicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka. Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahs or ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measure metals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah. 1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20 shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra. Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight. Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to the modern British pound.

Mina. Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50 shekels. Used to weigh gold (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver (Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefined the proper weight: “The shekel is to consist of twenty gerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekels equal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, there were arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of the servants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servants varying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying a monetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver or gold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’ wages for a laborer.

Pim. Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3 shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1 Sam. 13:21).

Shekel. Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent to approximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weight measurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight varied significantly at different historical points. Examples include the “royal shekel” (2 Sam. 14:26), the “common shekel” (2 Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,” which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, the shekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent. Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately 60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod. 25:39; 37:24; 1 Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1 Kings 20:39; 2 Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably is derived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table 12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka – 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah – 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra – 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina – 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim – 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel – 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent – 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linear measurements

Cubit – 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’s journey = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth – ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth – 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion – 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia – 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod – 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbath day’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2 kilometers

Span – 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion – 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab – 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix – ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor – 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah – 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer – 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros – 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer – 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton – 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah – 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Liquid Volume

Bath – 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos – 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin – 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log – 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes – 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

Linear Measurements

Linear measurements were based upon readily available natural measurements such as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between the thumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method of measurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit. Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6 handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, as the shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance from the elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height, width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen. 7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximate conversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half for meters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1 cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’s journey. An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25 miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a single or multiple days’ journey as a description of the distance traveled or the distance between two points: “a day’s journey” (Num. 11:31; 1 Kings 19:4), “a three-day journey” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “seven days” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2). After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyed for a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth. The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately ¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was the beginning building block of the biblical metrological system for linear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describe the bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth. Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit, or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the four fingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’s brief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table (Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1 Kings 7:26).

Milion. Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration of Roman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia. Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as “fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably the distance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measure the depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod. Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a general term for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance (Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbath day’s journey. Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About 2,000 cubits.

Span. Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to three handbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretched thumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion. Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai. Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

Land Area

Seed. The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis of how much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1 Kings 18:32).

Yoke. Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. In biblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animals could plow in one day (1 Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab. Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer. Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria (2 Kings 6:25).

Choinix. Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement, mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to the homer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of flour and grains (1 Kings 4:22; 1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquid volume, particularly oil (1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10; Ezra 45:14).

Ephah. Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters). Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flour and grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day of reduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce only an ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to the bath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to 1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of various grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos. 3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkey can carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed a direct link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16: “fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” A logical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalences might look something like this:

1 homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros. Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measure of grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer. Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10 ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in the measurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod. 16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s daily food ration.

Saton. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. The measurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah, or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various dry goods (e.g., 2 Kings 7:1; 1 Sam. 25:18).

Liquid Volume

Bath. Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, which typically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in the measurement of water (1 Kings 7:26), oil (1 Kings 5:11), and wine (2 Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos. Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew word bath (see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin. Approximately 4 quarts (1 gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to 1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek. 4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log. Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72 bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture, specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes. Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement of water at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

Measurement

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistent metrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economy to law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time, distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world, technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects of the universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers to light-years, milligrams to kilograms.

The metrological systems employed in biblical times span the same concepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, and volume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurements employed during the span of biblical times were not nearly as accurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexisting weight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundings of both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced the systems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers. There was great variance between the different standards used merchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region, time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honest scales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore, inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written records as well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significant differences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurements in the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity and liquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is to be expected, especially when we consider modern-day inconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint = 0.473 liters, while 1 US dry pint = 0.550 liters. Thus, all modern equivalents given below are approximations, and even the best estimates have a margin of error of + 5 percent or more.

Weights

Weights in biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into various animal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom was inscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement. Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significant amounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatly complicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka. Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahs or ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measure metals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah. 1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20 shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra. Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight. Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to the modern British pound.

Mina. Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50 shekels. Used to weigh gold (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver (Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefined the proper weight: “The shekel is to consist of twenty gerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekels equal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, there were arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of the servants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servants varying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying a monetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver or gold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’ wages for a laborer.

Pim. Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3 shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1 Sam. 13:21).

Shekel. Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent to approximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weight measurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight varied significantly at different historical points. Examples include the “royal shekel” (2 Sam. 14:26), the “common shekel” (2 Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,” which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, the shekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent. Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately 60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod. 25:39; 37:24; 1 Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1 Kings 20:39; 2 Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably is derived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table 12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka – 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah – 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra – 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina – 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim – 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel – 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent – 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linear measurements

Cubit – 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’s journey = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth – ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth – 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion – 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia – 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod – 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbath day’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2 kilometers

Span – 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion – 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab – 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix – ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor – 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah – 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer – 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros – 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer – 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton – 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah – 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Liquid Volume

Bath – 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos – 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin – 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log – 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes – 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

Linear Measurements

Linear measurements were based upon readily available natural measurements such as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between the thumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method of measurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit. Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6 handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, as the shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance from the elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height, width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen. 7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximate conversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half for meters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1 cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’s journey. An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25 miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a single or multiple days’ journey as a description of the distance traveled or the distance between two points: “a day’s journey” (Num. 11:31; 1 Kings 19:4), “a three-day journey” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “seven days” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2). After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyed for a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth. The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately ¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was the beginning building block of the biblical metrological system for linear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describe the bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth. Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit, or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the four fingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’s brief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table (Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1 Kings 7:26).

Milion. Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration of Roman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia. Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as “fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably the distance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measure the depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod. Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a general term for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance (Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbath day’s journey. Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About 2,000 cubits.

Span. Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to three handbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretched thumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion. Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai. Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

Land Area

Seed. The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis of how much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1 Kings 18:32).

Yoke. Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. In biblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animals could plow in one day (1 Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab. Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer. Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria (2 Kings 6:25).

Choinix. Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement, mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to the homer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of flour and grains (1 Kings 4:22; 1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquid volume, particularly oil (1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10; Ezra 45:14).

Ephah. Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters). Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flour and grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day of reduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce only an ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to the bath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to 1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of various grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos. 3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkey can carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed a direct link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16: “fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” A logical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalences might look something like this:

1 homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros. Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measure of grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer. Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10 ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in the measurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod. 16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s daily food ration.

Saton. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. The measurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah, or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various dry goods (e.g., 2 Kings 7:1; 1 Sam. 25:18).

Liquid Volume

Bath. Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, which typically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in the measurement of water (1 Kings 7:26), oil (1 Kings 5:11), and wine (2 Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos. Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew word bath (see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin. Approximately 4 quarts (1 gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to 1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek. 4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log. Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72 bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture, specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes. Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement of water at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

Measuring Line

Made of various materials such as flax, the measuring (boundary) line was an important tool used by carpenters, builders, and surveyors to apportion land (Ps. 16:6; Amos 7:17) and figuratively to suggest God’s judgment (2 Kings 21:13; Isa. 28:17; 34:11; Lam. 2:8).

Measuring Reed

Made from tall bamboolike stalks that grow in marshy areas, this tool, approximately ten feet long, was used by builders to measure objects. It is used to measure the temple in Ezekiel’s vision (Ezek. 40–42), and in the book of Revelation to measure the temple and the new Jerusalem (Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Measuring Rod

Made from tall bamboolike stalks that grow in marshy areas, this tool, approximately ten feet long, was used by builders to measure objects. It is used to measure the temple in Ezekiel’s vision (Ezek. 40–42), and in the book of Revelation to measure the temple and the new Jerusalem (Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Meat

Although for millennia meat has been a major element in many people’s diets, the earliest humans did not eat it. In the garden of Eden, God gave Adam and Eve a diet of plants, particularly fruit (Gen. 2:15–16). God first sanctioned human consumption of animals only after the flood, though with the stipulation that meat not be eaten with blood remaining in it (Gen. 9:3–4; see also Lev. 7:26; 19:26).

In the Mosaic law the Israelites received further restrictions from God concerning the meat they could consume. Among land animals, only those that have a split hoof and chew the cud were “clean” for the Israelites to eat (Lev. 11:1–8). When the Israelites twice complained that they had no meat in the wilderness, God responded both times by sending quail. In the second instance, God became angry and sent a plague among those who had eaten the meat (Exod. 16:2–13; Num. 11:1–35).

In the NT, Jesus declared all foods clean (Mark 7:19), and God confirmed in a vision to Peter that he had rescinded all dietary restrictions (Acts 10:9–16). However, the Jerusalem council instructed Gentile Christians to abstain from certain dietary practices that would be offensive to their Jewish brothers and sisters, including eating blood and eating meat sacrificed to idols (Acts 15:28–29). In 1 Corinthians, Paul continued the discussion of eating meat sacrificed to idols (8:4–13; 10:18–33) and thereby provided guidance on various matters of Christian liberty.

Meat Offering

The KJV rendering “meat offering” (from Old English mete, meaning “food”) is misleading to a modern reader. The offering in question comprises flour, olive oil, and incense. Modern translations use “grain offering.” The strict instructions are found in Lev. 2; 6:15–23.

Meat Sacrificed to Idols

Meat, or food, sacrificed to idols refers to animal offerings to pagan deities. The expression translates the Greek word eidōlothyton, meaning “idol sacrifice,” which was a wordplay on the pagan term hierothytos meaning “offered in a temple sacrifice.” Consumption of this meat was prohibited for Gentile converts by the Jerusalem council (Acts 15:29; 21:25) because it was linked to pagan worship, especially when combined with sexual immorality (cf. Ezek. 18:5–6, 15; 22:9; Rev. 2:14, 20). However, the ban eventually created problems for Christians (e.g., dining out), as most meat markets in the Greco-Roman world obtained their inventory from local temples (Rom. 14:21; 1 Cor. 8; 10:18–33). Paul therefore modified the teaching by upholding the prohibition in cases where eating the meat violated one’s conscience, harmed Christian witness, or caused a weaker Christian to stumble, but relaxing it in cases where partaking was a social courtesy or otherwise separated from pagan practice.

Mebunnai

A Hushathite, he was one of David’s thirty mighty warriors (elite warriors; 2 Sam. 23:27). He probably is the same person as Sibbekai (a Hushathite, of the Zerahite clan), who replaces Mebunnai in parallel lists (1 Chron. 11:29; 27:11) and is also the NIV rendering at 2 Sam. 23:27. He commanded a division of twenty-four thousand men who served King David.

Mecherathite

An inhabitant of Mekerah. Hepher, one of David’s mighty warriors, is described as a Mekerathite (1 Chron. 11:36). The location of Mekerah is not known, but some scholars think that the name should rather be associated with Maakah (cf. 2 Sam. 23:34).

Meconah

A city in the southern part of Judah between Ziklag and En Rimmon to which the exiles returned and resettled (Neh. 11:28).

Medad

An Israelite elder who, along with Eldad, prophesied in the wilderness camp when the Spirit rested on them. Because this was outside the tabernacle, Joshua asked Moses to rebuke them (Num. 11:26–27).

Medan

The third of Abraham’s six sons with his concubine Keturah (Gen. 25:2; 1 Chron. 1:32), he is the ancestor of an Arab tribe of which little is known.

Medeba

A Moabite city and surrounding territory in the Transjordan. Numbers 21:30 mentions it as a site that had been taken from the Moabites by Sihon king of the Amorites, which was defeated and incorporated into Israel and given to the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:9, 16). Later in history it is reported as a staging area for the army of the king of Maakah, who had been hired to support Hanun of Ammon in his fight against David (1 Chron. 19:7). Isaiah refers to it in an oracle against Moab (Isa. 15:2). It is also mentioned on the ninth-century BC Moabite Stone (lines 8, 30) as having been freed from Israel by Mesha king of Moab. It is identified with the archaeological site Madaba (or Madeba).

Medes

Media was a country located to the south of the Caspian Sea, to the east of the Tigris River and Zagros Mountains, to the west of Parthia, and to the north of Elam. The northern portion of the modern country of Iran occupies the same area, although at the height of Media’s power, the kingdom included parts of modern-day Iraq and Turkey. The best-known city was Ecbatana. The people of Media, the Medes, lived on the steppes and were known among the neighboring countries for their excellent horses.

History of Media. A people called the “Madai,” an Indo-Aryan group descended from Japheth, gave their name to the region (Gen. 10:2). Historically, Media appears on the scene in the records of the Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser III, who claims to have invaded Media in the ninth century BC. Other Assyrian monarchs listed the Medes among the peoples who paid tribute to and traded with the Assyrian Empire. The relationship between the two countries was never entirely friendly, and the Assyrian monarchs Tiglath-pileser III (r. 744–727 BC) and Sargon II (r. 721–705 BC) invaded Media and forcibly added parts of the country to the Assyrian Empire and made them pay tribute. These subjugated provinces were no doubt the parts of Media to which Sargon II sent some of the exiles after he conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722/721 BC (2 Kings 17:6; 18:11).

After Sargon II, Sennacherib continued to keep the Medes in submission. Yet the Medes were not beaten. They became more powerful, and in an alliance with the Scythians and the Babylonians they rebelled against their Assyrian overlords. In 614 BC Asshur, one of the capitals of Assyria, was captured by the Medes. Cyaxares, the leader of the Medes, joined with Nabopolassar, the leader of the Babylonians, and together they captured Nineveh (612 BC) and Harran (610 BC). This effectively brought an end to the Assyrian Empire and brought the northern portions of the former empire under Median control. Nebuchadnezzar, Nabopolassar’s son, married Cyaxares’ daughter, thus cementing the alliance.

Media eventually was conquered by Cyrus II, who made Media a province of the Persian Empire and added “King of the Medes” to his titles. Media remained an important culture as part of the Persian Empire, and the dual identification of Persians and Medes remained attached to the empire (Esther 1:19; Dan. 5:28). The combined power of Media and Persia became the dominating empire until the rise of and conquest by the Greeks under Alexander the Great (332 BC).

Media in the Bible. The Medes and Media figure most prominently in the biblical books of Daniel and Esther. Daniel began his exile and rise to fame under the Babylonians but finished his prophetic career under the rule of the Medo-Persian Empire. Both Daniel and other prophets foresaw this change of governance and the Medes’ part in the conquest of Babylon (Isa. 13:17; 21:2; Jer. 51:11, 28; Dan. 5:28). The importance of the Median contribution to the culture and governance of the new empire is manifest in the fact that the Medo-Persian ruler Darius is called “the Mede” in Dan. 11:1 due to his mixed ancestry (cf. Dan. 9:1). Indeed, the idea that an established law could not be changed even by the king himself (cf. Esther 1:19) seems to be a Median contribution to the empire and was the political tool used by Daniel’s enemies to have him thrown into the lions’ den (Dan. 6:8, 12).

Many of the exiled Jews from Judah chose to settle in Media instead of return to Judah, and a portion of their story is recounted in the book of Esther. Esther 1:3 notes that “the military leaders of Persia and Media” were among those present at a great feast of Ahasuerus (Xerxes I). Similarly, in Esther 1:14 the king’s closest advisers are labeled “nobles of Persia and Media,” indicating the unity of the two countries and the cultural mix among the high officials. The same was true of the high-ranking women in the land (Esther 1:18).

Jews from Media who recognized the Median language being spoken by the Spirit-filled disciples are mentioned in Acts 2:9. Thus, although the country had ceased to be a dominant power in the world, its language and culture were still present during the NT period.

Media

Media was a country located to the south of the Caspian Sea, to the east of the Tigris River and Zagros Mountains, to the west of Parthia, and to the north of Elam. The northern portion of the modern country of Iran occupies the same area, although at the height of Media’s power, the kingdom included parts of modern-day Iraq and Turkey. The best-known city was Ecbatana. The people of Media, the Medes, lived on the steppes and were known among the neighboring countries for their excellent horses.

History of Media. A people called the “Madai,” an Indo-Aryan group descended from Japheth, gave their name to the region (Gen. 10:2). Historically, Media appears on the scene in the records of the Assyrian monarch Shalmaneser III, who claims to have invaded Media in the ninth century BC. Other Assyrian monarchs listed the Medes among the peoples who paid tribute to and traded with the Assyrian Empire. The relationship between the two countries was never entirely friendly, and the Assyrian monarchs Tiglath-pileser III (r. 744–727 BC) and Sargon II (r. 721–705 BC) invaded Media and forcibly added parts of the country to the Assyrian Empire and made them pay tribute. These subjugated provinces were no doubt the parts of Media to which Sargon II sent some of the exiles after he conquered the northern kingdom of Israel in 722/721 BC (2 Kings 17:6; 18:11).

After Sargon II, Sennacherib continued to keep the Medes in submission. Yet the Medes were not beaten. They became more powerful, and in an alliance with the Scythians and the Babylonians they rebelled against their Assyrian overlords. In 614 BC Asshur, one of the capitals of Assyria, was captured by the Medes. Cyaxares, the leader of the Medes, joined with Nabopolassar, the leader of the Babylonians, and together they captured Nineveh (612 BC) and Harran (610 BC). This effectively brought an end to the Assyrian Empire and brought the northern portions of the former empire under Median control. Nebuchadnezzar, Nabopolassar’s son, married Cyaxares’ daughter, thus cementing the alliance.

Media eventually was conquered by Cyrus II, who made Media a province of the Persian Empire and added “King of the Medes” to his titles. Media remained an important culture as part of the Persian Empire, and the dual identification of Persians and Medes remained attached to the empire (Esther 1:19; Dan. 5:28). The combined power of Media and Persia became the dominating empire until the rise of and conquest by the Greeks under Alexander the Great (332 BC).

Media in the Bible. The Medes and Media figure most prominently in the biblical books of Daniel and Esther. Daniel began his exile and rise to fame under the Babylonians but finished his prophetic career under the rule of the Medo-Persian Empire. Both Daniel and other prophets foresaw this change of governance and the Medes’ part in the conquest of Babylon (Isa. 13:17; 21:2; Jer. 51:11, 28; Dan. 5:28). The importance of the Median contribution to the culture and governance of the new empire is manifest in the fact that the Medo-Persian ruler Darius is called “the Mede” in Dan. 11:1 due to his mixed ancestry (cf. Dan. 9:1). Indeed, the idea that an established law could not be changed even by the king himself (cf. Esther 1:19) seems to be a Median contribution to the empire and was the political tool used by Daniel’s enemies to have him thrown into the lions’ den (Dan. 6:8, 12).

Many of the exiled Jews from Judah chose to settle in Media instead of return to Judah, and a portion of their story is recounted in the book of Esther. Esther 1:3 notes that “the military leaders of Persia and Media” were among those present at a great feast of Ahasuerus (Xerxes I). Similarly, in Esther 1:14 the king’s closest advisers are labeled “nobles of Persia and Media,” indicating the unity of the two countries and the cultural mix among the high officials. The same was true of the high-ranking women in the land (Esther 1:18).

Jews from Media who recognized the Median language being spoken by the Spirit-filled disciples are mentioned in Acts 2:9. Thus, although the country had ceased to be a dominant power in the world, its language and culture were still present during the NT period.

Mediator

One who serves as a facilitator of reconciliation between two parties. The role of a mediator was taken by different individuals and offices in the OT, as seen in Abraham interceding for Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen. 18:22–32), Moses asking God to forgive Israel (Exod. 32:31–32), and the Israelites begging Moses to speak to God on their behalf (Exod. 20:19). In addition, judges, prophets, kings, and priests assumed intermediary functions at times. Mediation functions bidirectionally: from God to humans, and from humans to God. The prophets are quintessentially the first kind of mediators (God to humans), while the priests took, mostly, the second function (humans to God).

In the NT, the role of mediator is given to Christ, since he alone, as God incarnate, is qualified for it (the “one mediator between God and mankind” [1 Tim. 2:5]). This implies that insomuch as reconciliation between sinful humankind and a holy God is conceivable, Christ alone can facilitate that mediation.

Hebrews develops a theology of mediation by comparing Christ to angels, Moses, and the prophets, declaring that Christ is superior to each in every aspect. Hebrews says that Christ is the mediator of a new and better covenant (8:6; 9:15; 12:24). Many NT passages present Christ engaging in prophetic ministry as he proclaims and interprets God’s will for the lost world. His priestly work consists not only of giving himself as the ultimate sacrifice but also of interceding for humans before God and giving the “priestly blessing” from his heavenly abode.

Christ’s mediation is to be appreciated in terms of both who he is and what he has done. The eternal mystery surrounding Christ is his incarnate person (God-man) and his atoning death (cleansing all guilt). Through the patristic period and the following scholastic movement, theological reflection on Christ was channeled to the meaning of incarnation, emphasizing Christ’s unique status as both true God and true human that makes redemptive work possible.

By comparison, the Protestant Reformers brought Christ’s salvific and mediatory work into the forefront of their theology. The Reformed tradition developed the mediatory role of Christ in a threefold manner: prophet, priest, and king.

Medicine

(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness] The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, and illness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing was also the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agents included the prophets (1 Kings 17:8–23; 2 Kings 5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah (Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32; 6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), and miraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke 7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign of God’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could send disease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).

The Bible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and their symptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive. Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe the symptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often was based on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. The Bible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of a person. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals, cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.

Ancient Near Eastern Influences

In the ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine was precritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown. Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine, physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and other botanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physicians also administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Disease was considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo or possession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes laws regulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. In Egypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintings and several papyrus documents describe the developing state of Egyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.

Greek physicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians. However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC), called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with being the first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divine forces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result of environmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishment imposed by the gods.

It is clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near East the same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropical climates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, and sunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequent droughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types of diseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must be remembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamian and Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products, but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.

Biblical Concept of Disease

The religious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonic origin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factors regulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual as well as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, also recognized that much sickness arose from the individual’s relationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed on hygiene and preventive medicine.

Pentateuchal legislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to prevent the possibility of disease and sickness: (1) Sabbath observance for humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods of rest (Gen. 2:3); (2) dietary regulations, which divided food into efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11); (3) circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well as religious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the only example of Hebrew surgery); (4) laws governing sexual relationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees of marital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5) provisions for individual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6) stipulations for cleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitary and hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).

In NT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folk remedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means. He also suggested that sickness and disease were not direct punishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standards of the new covenant promoted the total health of the community and the individual.

Circulatory Diseases

Nabal most likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1 Sam. 25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died” (KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsed into a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may contain a clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “If I forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May my tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.” This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body (right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that result from a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiled psalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he held anything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some have considered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize the ark of the covenant (2 Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequence of an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was described and death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is more probable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or a coronary thrombosis.

Paralysis

A possible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled (atrophic) hand of Jeroboam I (1 Kings 13:4–6). In an angry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemned the altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it “shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.” Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the “withered” hand, but it is possibly an example of cataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotional stimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding of the emotional outburst, the arm was restored.

The threat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech. 11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye, may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, or locomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindness characterize this disease.

Paralysis is frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark 2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts 9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these cases remains uncertain.

The physician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos (Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused by chronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2; cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of these examples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writers regarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostles as miraculous.

Mental Illness and Brain Disorders

Cases of mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting the symptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mental illness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit or spirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’s control and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him (1 Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT “madness” and “confusion of mind” were regarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28, 34).

It has been argued that King Saul displayed early indications of personality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement (1 Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior (10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s character transpired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14; 18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense of persecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that he suffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

Nebuchadnezzar suffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beast in the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save his own life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistine king Achish (1 Sam. 21:12–15).

In the NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilated themselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior (Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demon possession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt. 15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2; Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mute demoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl (Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive of paranoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, the mind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannot be ruled out.

Epilepsy (grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foam at the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to the ground in an ecstatic state (1 Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaam falling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. In the NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24; 17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Some scholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascus with the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. His subsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epileptic disturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.

Childhood Diseases

The cause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown (1 Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’s son has been attributed to sunstroke (2 Kings 4:18–37), although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v. 19). In both cases there is too little evidence to present an accurate diagnosis.

In the first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1 Kings 17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijah resuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearly states that the Shunammite boy died (2 Kings 4:20), implying a resurrection.

Infectious and Communicable Diseases

Fever and other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantal infidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may be intentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,” and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”). Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark 1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesus and Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these fevers were likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to be endemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.

Several epidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague are mentioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). The fifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed to Jordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plague has been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1 Sam. 5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form of tropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in the military camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic that killed a large number of the Assyrian army (2 Kings 19:35).

Parasitic Diseases

Some scholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents” (NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and the children of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestation of the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopic fleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slender nematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract to the skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet, discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the host occurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.

After the conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who would endeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethel attempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result of the curse (1 Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify the bad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2 Kings 2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and thereby making the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological study has discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks used to construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are now known to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite that can cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematode infects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that this type of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s two sons.

In NT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of a parasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies (myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten by worms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The father of Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).

Physical Deformities and Abnormalities

Individuals with deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev. 21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, and dwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenital or acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) and perhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustained injury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity and a limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17) might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar to scoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveled hand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt. 12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could be congenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number of factors.

Diseases and Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears

Physical blindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excluded one from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness and deafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from the community (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” of Leah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).

Blindness in the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16 speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably were responsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John 9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud made from spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healed a blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt. 20:34 with Mark 10:52).

Congenital deafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defects because a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry. Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37). The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss of hearing early in life.

Skin Conditions

Various skin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made the individual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “the boils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailments included tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch (Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments: broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), black peeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20; 30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). These symptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. A poultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2 Kings 20:7).

Leprosy was once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world. Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronic infectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss of sensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type of disease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case of Hansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died (2 Chron. 26:21).

Scholars now suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bible do not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’s disease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that English versions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’) probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, often characterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associated with peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points more toward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.

This disease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), and on clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but could occur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly (13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but it was also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2 Kings 5:1–27). Individuals with the disease were not necessarily shunned (2 Kings 7; Matt. 26:6 // Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), and Naaman experienced this type of skin disease (2 Kings 5:1–27). Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3; Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “men who had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).

Ailments of an Unknown Nature

Some cases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars to render a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet (2 Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for “feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexual organs (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of the disease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurable disease of the bowels” (2 Chron. 21:18–19). Other unknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of David and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy (1 Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2 Kings 13:14), and of Ezekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).

Meditation

In the OT, meditation is primarily focusing on the will of God, verbally repeating God’s commandments: one “meditates on his law day and night” (Ps. 1:2). To Joshua, God says, “keep this Book of the Law always on your lips; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it. Then you will be prosperous and successful” (Josh. 1:8). The command presupposes that transformative knowledge must be brought into the horizon of consciousness and remain there. The fruit of mastering a meditative technique is not revelation of the deeper mysteries of reality, as it is in other religious systems, but rather is God’s graceful response to open-hearted obedience. Being a prophet was not a self-designation but a calling. By the first century, meditation had become a part of prayer. The Essenes remained silent for an hour before reciting their prayers (Josephus, J.W. 2.128, 130, 133). To maintain focus (what the later rabbis call kavanah), Jewish men wore phylacteries and tassels. Phylacteries are small leather boxes strapped to the left forearm and the forehead during prayer (see Let. Aris. 158–159). Inside the boxes were copies of the Shema (Deut. 6:4–9; 11:13–21; Exod. 13:1–10, 11–16) written on parchment. Tassels were blue and were attached to the four corners of a cloak (Num. 15:37–39; Deut. 22:12). Jesus wore tassels (Matt. 9:20; 14:36). Paul exhorts his readers to meditate upon the humility of Jesus’ historical ministry but also to reflect upon the exalted Christ (Phil. 2:5; 3:15, 19; 4:2; Col. 3:2).

Mediterranean Sea

The major body of water dividing Europe and Africa, extending eastward from the Atlantic Ocean well over two thousand miles to the western shore of Israel. The Mediterranean is almost completely surrounded by land. Though in some places this sea has a width of six or seven hundred miles, it is only nine miles wide at the Strait of Gibraltar, which gives access from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean. Related bodies of water include the Nile River in Egypt, which flows into the Mediterranean, and the Adriatic and the Aegean seas, adjacent to the north. The Mediterranean is dotted with thousands of islands. Some are notable (Cyprus, Crete, Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica), while others are very small. Situated between the Middle East, Europe, and Africa, the Mediterranean Sea made possible a quicker means of trade between these three great landmasses. Cities of note in Scripture on or near the Mediterranean include Alexandria, Caesarea, Joppa, Tyre, Sidon, and Tarsus. The great city of Rome was twenty miles inland from the sea.

The Mediterranean Sea (known as the Great Sea, the Western Sea, and the Sea of the Philistines) plays a major role for Israel in both Testaments. It is noted as the Western boundary for the inheritance of Israel (Deut. 11:24; Josh. 1:4) and thus forms the border of Judah (Josh. 15:12, 47). Also, in Josh. 9:1 the Mediterranean coast is noted as the territory of the pagan kings before the conquest. Later in the same book, God gives to the Israelites the land of the nations that he has cut off, from the Jordan to the Mediterranean Sea (23:4). The prophet Joel declares that God will work in behalf of Israel; he will fight for it and push its enemies in all directions, including westward into the Mediterranean Sea (Joel 2:20).

In the NT, the Mediterranean Sea is mentioned in Acts, where Luke relates the story of Simon Peter staying with Simon the tanner in Joppa, which is “by the sea” (10:6, 32). And later in Acts, Luke chronicles the path of the ship taking Paul to Rome, a trip on the Mediterranean starting from Caesarea and passing through Myra, Cnidus, Crete, Malta (after shipwreck in a storm), Syracuse, Rhegium, Puteoli, and Three Taverns (the latter two are in Italy) before concluding in Rome (27:1–28:14).

Medium

A person who serves as a conduit for communicating with the dead (more commonly today called a “psychic”). In the OT, this term is almost always paired with “spiritist.” The law delivered to the Israelites by Moses compares a patron of these practitioners to a prostitute (Lev. 20:6). The practice defiles patrons (Lev. 19:31), making them detestable to God (Deut. 18:11–12), and the law prescribes excommunication from the community (Lev. 20:6) and death by stoning (Lev. 20:27) as punishment for such acts. Such activity is considered characteristic of the other nations (Deut. 18:11–12; Isa. 19:3) and therefore inappropriate for the Israelites. The prophets mock mediums, asking, “Why consult the dead on behalf of the living?” (Isa. 8:19), and accuse them of delivering false prophecies (Jer. 27:9–10).

In accordance with this overriding negative attitude toward them, Saul expels the mediums and spiritists from Israel (1 Sam. 28:3). Nevertheless, when Saul seeks a prophetic word regarding his imminent encounter with the Philistines and is unable to receive one from God by the usual means, he asks for a medium (28:5–7). Disguising himself, he travels to Endor, where he asks the medium to consult the deceased prophet Samuel (28:8–11). Reluctantly, she raises Samuel, who delivers a word of judgment to Saul concerning his defeat and death at the hands of the Philistines (28:12–19). The medium then butchers a fattened calf, prepares a meal, and serves it to Saul and his men (28:24–25).

Meekness

The quality of placing the interests of others before oneself. Meekness is vulnerable to connotations of inferiority (1 Sam. 9:21). The term is often applied to the socially inferior (women, slaves, eunuchs, children), who took on a servile capacity in the home. The Greeks and the Romans knew from their mythology that pride (hybris) was a fundamental human flaw (see the myth of Daedalus and Icarus). But its opposite, meekness, was not especially praised, with most people pursuing a middle course. But God removed any sense of inferiority, and therefore a need for a middle course, by empowering the meekness of two great servants. This biblical virtue is attributed first to Moses (Num. 12:3) and then to Jesus (Matt. 11:28–30; 2 Cor. 10:1). Before redeeming Israel from slavery, God delivered Moses from obscurity in the wilderness. He stood in direct contrast to the arrogance of Pharaoh (Exod. 10:3). On several occasions, Moses put the interests of God’s people before his own (e.g., Exod. 32:30–34; 33:12–14). Paul offers a similar narrative about God’s Son, who took on the form of a slave; and after being mocked, he suffered the most humiliating of deaths, that on a cross. But God raised him from death and seated him at his right hand (Phil. 2:5–11). The apostle’s readers would have made an immediate comparison with Nero, who presumed his own deification. The first followers of Jesus distinguished themselves by making humility central to Christian living (e.g., Phil. 2:1–5; 1 Thess. 2:6–8; James 1:21). Jesus pronounced blessing upon all who are meek, those who desire God’s best for all people, even their enemies, and promised that they will inherit the land for which he and Moses toiled (Matt. 5:5; 7:12; cf. Deut. 8:2; Ps. 37:11). In context, meekness takes on the sense of controlled power. Through Isaiah, God promised a day set aside to humble the arrogant and raise the spirits of the humble (Isa. 2:11–12).

Megiddo

A major city in the north of Israel that guards a strategic pass of the international highway known as the Via Maris, which connected Egypt and Mesopotamia. Its location explains why it was so large and the site of many ancient battles. It is identified with Tell el-Mutesellim and has been the object of archaeological excavations.

Archaeological research reveals that it was already a fortified city by the Early Bronze Age (3300–2200 BC), with signs of habitation back to the Neolithic period (7500–4000 BC). Historical sources mention the city for the first time in a fifteenth-century BC inscription of Pharaoh Thutmose III. Megiddo was part of a coalition of Canaanite cities that tried to eject Egyptian influence from the region.

Megiddo appears for the first time in the Bible when Josh. 12:21 mentions its king as one of the many defeated by the Israelites (presumably as part of the northern coalition). Joshua 17:11 says that it was part of Manasseh, though it was not conquered until later (Judg. 1:27). The Song of Deborah describes it as being near the location of a battle between Israel and the Canaanites (Judg. 5:19). We do not get the account of the Israelite takeover of Megiddo, but we know that Solomon (tenth century BC) controlled it and fortified it along with Hazor and Gezer. It is listed in the fifth administrative district of Solomon (1 Kings 4:12).

Jehu’s agents wounded King Ahaziah of Judah, who fled to Megiddo, where he died (2 Kings 9:27). The Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III conquered parts of northern Israel in the middle of the eighth century BC and created a new province of his empire, Magiddu. In 609 BC, King Josiah of Judah died there trying to stop the Egyptians under Necho from reinforcing the Assyrians against Babylon (2 Kings 23:29; 2 Chron. 35:22).

The area around Megiddo began to be called “Har Megiddo” (“mountain of Megiddo”). In Greek this became “Armageddon,” and in Rev. 16:12–16 it is associated with the final future battle between the forces of God and the forces of evil.

Mehetabeel

(1) The wife of King Hadad (Hadar) of Edom (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chron. 1:50). She was the daughter of Matred and a descendant of Me-Zahab. (2) An ancestor of the false prophet Shemaiah, who was a contemporary of Nehemiah (Neh. 6:10).

Mehetabel

(1) The wife of King Hadad (Hadar) of Edom (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chron. 1:50). She was the daughter of Matred and a descendant of Me-Zahab. (2) An ancestor of the false prophet Shemaiah, who was a contemporary of Nehemiah (Neh. 6:10).

Mehida

One of the ancestors of the temple servants (Nethinim) who returned to Jerusalem after the Babylonian captivity under the leadership of Zerubbabel in 539 BC or soon after (Ezra 2:52; Neh. 7:54). The fact that many of the names in the list are foreign has led to the belief that they were originally prisoners of war who were pressed into service to perform menial tasks as they assisted the Levites.

Mehir

A descendant of Judah, he was the son of Kelub and the father of Eshton (1 Chron. 4:11).

Meholahite

An inhabitant of Meholah, attributed to Adriel, the husband of Saul’s daughter Merab (1 Sam. 18:19; 2 Sam. 21:8).

Mehujael

A descendant of Enoch and an ancestor of Lamech. He was the son of Irad and the father of Methushael (Gen. 4:18). Some scholars identify the name as a variant of “Mahalalel” (Gen. 5:12–17 [KJV: “Mahalaleel”]).

Mehuman

One of the seven personal attendants of the Persian king Xerxes (Ahasuerus), whom he commanded to bring Queen Vashti to his banquet (Esther 1:10). Working with the harem, he was a eunuch.

Mehunim

One of the men whose descendants are listed as temple servants after the return from exile in Babylon (Ezra 2:50 [KJV: “Mehunim”]; Neh. 7:52). See also Meunites.

Mehunims

A Transjordanian people who were destroyed and dispossessed by Israelite clans from the tribe of Simeon seeking pastureland for their flocks near the area of Gedor during the reign of Hezekiah (1 Chron. 4:41). The name may derive from the town name “Ma’an” (or “Maon”), which is about twelve miles southeast of Petra. The Meunites are also included in the list of peoples in Philistia that God helped King Uzziah to subdue (2 Chron. 26:7 [KJV: “Mehunims”]). The descendants of Meunim are listed as temple servants among those returning to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezra 2:50; Neh. 7:52). The designation here may refer to servants who perhaps were from the town of Maon or, alternatively, to descendants of Meunites who were taken captive.

Mekerathite

An inhabitant of Mekerah. Hepher, one of David’s mighty warriors, is described as a Mekerathite (1 Chron. 11:36). The location of Mekerah is not known, but some scholars think that the name should rather be associated with Maakah (cf. 2 Sam. 23:34).

Mekonah

A city in the southern part of Judah between Ziklag and En Rimmon to which the exiles returned and resettled (Neh. 11:28).

Melatiah

A Gibeonite who worked on the reconstruction of the walls of Jerusalem with Nehemiah (Neh. 3:7).

Melchi

Two different otherwise unknown ancestors of Jesus. (1) The son of Jannai and the father of Levi (Luke 3:24). (2) The son of Addi and the father of Neri (Luke 3:28).

Melchiah

(1) An ancestor of the musician Asaph (1 Chron. 6:40). (2) A descendant of Aaron, he was the leader of a priestly division during David’s reign (1 Chron. 24:9). (3) The ancestor of Pashhur, who came to Jeremiah with a request from King Zedekiah (Jer. 21:1). (4) An ancestor of Adaiah, who returned to Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:12; Neh. 11:12). (5) A descendant of Parosh, he sent away his foreign wife during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:25). (6) A descendant of Harim, he sent away his foreign wife during Ezra’s reforms (Ezra 10:31). (7) The son of Harim, he repaired a section of the Jerusalem wall and the Tower of the Ovens (Neh. 3:11). (8) The son of Rekab, ruler of the district of Beth Hakkerem, he repaired the Dung Gate of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:14). (9) One of the goldsmiths who repaired part of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 3:31). (10) One of the leaders who stood with Ezra when he read the law of Moses to the people (Neh. 8:4). (11) A priest who signed Ezra’s covenant after the exile (Neh. 10:3). (12) A priest who sang during the dedication of the wall (Neh. 12:42). Some of these references may speak of the same person.

Melchisedec

A mysterious individual who is referenced twice in the OT and once in the NT. His name and description also appear within the DSS. In Gen. 14:18–20 Melchizedek is a priest of El Elyon (God Most High), possibly a reference to the Canaanite god El but here used as a title for Yahweh. He is said to be from “Salem,” which could be a shortened form of “Jerusalem.” Melchizedek brings out bread and wine to Abram, blesses him, and receives one-tenth of Abram’s spoils that Abram had acquired from his successful military campaign against the eastern kings. The royal oracle of Ps. 110 holds a declaration of the Davidic king as an eternal priest “in the order of Melchizedek” (v. 4). This phrase is later applied to Jesus by the writer of the book of Hebrews to emphasize the superiority of Jesus’ priesthood over the Levitical priesthood. In Heb. 7:1–17 Melchizedek is described as the “king of righteousness” and the “king of peace” (v. 2); he is said to have been birthed “without father or mother” and is described as one who has existed eternally, thus resembling the Son of God (v. 3). This description draws not only on Gen. 14 and Ps. 110 but also on the description of Melchizedek as a heavenly figure that appears also in the DSS (11Q13). While Melchizedek’s identity and function remain a mystery, all three biblical passages refer to him in order to proclaim the work of God.

Melchishua

The son of King Saul and Ahinoam (1 Sam. 14:49; 1 Chron. 8:33; 9:39). He was struck down and killed on Mount Gilboa during a battle with the Philistines (1 Sam. 31:2; 1 Chron. 10:2).

Melchizedek

A mysterious individual who is referenced twice in the OT and once in the NT. His name and description also appear within the DSS. In Gen. 14:18–20 Melchizedek is a priest of El Elyon (God Most High), possibly a reference to the Canaanite god El but here used as a title for Yahweh. He is said to be from “Salem,” which could be a shortened form of “Jerusalem.” Melchizedek brings out bread and wine to Abram, blesses him, and receives one-tenth of Abram’s spoils that Abram had acquired from his successful military campaign against the eastern kings. The royal oracle of Ps. 110 holds a declaration of the Davidic king as an eternal priest “in the order of Melchizedek” (v. 4). This phrase is later applied to Jesus by the writer of the book of Hebrews to emphasize the superiority of Jesus’ priesthood over the Levitical priesthood. In Heb. 7:1–17 Melchizedek is described as the “king of righteousness” and the “king of peace” (v. 2); he is said to have been birthed “without father or mother” and is described as one who has existed eternally, thus resembling the Son of God (v. 3). This description draws not only on Gen. 14 and Ps. 110 but also on the description of Melchizedek as a heavenly figure that appears also in the DSS (11Q13). While Melchizedek’s identity and function remain a mystery, all three biblical passages refer to him in order to proclaim the work of God.

Melea

An otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:31 as the son of Menna and the father of Eliakim.

Melech

A descendant of Saul (1 Chron. 8:35; 9:41). He was a son of Micah, a grandson of Merib-Baal, and a great-grandson of Saul’s son Jonathan.

Melek

A descendant of Saul (1 Chron. 8:35; 9:41). He was a son of Micah, a grandson of Merib-Baal, and a great-grandson of Saul’s son Jonathan.

Melicu

(1) Great-grandfather of Ethan, one of the Levite musicians appointed by David to minister in the tabernacle (1 Chron. 6:44). (2, 3) Two of those who were guilty of marrying foreign women in the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:29, 32). (4, 5) Two of those who signed the covenant renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:4, 27). The first of these may be the same priest mentioned in Neh. 12:2 (see #6). (6) One of the priests and Levites who returned with Zerubbabel and Joshua (Neh. 12:2). In Neh. 12:14, Malluk’s family is included among the priestly families during the time of the high priest Joiakim. The spelling “Malluchi” (see 12:14 ESV, NASB, NRSV) may be a transcriptional error (the LXX has Malouch [“Malluch”] and the Qere suggests Melichu [KJV; NKJV]).

Melita

An island of strategic importance about sixty miles south of Sicily in the Mediterranean Sea, Malta was famous in ancient times for shipwrecks. It is the location of Paul’s shipwreck on his way to Rome for trial (Acts 28:1). After the shipwreck, Paul was stuck on the island for three months and was taken care of by the island’s residents. Here Paul was bitten by a viper but suffered no ill effects. Today Saint Paul’s Bay is the accepted location of the shipwreck.

Melki

Two different otherwise unknown ancestors of Jesus. (1) The son of Jannai and the father of Levi (Luke 3:24). (2) The son of Addi and the father of Neri (Luke 3:28).

Melzar

In Dan. 1:11, 16 the KJV translates the Hebrew word meltsar as a proper name, “Melzar.” Other early versions do likewise (Theodotian, Lucian, Syriac, Vulgate). However, modern translations take note of the definite article prefix and translate the Hebrew word accordingly as a common noun: “the guard” (NIV, NRSV), “the overseer” (NASB), “the steward” (RSV, ESV), “the warden” (NET).

Members

A theologically significant concept for the apostle Paul. He used the Greek word melos (“member” or “body part”) in two contexts. First, Paul identified Christians as members of Christ’s body (Rom. 12:4–5; 1 Cor. 12:27; Eph. 5:30). Just as all the members of the human body are critical to its functioning, all Christians, whether apparently significant or not, are critical to the church’s functioning (1 Cor. 12:12–27). Second, Paul spoke of members of the body as instruments that could be presented either for good or for evil (Rom. 6:13, 19; Col. 3:5). In the non-Christian, these members are home to the “sinful passions” (Rom. 7:5), and the “law of sin” within the members can hold prisoner even the Christian (7:23).

Memorial

In the Bible the word “memorial” is used in two primary senses. First, it can refer to something meant to provoke a worshiper’s remembrance. The Israelites erected a monument of stones as a memorial to remind their descendants that God had stopped the flow of the Jordan River (Josh. 4:7). Similarly, the Passover feast was a memorial to the Israelites of God’s deliverance (Exod. 12:14 KJV, NET). God could even speak of his name as a memorial (Exod. 3:15 KJV, NET).

Second, a memorial can be an act of worship whereby God favorably remembered a worshiper and his or her offering (Lev. 5:12; Acts 10:31). Memorial portions were burned before God in grain offerings (Lev. 2:1–2) and certain sin offerings (5:11–13); the remainder of these offerings was consumed by the priests. In the NT, God considered Cornelius’s prayers and gifts to the poor to be a memorial offering (Acts 10:4).

Memphis

An Egyptian city, no longer in existence, located about fifteen miles southwest of Cairo. It was the site of the palaces of most of the pharaohs mentioned in the Bible. “Memphis” is the Greek name of the city, and, with the exception of Hos. 9:6 (mōp), the town goes by the name “Noph” (nōp) in the OT, although many modern translations use the Greek name throughout. Notably, both Jer. 46:14–19 andEzek. 30:13–19 prophesy against the city and predict its destruction. Historically, Egypt and Israel had a rather tumultuous relationship, but Jeremiah’s and Ezekiel’s particular invective may have concerned Memphis’s refusal to join with the southern kingdom in its rebellion against the Babylonians. At least one of Jeremiah’s prophecies after the destruction of Jerusalem is directed toward some Jews who have settled in Memphis (Jer. 44:1). Memphis was also the center of the Apis cult, which worshiped the image of a bull. Some scholars have tried to link the story of the golden calf in Exod. 32 to this particular cult, but the connections seem dubious.

Memucan

One of seven top-level officials under King Xerxes (Ahasuerus) who advised him to put away Queen Vashti because of her refusal of the king’s command to appear before the banquet (Esther 1:14). Memukan served as the spokesperson for the group (Esther 1:16, 21).

Memukan

One of seven top-level officials under King Xerxes (Ahasuerus) who advised him to put away Queen Vashti because of her refusal of the king’s command to appear before the banquet (Esther 1:14). Memukan served as the spokesperson for the group (Esther 1:16, 21).

Menahem

The son of Gadi, he was the sixteenth king (r. 747–737 BC) of the northern kingdom, Israel. Menahem’s rise to power was marked by violence and cruelty. His predecessor, Shallum son of Jabesh (also a usurper of the throne), had reigned only one month in Samaria when Menahem went up from Tirzah and killed him. Menahem then brutally attacked the city of Tiphsah, where “he ripped open all the pregnant women” (2 Kings 15:16).

Menahem’s ten-year reign was “evil in the eyes of the Lord” (2 Kings 15:18). Having obtained the throne in the thirty-ninth year of Azariah of Judah (c. 747 BC), he followed in the sins of his predecessors. Tiglath-pileser III (Pul) of Assyria invaded Israel during Menahem’s reign, but Menahem was able to avoid takeover and even “strengthen his own hold on the kingdom” by paying one thousand talents of silver to the Assyrian king (2 Kings 15:19), which he raised by taxing the wealthy men of Israel. Menahem died a natural death, and his son Pekahiah succeeded him as king. See 2 Kings 15:13–22.

Menan

An otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:31 as the son of Mattatha and the father of Melea.

Meni

A pagan deity (Heb. meni, meaning “allotment, portion, fate”) worshiped along with the god Gad (Heb. gad, meaning “fortune”) by the apostate Israelites (Isa. 65:11). The name of this god of fate is translated as “Destiny” by many modern versions, while the KJV translates the Hebrew word as “that number.”

Menna

An otherwise unknown ancestor of Jesus mentioned only in Luke 3:31 as the son of Mattatha and the father of Melea.

Menorah

A lampstand, principally the seven-branched lampstand built initially for use in the tabernacle (Exod. 25:31–39) and placed in front of the inner curtain that shielded the ark of the covenant (27:21). The menorah has the decorations of an almond tree and, as a tree in the midst of the place where God makes his presence known to humans, is to remind Israel of the garden of Eden. The menorah was to stay lit twenty-four hours a day (Lev. 24:1–4). It is the central symbol of the Jewish festival of lights, Hanukkah.

Menpleaser

In Eph. 6:6; Col. 3:22 the KJV translates the Greek word anthrōpareskos as “menpleaser,” a person who seeks to please other people instead of God.

Menuhoth

Name of a clan descended from Judah or the place name of their dwelling (1 Chron. 2:52 NRSV, ESV). Some translations emend the text to equate this name with the Manahathites listed in 1 Chron. 2:54 (KJV, REB: “Manahethites”).

Meonothai

A descendant of Judah who was the son of Othniel and the father of Ophrah (1 Chron. 4:13 – 14).

Mephaath

A town between Ammon and Moab. Originally an Amorite city that was part of the territory of the tribe of Reuben (Josh. 13:18), it later was assigned to the Merarite Levites (Josh. 21:37; 1 Chron. 6:79). During the time of Jeremiah, the town was under Moabite jurisdiction (Jer. 48:21).

Mephibosheth

(1) A son of Jonathan and a grandson of Saul, he became lame at the age of five when his nurse dropped him as she fled after hearing of the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 4:4). His name is more correctly “Merib-Baal” (1 Chron. 8:34), but the books of Samuel usually change names compounded with ba’al (“master” [perhaps originally referring to Yahweh]) to bosheth (“shame”). Because of his covenant with Jonathan (1 Sam. 20:15), David arranged for Mephibosheth to live at the palace with him and restored his estates (2 Sam. 9). Later, he spared him from the execution of Saul’s descendants (2 Sam. 21:7) when addressing the famine caused by Saul’s killing of some Gibeonites.

During Absalom’s rebellion, Mephibosheth’s steward Ziba met David and gave him provisions, claiming that Mephibosheth believed that the rebellion would see the throne returned to him (16:1–4), resulting in David handing the estates across to Ziba. But Mephibosheth was among the first to meet David on his return, and he claimed that Ziba had deceived him (19:24–30). Samuel does not resolve their conflicting testimonies, perhaps to reflect the information available to David, who then divided the estates between them.

(2) A son of Saul, born to his concubine Rizpah, and one of seven descendants of Saul executed by David to avert famine because of Saul’s actions against the Gibeonites (2 Sam. 21:8–9).

Merab

The older of Saul’s two daughters (1 Sam. 14:49). When Saul offered her to David as his wife, David hesitated because his family and clan were undistinguished (1 Sam. 18:17). Merab married Adriel of Meholah. Saul’s younger daughter, Michal, fell in love with David, and Saul offered her as wife to David in a bizarre plot to kill him off. Merab’s sons with Adriel were given by David to be executed by the Gibeonites because Saul transgressed an agreement made between them and Joshua (2 Sam. 21:8; see Josh. 9).

Meraiah

A postexilic priest under the high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:12). He was a contemporary of Ezra and Nehemiah (Neh. 12:26), and so his ministry can be dated to the mid-fifth century BC.

Meraioth

(1) A priest who was an ancestor of Azariah, who served as chief priest in Solomon’s temple (1 Chron. 6:6–10). He is also an ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:3). (2) A priest who was the son of Ahitub and the father of Zadok (1 Chron. 9:11; Neh. 11:11). (3) A priestly family of the second temple during the high priesthood of Joiakim in the fifth century BC (Neh. 12:15).

Merari

The youngest of Levi’s three sons (Gen. 46:11). His descendants, along with the Gershonites and the Kohathites, became one of the three clans of Levites that held responsibility for transporting the tabernacle in the wilderness and caring for the temple.

Merarites

Descended from Merari son of Levi, the Merarites were one of the three major Levite clans. In the wilderness they guarded and transported the wooden frames and pillars of the tabernacle. Unlike the Kohathites, who carried the holy articles of the tabernacle on their backs, the Merarites were permitted to use wagons. They camped on the north side of the tabernacle (Num. 3:35). In Canaan they settled among the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the Zebulunites (Josh. 21:7). When David organized the three clans of Levi for temple service, the Merarites served with the Kohathites as both singers and gatekeepers (1 Chron. 6:44; 26:19). The Chronicler notes the involvement of Merarites in the religious reforms of both Hezekiah and Josiah (2 Chron. 29:12; 34:12), and the book of Ezra notes that a contingent of Merarites accompanied Ezra to Jerusalem (8:18–19).

Merathaim

A figurative reference to Babylon in Jeremiah’s oracle against Babylon (Jer. 50:21). The name, which means “double rebellion,” is a pejorative reference to Babylon being twice as rebellious as the other rebellious nations. Parallel to Merathaim in this verse is the name “Pekod,” which means “punishment.” Both names for Babylon in Jer. 50:21 are rhetorical devices indicating the inevitable judgment on Babylon and thus almost certainly were not literal place names.

Merchants

Those who earn a profit by selling or trading. During the biblical period, this required extensive travel (Prov. 31:14). The Phoenicians were famous for their maritime trade (Ezek. 27:1; Pliny the Elder, Nat. 5.66–67). Trade, the primary engine of the Roman economy, was greatly facilitated by the construction of an extensive highway system and the curbing of piracy. Romans traded with the Chinese through the Silk Road. A particularly large industry was spice and aromatics (see Song 3:6). Nard, the fragrant oil that Mary pours over Jesus’ feet, is derived from a root that grows in the mountains of northern India (John 12:3). But somewhat paradoxically, mercantilism was not a highly respected profession. Members of the Roman senate and their families were not supposed to engage in trade (although many did so quietly). They were the “newly rich,” and they had a reputation for being ruthless and greedy. The prophet Hosea rebukes merchants who use dishonest scales (Hos. 12:7). James rebukes merchants for their presumption and arrogance about future travel and profit (James 4:13–16). Jesus’ treatment of merchants is therefore surprisingly neutral (Matt. 13:45).

Mercurius

In Acts 14:12 the KJV uses “Mercurius,” the Roman name for the Greek messenger god Hermes, for whom Paul was mistaken when he and Barnabas preached in Lystra and Paul healed a lame man.

Mercy

Behind the English translation “mercy” lie diverse biblical words in Hebrew (khesed, khanan, rakham) and in Greek (charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon). These words are also translated as “love,” “compassion,” “grace,” “favor,” “kindness,” “loving-kindness,” and so on, depending on context. Hence, a conceptual approach to the meaning of “mercy” is best.

God’s Mercy

Mercy as part of God’s character. Mercy is a distinguishing characteristic of the nature of God. God is called “the Father of mercies” (2 Cor. 1:3 NRSV [NIV: “Father of compassion”]). God is “rich in mercy” (Eph. 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 24:14; Dan. 9:9). God’s mercy was demonstrated in his covenantal faithfulness to his people (1 Kings 8:23–24; Mic. 7:18–20). God redeemed the oppressed Israelites from slavery under Pharaoh because of his mercy, which was stirred when he heard their groaning and cry for help. Here, the rekindling of God’s mercy toward the Israelites was depicted in terms of remembering his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Exod. 2:23–25). Mercy is a manifestation of God’s faithfulness to his covenant. Hence, God’s mercy to his covenant people never ceases (Pss. 119:132; 103:17).

God has absolute sovereignty in electing the people to whom he wills to show mercy. A classic expression appears in Exod. 33:19: “I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion.” Paul quoted this to explain God’s sovereignty in electing Jacob as the recipient of God’s mercy (Rom. 9:13–15). God’s mercy cannot be acquired by human effort or desire (Rom. 9:16). God even ordered the Israelites to show no mercy to the Canaanites because of their corruption and idolatry (Deut. 7:2).

Diverse images are used to describe God’s mercy. God is compared to a loving father who has compassion on his children (Jer. 31:20; Mal. 3:17). “As a father has compassion on his children, so the Lord has compassion on those who fear him; for he knows how we are formed, he remembers that we are dust” (Ps. 103:13–14). God’s compassion is also compared to that of a nursing mother who feeds her baby at her breast (Isa. 49:15). The images of the loving father and the loving mother reflect closely the heart of God’s mercy toward his chosen people. God is especially merciful to the needy, the weak, the afflicted, and the oppressed (Exod. 2:23–24; Ps. 123:2–3; Isa. 49:13; Heb. 4:16). God is called “a father to the fatherless” and “a defender of widows” (Ps. 68:5). Sinners appeal for God’s mercy when they request forgiveness (Ps. 51:1). “Have mercy on me” is a common form of expression when the psalmist entreats God for his forgiveness (Pss. 41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is also shown in his act of salvation and blessing (Exod. 15:13; Deut. 13:17–18; Judg. 2:18; Eph. 2:4–5).

God’s mercy in redemptive history. Redemptive history is a successive demonstration of God’s mercy toward his chosen people. It was because of God’s mercy that he took the initiative to save fallen human beings (Gen. 3:15). Death was the due penalty for Adam and Eve (Gen. 2:17), but God preached the good news of mercy that the descendant of the woman would someday crush the head of the serpent. In Rev. 20:2 that ancient serpent in the garden of Eden is identified as “the devil, or Satan,” whose head was crushed by Jesus Christ on the cross and is bound by the coming Messiah “for a thousand years” and will be “thrown into the lake of burning sulfur” (Rev. 20:2, 10). In spite of God’s judgment on Cain, the first murderer, God showed mercy by putting a mark on him so that no one would kill him (Gen. 4:15). As the psalmist later confesses, God proves himself as the merciful God who “does not treat us as our sins deserve or repay us according to our iniquities” (Ps. 103:10).

Noah and his family were saved from the judgment of the flood because of God’s special mercy toward them (Gen. 6:8). Immediately after God confused the languages of human beings because of their challenge to him (Gen. 11:1–9), God showed mercy on Abram, “a wandering Aramean” (Deut. 26:5), and designated him to be the father of his chosen people (Gen. 12:1–3). Jacob’s election originated solely from God’s mercy, as Paul pointed out by quoting Scripture: “Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated” (Rom. 9:13). The exodus is also the clearest evidence of God’s demonstration of mercy toward his chosen people (Exod. 2:23–25). They were saved not by their own righteousness but rather by God’s mercy on the covenant people, who suffered under the bondage of Pharaoh’s slavery. God’s mercy reached its climax when he sent his only Son, Jesus Christ, to save sinners (Rom. 5:8). It is because of God’s mercy that we are saved, not because of our righteousness (Titus 3:5).

Christ’s Mercy

Jesus Christ lived a life full of mercy. He is, in a sense, the bodily manifestation of God’s mercy. Jesus expressed deep mercy whenever he saw the sick and the lost. The writers of the Gospels describe Jesus’ demonstrations of mercy when he healed the blind, the lame, the deaf, the leprous, the demon-possessed, and the dead (Matt. 9:36; 14:14; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 5:19; 6:34; 8:2; Luke 7:13; John 11:33). Jesus especially had compassion on the crowds, who did not have a spiritual leader, and he compared them to “sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36).

Jesus’ ministry of healing and evangelism was motivated by his deep mercy and compassion toward people in physical and spiritual need (Luke 4:16–21; cf. Isa. 61:1–2). Whenever the sick appealed to his mercy, Jesus never refused to dispense it to them (Matt. 15:22; 17:14–18). For example, he healed the two blind men who entreated his mercy (Matt. 20:30–34). When a leper, kneeling before him, entreated his mercy, Jesus touched him (risking his own uncleanness according to the law) and healed him (Matt. 8:2–3). When a centurion asked for Jesus’ mercy on his sick servant, he was willing to go and heal the sick man (Matt. 8:5–13). Jesus’ mercy was aroused especially when he saw people crying for the dead, and even he shed tears (John 11:33–35). When Jesus saw a widow crying for her dead son during a funeral procession, he comforted and had compassion on her and made her son alive (Luke 7:12–15).

According to Heb. 2:17–18, Jesus became “a merciful and faithful high priest” to make atonement for the sins of his people. He is also compared to the high priest who is able to sympathize with our weaknesses because he “has been tempted in every way, just as we are” (Heb. 4:15). His high priestly work on earth was highlighted in terms of his ministry of mercy toward his people. Like God’s mercy, Jesus’ mercy was shown in his actions of salvation (Luke 19:10; Eph. 5:2; 1 Tim. 1:14–16; Titus 3:4–7), of blessing (Mark 10:13–16), and of forgiveness (Mark 2:10; Luke 23:34). Paul’s personal experience led him to confess, “He saved us, not because of righteous things we had done, but because of his mercy” (Titus 3:5). Jesus’ character of mercy was most vividly manifested on the cross when he prayed for the forgiveness of the crucifying soldiers and the cursing crowds (Luke 23:33–37).

Human Response to God’s Mercy

What is the proper response to God’s mercy and compassion? God expects believers to show the same kind of mercy toward other people. One of the best examples is the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matt. 18:23–35). The central focus of this parable is on the unmerciful servant, to whom a tremendous mercy is shown by the king, but who refuses to show a little mercy to his fellow servant. The parable concludes with the king’s statement that no mercy will be shown to those who do not show mercy and forgiveness to others. Hence, a forgiving attitude is a must for believers, who have received immeasurable mercy from God when he forgave their sins at the time of repentance. The Lord’s Prayer also includes the believer’s forgiveness of others as being inseparably linked to the request for forgiveness from God (Matt. 6:12). Jesus affirms this idea in a subsequent statement: “For if you forgive other people when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will also forgive you. But if you do not forgive others their sins, your Father will not forgive your sins” (6:14–15).

Mercy is one of the eight blessings in the Beatitudes: “Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy” (Matt. 5:7). Jesus’ response to the critical Pharisees reveals that our merciful life should precede our religious life (9:13). According to the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), the true neighbor is the one who shows mercy to the afflicted. Its conclusion, “Go and do likewise” (10:37), requires believers to show mercy to their suffering neighbors. At the last judgment the righteous are characterized by their lives of showing mercy to the hungry, the thirsty, the stranger, the unclothed, the sick, and the imprisoned (Matt. 25:37–40). In Luke 6:36, Jesus summarizes the law of mercy: “Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful.” According to James, “judgment without mercy will be shown to anyone who has not been merciful”; however, “mercy triumphs over judgment” (James 2:12–13). And according to the prophets, a merciless life is characteristic of godless people (Isa. 13:18; Jer. 6:23; 21:7; 50:42; Amos 1:11–12).

It is by God’s mercy that believers can persevere during the time of suffering (2 Cor. 4:1). Their prayer is the channel through which they draw God’s mercy. Hence, the writer of Hebrews exhorts believers to “approach God’s throne of grace with confidence, so that we may receive mercy” (Heb. 4:16).

Mercy Seat

The mercy seat, or “atonement cover” (NIV, NLT), was the cover on the ark of the covenant in the tabernacle and the place of atonement for Israel (Exod. 25:21). It was made of pure gold, forty-five inches long, and twenty-seven inches wide (25:17). Above the mercy seat were two cherubim made of gold, one at each end (25:18–20). There, God spoke with Moses (Num. 7:89). Upon entering the holiest place, the priest was required to burn incense over the mercy seat; otherwise, he would face judgment and die (Lev. 16:13). On the Day of Atonement the blood of the bull and the goat was sprinkled on the mercy seat.

In the NT, the Greek term hilastērion is used for the mercy seat itself (Heb. 9:5) and for the “sacrifice of atonement” or “propitiation” (Rom. 3:25), the blood of which was dripped onto the mercy seat. In Rom. 3:25 Christ himself is identified as the hilastērion, the sacrifice of atonement for our sins.

Mered

A descendant of David and the second of Ezrah’s four sons, he married Bithiah (a daughter of Pharaoh) and also a Judean woman (1 Chron. 4:17–18). Each wife bore him several children.

Meremoth

(1) The son of Uriah, he was a priest during the time of Ezra and Nehemiah who weighed the silver, gold, and temple vessels returned after the exile (Ezra 8:33), assisted with rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:4, 21), and witnessed the covenant renewal (Neh. 10:5). (2) A priest who returned from the exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:3). (3) An Israelite who sent away his foreign wife during the reforms of Ezra (Ezra 10:36).

Meres

One of seven top-level officials under King Xerxes (Ahasuerus) who advised him to put away Queen Vashti because of her refusal of the king’s command to appear before the banquet (Esther 1:14).

Merib-Baal

A son of Jonathan and a grandson of Saul (1 Chron. 8:34; 9:40). This name (with a disputed meaning that references the god Baal, possibly “contender of Baal”) was later changed in 1–2 Samuel to “Mephibosheth” (possibly meaning “from the mouth of shame”). See also Mephibosheth.

Meribah

Meribah (“quarreling”) is another name for Massah (“testing”), a location on the journey toward Mount Horeb (Sinai) where the Israelites grumbled against God because they had no water; Moses struck the rock at Horeb, and water flowed out (Exod. 17:7). Subsequent references to Meribah concern a similar incident in Kadesh after the Israelites had journeyed on from Horeb (Num. 20:13, 24; 27:14; Deut. 32:51; 33:8; Pss. 81:7; 95:8; 106:32). On this occasion Moses and Aaron, in getting water out of the rock, failed to honor God as holy, and for this they were denied entrance into Canaan. See also Massah; Meribah Kadesh.

Meribah Kadesh

In Ezek. 47:19 many modern versions translate the Hebrew words meriboth qadesh in the phrase me meriboth qadesh as a place name, as in the NIV: “waters of Meribah Kadesh” (NRSV: “waters of Meribath-kadesh”; TEV: “oasis of Kadesh Meribah”). The KJV translates the phrase as “waters of strife in Kadesh” (but cf. Num. 20:13; Deut. 32:51). The reference is to the town of Kadesh Barnea. See also Kadesh, Kadesh Barnea.

Meribath-kadesh

In Ezek. 47:19 many modern versions translate the Hebrew words meriboth qadesh in the phrase me meriboth qadesh as a place name, as in the NIV: “waters of Meribah Kadesh” (NRSV: “waters of Meribath-kadesh”; TEV: “oasis of Kadesh Meribah”). The KJV translates the phrase as “waters of strife in Kadesh” (but cf. Num. 20:13; Deut. 32:51). The reference is to the town of Kadesh Barnea. See also Kadesh, Kadesh Barnea.

Merodach

Marduk rose in status to become the principal deity in the Babylonian pantheon beginning in the second millennium BC. The Babylonian epic Enuma Elish recounts Marduk’s creation and ultimate triumph over other deities within the Babylonian pantheon (in particular, the primordial goddess Tiamat), and in doing so describes him as the deity primarily responsible for the creation of the universe. Marduk (or “Merodach,” the Hebrew form of the name) is mentioned only once in the Bible, at Jer. 50:2, which announces the impending invasion and defeat of Babylon by a nation from the north. “Marduk” also forms part of the names of the Babylonian kings Awel-Marduk (2 Kings 25:27; Jer. 52:31) and Marduk-Baladan (2 Kings 20:12 [the Hebrew text and the KJV read “Berodach”]; Isa. 39:1), as well as being the origin of “Mordecai” (Esther 2:5).

Merodach-Baladan

The king of Babylon in 721–710 BC, Marduk-Baladan was a Chaldean who later led two Babylonian revolts against the Assyrian king Sennacherib. He also sent emissaries to King Hezekiah of Judah (Isa. 39:1). The Neo-Assyrian Empire had dominated Babylon for nearly half a century. Although there were pro-Assyrian sentiments in some cities, the peoples in Babylon were not unified. Some Babylonians, Chaldeans, and Arameans opposed Assyria. Marduk-Baladan took the throne for nine months in 703 BC and with Elamite support returned in 700 BC, only to be routed by Assyria. Marduk-Baladan’s communication with Hezekiah probably came during his brief control of Babylon. Hezekiah had revolted against Assyria prior to Sennacherib coming to the throne in 704 BC; thus Marduk-Baladan was exploring a possible alliance with Hezekiah against Babylon. Seeing this as a lack of trust in God, Isaiah condemned Hezekiah and prophesied that it would be Babylon that would destroy Judah. In 2 Kings 20:12 the MT reads “Berodach-Baladan” (similar to “Merodach,” the Hebrew form of “Marduk”), but several Hebrew, Greek, Aramaic, and Latin witnesses agree with the reading in Isa. 39:1.

Merom

The waters near the location of a surprise attack by Joshua on a large coalition of Canaanite kings under King Jabin of Hazor who had assembled to battle the Israelites (Josh. 11:1–7). The city is also mentioned in the annals of Thutmose III, Ramesses II, and Tiglath-pileser III. The traditional identification of the city with modern Meiron is disputed. Another possibility is the suggestion of the large Canaanite tell, Tell el-Khirbeh, which is east of Hazor.

Meronothite

A resident of Meronoth. This applied to Jehdeiah, herder of David’s donkeys (1 Chron. 27:30), and Jadon, a postexilic rebuilder of Jerusalem’s walls (Neh. 3:7). Apparently, it was associated with Mizpah.

Meroz

A town mentioned in the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5:23) whose inhabitants were condemned by the angel of the Lord for failing to participate in the battle, led by Deborah and Barak, against Sisera. There has been much speculation about its location. Some suggest Khirbet Marus, northwest of Hazor; Madon (Josh. 12:19); or (Shimron) Merom (Josh. 11:5; 12:20), but none of these sites are likely. The best that can be said is that it was located somewhere in or near the Jezreel Valley.

Mesech

(1) The sixth of Japheth’s seven sons (Gen. 10:2; 1 Chron. 1:5). Listed in the Table of Nations, the descendants of Japheth inhabited Asia Minor, and Meshek’s name is given to a region there. In Ps. 120:5 Meshek is placed in parallel with Kedar, perhaps bringing to mind a distant, warring people. Meshek and Tubal are linked together as trading partners (of slaves and copper vessels) with Tyre (Ezek. 27:13), and both are mentioned as part of the kingdom of Magog, ruled by Gog (38:2; 39:1). (2) A grandson of Shem, the eponymous ancestor of an Aramean tribe (1 Chron. 1:17). In Gen. 10:23, most Bible versions follow the Hebrew text in rendering his name as “Mash” (see NIV mg.). He is listed in the Table of Nations as the eponymous ancestor of a Syrian tribal group, possibly associated with Mount Masius (Tur Abdin), near the source of the Euphrates River in northern Mesopotamia, or with Akkadian Mashu, the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Mesha

(1) The king of Moab who, along with his father, Chemosh-yatti, was a vassal of the northern kingdom of Israel during the reigns of the northern Israelite kings Omri, Ahab, Ahaziah, and Joram (c. 885–840 BC). When Ahab died, Mesha rebelled against Ahab’s son Ahaziah, withholding the annual tribute of one hundred thousand lambs and the wool of one hundred thousand rams (2 Kings 3:4–5). Ahaziah died after a brief reign and was replaced by his brother Joram, who enlisted King Jehoshaphat of Judah to help him attack Moab and restore it to servitude (2 Kings 3:7).

In the 2 Kings 3 account, Joram and Jehoshaphat attacked and utterly defeated Moab, but Mesha they besieged in the city of Kir Hareseth. Mesha could not escape, so he sacrificed his own son in plain view on the wall of the city to appease his god, Chemosh. This sacrifice disgusted the armies of Israel and Judah, and they left for home. Mesha considered this as Chemosh’s divine deliverance due to his sacrifice, and he erected a stela, known as the Moabite Stone, with a Moabite inscription describing the occasion:

I (am) Mesha, son of Chemosh—[. . .], king of Moab, the Dibonite—my father (had) reigned over Moab thirty years, and I reigned after my father,—(who) made this high place for Chemosh in Qarhoh [. . .] because he saved me from all the kings and caused me to triumph over all my adversaries. As for Omri, king of Israel, he humbled Moab many years (lit., days), for Chemosh was angry at his land. And his son followed him and he also said, “I will humble Moab.” In my time he spoke (thus), but I have triumphed over him and over his house, while Israel hath perished for ever! (Now) Omri had occupied the land of Medeba, and (Israel) had dwelt there in his time and half the time of his son (Ahab), forty years; but Chemosh dwelt there in my time. (lines 1–9, translation by W. F. Albright in ANET )

(2) A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the third of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:9). (3) The firstborn son of Caleb and a great-grandson of Perez of the line of Judah (1 Chron. 2:42). (4) A place or region in northern Arabia. The sons of Joktan (great-great-grandson of Noah’s son Shem) lived between Mesha and Sephar on the northern Arabian coast (Gen. 10:30).

Mesha Inscription

The Moabite Stone (also known as the Mesha Stela or Mesha Inscription) is a rather large (about 3.5 feet high, 2 feet wide, 14 inches thick) black basalt stela bearing a royal inscription from Mesha, a ninth-century BC king of Moab. This dedicatory inscription of thirty-four lines written in a script similar to ancient Hebrew praises Chemosh, Moab’s chief deity, for several victories but primarily for deliverance from King Ahab of Israel about 849 BC. Because the stela cites other events later in Mesha’s reign, it most likely was made between 840 and 830 BC. The inscription states that the stela was placed in Qarhoh at the “high place built for Chemosh.”

Charles Clermont-Ganneau heard stories about this stela from local Arabs, but Rev. F. A. Klein, a Prussian working for the Church Missionary Society in Jerusalem, found it at Dhiban (approximately fifty miles south of Ammon) in August 1868. Realizing the importance of this discovery, Arab tribal leaders broke the stela apart, hoping to sell its pieces for more money. Apparently, some Arabs working for Clermont-Ganneau were able to make a papier-mâché squeeze of the inscription before it was damaged. Most of the pieces were later recovered and reassembled, and in 1873 the stela was transported to the Louvre Museum in Paris.

The inscription corroborates and supplements the account of the battle between Israel and Moab recorded in 2 Kings 3:4–27. However, in the biblical account it is not Chemosh who gives victory to Mesha, but Yahweh who gives victory to Joram, Ahab’s son. The Israelites ended the battle and returned home after Mesha offered up his oldest son to Chemosh on the city walls.

Mesha Stela

The Moabite Stone (also known as the Mesha Stela or Mesha Inscription) is a rather large (about 3.5 feet high, 2 feet wide, 14 inches thick) black basalt stela bearing a royal inscription from Mesha, a ninth-century BC king of Moab. This dedicatory inscription of thirty-four lines written in a script similar to ancient Hebrew praises Chemosh, Moab’s chief deity, for several victories but primarily for deliverance from King Ahab of Israel about 849 BC. Because the stela cites other events later in Mesha’s reign, it most likely was made between 840 and 830 BC. The inscription states that the stela was placed in Qarhoh at the “high place built for Chemosh.”

Charles Clermont-Ganneau heard stories about this stela from local Arabs, but Rev. F. A. Klein, a Prussian working for the Church Missionary Society in Jerusalem, found it at Dhiban (approximately fifty miles south of Ammon) in August 1868. Realizing the importance of this discovery, Arab tribal leaders broke the stela apart, hoping to sell its pieces for more money. Apparently, some Arabs working for Clermont-Ganneau were able to make a papier-mâché squeeze of the inscription before it was damaged. Most of the pieces were later recovered and reassembled, and in 1873 the stela was transported to the Louvre Museum in Paris.

The inscription corroborates and supplements the account of the battle between Israel and Moab recorded in 2 Kings 3:4–27. However, in the biblical account it is not Chemosh who gives victory to Mesha, but Yahweh who gives victory to Joram, Ahab’s son. The Israelites ended the battle and returned home after Mesha offered up his oldest son to Chemosh on the city walls.

Meshach

The Babylonian name given to Mishael by Nebuchadnezzar’s chief official, Ashpenaz, as part of an attempt to turn him into a Babylonian official (Dan. 1:7). Along with Abednego and Shadrach, he is a Judahite companion of Daniel. The three companions later were appointed as administrators over the province of Babylon (2:49). After being accused of failing to worship Nebuchadnezzar’s gods, they were cast into the fiery furnace. They were kept safe by a fourth “man,” who looked like a “son of the gods” (3:25). Afterward, all three were promoted (3:8–30). The name “Meshach” likely means “who is what Aku [moon god] is,” perhaps given to Mishael in an effort to mimic his Israelite name.

Meshech

(1) The sixth of Japheth’s seven sons (Gen. 10:2; 1 Chron. 1:5). Listed in the Table of Nations, the descendants of Japheth inhabited Asia Minor, and Meshek’s name is given to a region there. In Ps. 120:5 Meshek is placed in parallel with Kedar, perhaps bringing to mind a distant, warring people. Meshek and Tubal are linked together as trading partners (of slaves and copper vessels) with Tyre (Ezek. 27:13), and both are mentioned as part of the kingdom of Magog, ruled by Gog (38:2; 39:1). (2) A grandson of Shem, the eponymous ancestor of an Aramean tribe (1 Chron. 1:17). In Gen. 10:23, most Bible versions follow the Hebrew text in rendering his name as “Mash” (see NIV mg.). He is listed in the Table of Nations as the eponymous ancestor of a Syrian tribal group, possibly associated with Mount Masius (Tur Abdin), near the source of the Euphrates River in northern Mesopotamia, or with Akkadian Mashu, the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Meshek

(1) The sixth of Japheth’s seven sons (Gen. 10:2; 1 Chron. 1:5). Listed in the Table of Nations, the descendants of Japheth inhabited Asia Minor, and Meshek’s name is given to a region there. In Ps. 120:5 Meshek is placed in parallel with Kedar, perhaps bringing to mind a distant, warring people. Meshek and Tubal are linked together as trading partners (of slaves and copper vessels) with Tyre (Ezek. 27:13), and both are mentioned as part of the kingdom of Magog, ruled by Gog (38:2; 39:1). (2) A grandson of Shem, the eponymous ancestor of an Aramean tribe (1 Chron. 1:17). In Gen. 10:23, most Bible versions follow the Hebrew text in rendering his name as “Mash” (see NIV mg.). He is listed in the Table of Nations as the eponymous ancestor of a Syrian tribal group, possibly associated with Mount Masius (Tur Abdin), near the source of the Euphrates River in northern Mesopotamia, or with Akkadian Mashu, the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges of the Epic of Gilgamesh.

Meshelemiah

A Korahite Levite who was a son of Kore and the father of Zechariah (1 Chron. 9:21; 26:1–2, 9). He was a tabernacle gatekeeper during the reign of David. His name may be equivalent with “Shelemiah” (1 Chron. 26:14; see NIV footnote) and “Shallum” (1 Chron. 9:17, 19, 31; Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45) and may refer to the same person.

Meshezabeel

(1) An ancestor of Meshullam, who made repairs in Jerusalem under the direction of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:4). (2) One of the “leaders of the people” (Neh. 10:14) who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s public reading of the law (10:21). This may be the same person as the father of Pethahiah, the representative of the Judeans to the Persian king (11:24).

Meshezabel

(1) An ancestor of Meshullam, who made repairs in Jerusalem under the direction of Nehemiah (Neh. 3:4). (2) One of the “leaders of the people” (Neh. 10:14) who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s public reading of the law (10:21). This may be the same person as the father of Pethahiah, the representative of the Judeans to the Persian king (11:24).

Meshillemith

(1) The father of Be-re-kiah (2 Chron. 28:12), one of the Ephraimite leaders who confronted the Israelite army about enslaving the people of Judah and Jerusalem whom they had taken prisoner. (2) A priest who was the father of Meshullam and Ahzai and a son of Immer (1 Chron. 9:12 [“Meshillemith”]; Neh. 11:13).

Meshillemoth

(1) The father of Be-re-kiah (2 Chron. 28:12), one of the Ephraimite leaders who confronted the Israelite army about enslaving the people of Judah and Jerusalem whom they had taken prisoner. (2) A priest who was the father of Meshullam and Ahzai and a son of Immer (1 Chron. 9:12 [“Meshillemith”]; Neh. 11:13).

Meshobab

One the leaders of the tribe of Simeon who took the pastureland near Gedor by dispossessing the Hamites and the Meunites during the days of King Hezekiah (1 Chron. 4:34–41).

Meshullam

(1) The father of Azaliah and grandfather of Shaphan, the secretary of King Josiah (2 Kings 22:3). (2) A son of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. 3:19). (3) The head of a clan in the tribe of Gad who resided in Bashan (1 Chron. 5:13). (4) A son of Elpaal, a Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:17). (5) The father of Sallu, a Benjamite clan leader who lived in Jerusalem after returning from the exile (1 Chron. 9:7; Neh. 11:7). (6) The son of Shephatiah, he was a Benjamite clan leader who lived in Jerusalem after returning from the exile (1 Chron. 9:8). (7) The father of Hilkiah, he was a member of the priestly line of Zadok (1 Chron. 9:11). (8) The father of Jahzerah and the son of Meshillemith, he was a member of the priestly Zadokite line (1 Chron. 9:12). (9) A descendant of Kohath appointed by King Josiah to oversee the temple repairs (2 Chron. 34:12).

(10) One of the leaders sent by Ezra to procure Levites to serve in the temple after the return from the exile (Ezra 8:16). He was one of the four men who opposed Ezra’s call to divorce foreign women (10:15) and probably also was the son of Bani listed as one of those who had married a foreign woman (10:29). (11) The son of Berekiah, he helped to repair the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:4, 30). His daughter married Tobiah’s son Jehohanan (Neh. 6:18). (12) The son of Besodeiah, he helped to repair the Jeshanah Gate as part of Nehemiah’s rebuilding of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:6).

(13) One of the seven men who stood at Ezra’s left hand during the reading of the Book of the Law to the people of Jerusalem (Neh. 8:4). (14) A priest who, along with Nehemiah, other priests, and chiefs of the people, sealed the covenant renewal after the return from the exile (Neh. 10:7). (15) A chief of the people of Jerusalem who sealed the covenant renewal after the return from the exile (Neh. 10:20). (16) The head of the priestly house of Ezra during the time of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:13). (17) The head of the priestly house of Ginnethon during the time of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:16). (18) A gatekeeper who guarded the storerooms at the gates of Jerusalem in the time of high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:25). (19) A leader of Judah who participated in the procession at the dedication ceremony for the rebuilt walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:33).

Meshullemeth

The daughter of Haruz (from Jotbah), she was the wife of King Manasseh and the mother of Amon, who became king when he was twenty-two years old (2 Kings 21:19).

Mesobaite

Possibly a title of Jaasiel, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:47 [KJV: “Mesobaite”]). Some versions (REB, TEV) emend the text to agree with the reading in 1 Chron. 18:3: “from Zobah.”

Mesopotamia

The fertile region of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, bordered on the north by the Taurus Mountains and on the east by the Zagros Mountains (modern Iraq). The region extends from Turkey to the Persian Gulf. The northern part of this region is Aram Naharaim (“Aram of the two rivers”), often called “Mesopotamia” in some Bible translations (see Gen. 24:10; Deut. 23:4; Judg. 3:8; 1 Chron. 19:6 KJV, NASB, ESV). Abraham, Sarah, and their family were originally Arameans from Ur in southern Mesopotamia (Gen. 25:20; Deut. 26:5; cf. Acts 7:2). Later, Abraham and his family moved to the northern Mesopotamian city of Harran (Gen. 11:31). One boundary of the land that God promised to Abraham was the Euphrates River (Gen. 15:18). King David’s army fought against an Aramean army from Mesopotamia (1 Chron. 19:6; cf. Ps. 60:1 NKJV). Later, Judah was carried away into exile in Babylon, situated in Mesopotamia on the Euphrates River (2 Kings 24:14). Luke notes that residents of Mesopotamia were present on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:9).

Messenger

The word “messenger” in Hebrew is mal’ak, and in Greek angelos. In both cases the word can signify either human messengers or divine beings called “angels.” Angels are messengers from God. In 2 Cor. 12:7 Paul mentions a “messenger of Satan”; it is unclear whether this is an angel or a human being. Prophets can also be considered messengers from God (Hag. 1:13). In fact, the name of the prophet Malachi, author of the last book of the OT, means “my messenger.” Paul calls Christians “messengers [NIV: “representatives”] of the churches” (2 Cor. 8:23). The word “evangelist” (Gk. euangelistēs) is built on two Greek terms, eu (“good”) and angellō (“to announce”), and thus refers to a messenger who brings good news. Thus, any Christian who brings Christ’s gospel is a human angel, on a mission from God.

Messiah

The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”

Old Testament

In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1 Sam. 16:1–13; 2 Sam. 2:4, 7). Samuel anointed Saul (1 Sam. 9:16; 10:1; 15:1) and David (1 Sam. 16:12–13). Later, Nathan the prophet and Zadok the priest anointed Solomon, the successor of King David (1 Kings 1:34). The word “anoint” occurs even earlier, in the book of Judges, in a parable about Abimelek becoming king (Judg. 9:7–15). In 1–2 Samuel and Psalms the king is sometimes called “the Lord’s anointed” (1 Sam. 16:6; 24:6; 26:9; Pss. 2:2; 18:50; 20:6). The anointing of priests occurs very early in Israelite tradition, in which Aaron and his sons are consecrated for their priestly service (Exod. 28:41; 30:30). In Num. 35:25 the high priest is anointed with “holy oil.” Sacred objects for use in the tabernacle also were anointed (Exod. 29:36; 30:26; Lev. 8:10–11). As for the anointing of prophets, God commanded Elijah to anoint Elisha as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). The prophet Isaiah also claimed to be anointed for his work of proclamation (Isa. 61:1–2).

The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2 Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.

The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v. 7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v. 2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v. 8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v. 9; see NIV footnote). In Ps. 89 the psalmist yearns for the establishment of David’s kingdom because God has been “very angry with your anointed one” (v. 38). Later, the psalmist pleads with God, “For the sake of your servant David, do not reject your anointed one” (Ps. 132:10). In the postexilic literature, Zerubbabel, for example, appears to be understood as a messianic figure. Speaking of Zerubbabel and Joshua, the angel says, “These are the two who are anointed to serve the Lord of all the earth” (Zech. 4:14).

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

In some apocalyptic literature a messiah-like figure ushers in God’s kingdom, overthrowing the current evil powers that oppress God’s people. In 1 Enoch the “son of man” (46.1–3) is an anointed figure (52.6) who will judge the kings and the mighty from his heavenly throne and will champion the cause of the faithful (46.4–8; 62.5). In 2 Baruch “my anointed” (39.7; 40.1) will reign over the remnant in a place chosen by God (40.2). Finally, in a nonapocalyptic Jewish text, Psalms of Solomon, the author expects deliverance from the Roman oppressors and the corrupt Hasmonean dynasty by the “Lord Messiah” (18.7): “See, Lord, and raise up for them their king, the son of David, to rule over your servant Israel” (17.21). These texts confirm the diversity of first-century messianic expectations. Yet the most common hope centered on the “Davidic messiah,” the coming king from David’s line who would establish justice and righteousness and reign forever on David’s throne.

New Testament

Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.

Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).

In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.

In the book of Acts, Peter reaffirms the messiahship of Jesus at the conclusion of his sermon: “Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Messiah” (2:36 [cf. 5:42; 9:22]). Since it is now apparent that through suffering and death Jesus the Messiah would effect salvation, there is no risk of the Jews misunderstanding Christ’s messiahship. However, he is still a deliverer and savior like the Lord’s anointed of the OT, but he brings about this salvation through unexpected means (3:18–20). Further, Jesus is now the ascended and exalted messianic king in the style of Ps. 110:1 (cf. Acts 2:34–36), which he predicted during his earthly ministry (Mark 14:62). The reality of Jesus’ exalted messianic status is so pervasive in early Christian thinking that the title Christos becomes a synonym for “Jesus” or is used in combination with “Jesus.” And indeed, the earliest followers of Jesus after the resurrection become know as Christianoi (Acts 11:26).

Messianic Secret

On several occasions Jesus commanded demons or individuals to refrain from announcing his identity or making known a miracle that he performed. These commands to keep silent are found in Luke and Matthew, but more frequently in Mark (1:25, 34, 44; 3:12; 5:43; 7:36; 8:26, 30; 9:9). Since Jesus came to reveal himself as Israel’s true Messiah, these prohibitions against the public proclamation of his identity and certain miracles that he performed are puzzling. This feature in Mark’s Gospel has been called the “messianic secret.” Several examples are as follows:

Mark 1:24–25: Jesus silenced an evil spirit that identified him as the “Holy One of God.”

Mark 1:34: Jesus prohibited demons from speaking because they knew who he was (see also 3:12).

Mark 1:44: Jesus commanded a leper whom he healed not to tell anyone.

Mark 5:43: Jesus commanded those present at the healing of Jairus’s daughter not to tell anyone.

Mark 7:36: After healing a deaf and mute man, Jesus ordered those present not to tell anyone.

Mark 8:30: When Peter confessed Jesus to be the Christ, Jesus commanded him not to tell anyone.

Mark 9:9: After the transfiguration, Jesus commanded Peter, James, and John not to tell anyone what they saw until after his resurrection.

Several explanations have been proposed concerning the motive behind the so-called messianic secret and the commands to keep silent. One interpretation, proposed by William Wrede in 1901 in his book The Messianic Secret, attempted to explain why Jesus was not accepted as the Messiah during his earthly ministry. Wrede argued that Jesus never conceived of himself as the Messiah. Rather, the early church designated him as such after the resurrection. Thus Mark, writing for the church, fashioned his Gospel, inserting these passages to make it appear that Jesus privately taught the disciples that he really was the Messiah, even though he prohibited this proclamation in public. Others have proposed that Mark was actually attempting to soften Jesus’ claims to be the Messiah.

There are, however, better explanations of why Jesus sometimes instructed individuals not to broadcast his identity or tell of a miracle that he performed. In each case or context the reason for silence is probably slightly different. A frequent explanation is that Jesus did not want to encourage false messianic expectations. Many Jews imagined the Messiah to be a political and/or military figure who would deliver the nation from its Gentile oppressors. Most Jews did not expect or welcome a suffering Christ. From God’s perspective, hailing him as Messiah while rejecting or being ignorant of his redemptive plans would have been counterproductive to his purpose. In light of this, some interpreters maintain that the veil of secrecy was lifted as Jesus neared Passion Week (Mark 10:47–48; 12:6–7; 14:62).

A second reason for silence, regarding those cases where demons proclaimed his identity, was that God had sovereignly chosen men and women to be his witnesses, not wicked spirits. Even in the cases where demonic announcements concerning Jesus were accurate, their advertisement surely would skew the character of the message and hinder its reception.

Third, Jesus withheld further revelation of his identity and messianic power from those who were rejecting his claims (Matt. 13:16; Mark 4:24–25).

Fourth, miracles sometimes conjured up the wrong kind of faith. Multitudes sought miracles without embracing the Messiah (Mark 1:32–38; John 6:2, 14–15, 26).

Fifth, sometimes Jesus’ prohibitions against identifying him were disobeyed, and in most cases the command to silence did not hinder the amazement and wonder at what had taken place (Mark 1:27, 45; 5:42; 7:36–37). This inability to keep quiet regarding who Jesus was and what he did reinforced the uniqueness of his identity and emphasized how remarkable the Messiah and his miracles were.

Finally, an overly zealous response to Jesus endangered his purpose of completing his earthly ministry according to God’s timetable. This is most clearly stated in John’s Gospel (2:4; 7:6, 8, 30; 8:20; 12:23, 27; 13:1; 16:32; 17:1). Jesus needed to fully proclaim his message to the nation and prepare his disciples before his death (Mark 1:38). A premature arrest and trial would have defeated this purpose.

Messias

The English word “messiah” derives from the Hebrew verb mashakh, which means “to anoint.” The Greek counterpart of the Hebrew word for “messiah” (mashiakh) is christos, which in English is “Christ.”

Old Testament

In English translations of the Bible, the word “messiah” (“anointed one”) occurs rarely in the OT. In the OT, kings, prophets, and priests were “anointed” with oil as a means of consecrating or setting them apart for their respective offices. Prophets and priests anointed Israel’s kings (1 Sam. 16:1–13; 2 Sam. 2:4, 7). Samuel anointed Saul (1 Sam. 9:16; 10:1; 15:1) and David (1 Sam. 16:12–13). Later, Nathan the prophet and Zadok the priest anointed Solomon, the successor of King David (1 Kings 1:34). The word “anoint” occurs even earlier, in the book of Judges, in a parable about Abimelek becoming king (Judg. 9:7–15). In 1–2 Samuel and Psalms the king is sometimes called “the Lord’s anointed” (1 Sam. 16:6; 24:6; 26:9; Pss. 2:2; 18:50; 20:6). The anointing of priests occurs very early in Israelite tradition, in which Aaron and his sons are consecrated for their priestly service (Exod. 28:41; 30:30). In Num. 35:25 the high priest is anointed with “holy oil.” Sacred objects for use in the tabernacle also were anointed (Exod. 29:36; 30:26; Lev. 8:10–11). As for the anointing of prophets, God commanded Elijah to anoint Elisha as his successor (1 Kings 19:16). The prophet Isaiah also claimed to be anointed for his work of proclamation (Isa. 61:1–2).

The expectation for a “messiah,” or “anointed one,” arose from the promise given to David in the Davidic covenant (2 Sam. 7). David was promised that from his seed God would raise up a king who would reign forever on his throne. Hopes for such an ideal king began with Solomon and developed further during the decline (cf. Isa. 9:1–7) and especially after the collapse of the Davidic kingdom.

The harsh reality of exile prompted Israel to hope that God would rule in such a manner. A number of psalms reflect the desire that an ideal son of David would come and rule, delivering Israel from its current plight of oppression. Hence, in Ps. 2 God declares that his son (v. 7), who is the Lord’s anointed one (v. 2), will receive “the nations [as] your inheritance, the ends of the earth your possession” (v. 8). God promises that “you will rule them with an iron scepter; you will dash them to pieces like pottery” (v. 9; see NIV footnote). In Ps. 89 the psalmist yearns for the establishment of David’s kingdom because God has been “very angry with your anointed one” (v. 38). Later, the psalmist pleads with God, “For the sake of your servant David, do not reject your anointed one” (Ps. 132:10). In the postexilic literature, Zerubbabel, for example, appears to be understood as a messianic figure. Speaking of Zerubbabel and Joshua, the angel says, “These are the two who are anointed to serve the Lord of all the earth” (Zech. 4:14).

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

In some apocalyptic literature a messiah-like figure ushers in God’s kingdom, overthrowing the current evil powers that oppress God’s people. In 1 Enoch the “son of man” (46.1–3) is an anointed figure (52.6) who will judge the kings and the mighty from his heavenly throne and will champion the cause of the faithful (46.4–8; 62.5). In 2 Baruch “my anointed” (39.7; 40.1) will reign over the remnant in a place chosen by God (40.2). Finally, in a nonapocalyptic Jewish text, Psalms of Solomon, the author expects deliverance from the Roman oppressors and the corrupt Hasmonean dynasty by the “Lord Messiah” (18.7): “See, Lord, and raise up for them their king, the son of David, to rule over your servant Israel” (17.21). These texts confirm the diversity of first-century messianic expectations. Yet the most common hope centered on the “Davidic messiah,” the coming king from David’s line who would establish justice and righteousness and reign forever on David’s throne.

New Testament

Jesus demonstrates great reticence in using the title “Messiah.” In the Synoptic Gospels he almost never explicitly claims it. The two key Synoptic passages where Jesus accepts the title are themselves enigmatic. In Mark’s version of Peter’s confession (8:29), Jesus does not explicitly affirm Peter’s claim, “You are the Messiah,” but instead goes on to speak of the suffering of the Son of Man. Later, Jesus is asked by the high priest Caiaphas at his trial, “Are you the Christ, the Son of the Blessed One?” (Mark 14:60). In Mark 14:62, Jesus answers explicitly with “I am,” while in Matt. 26:64, he uses the more enigmatic “You have said so.” Jesus then goes on to describe himself as the exalted Son of Man who will sit at Yahweh’s right hand.

Jesus no doubt avoided the title because it risked communicating an inadequate understanding of the kingdom and his messianic role. Although the Messiah was never a purely political figure in Judaism, he was widely expected to destroy Israel’s enemies and secure its physical borders. Psalms of Solomon portrays the coming “son of David” as one who will “destroy the unrighteous rulers” and “purge Jerusalem from Gentiles who trample her to destruction” (Pss. Sol. 17.21–23). To distance himself from such thinking, Jesus never refers to himself as “son of David” and “king of Israel/the Jews” as other characters do in the Gospels (Matt. 12:23; 21:9, 15; Mark 10:47; 15:2; John 1:49; 12:13; 18:33). When Jesus was confronted by a group of Jews who wanted to make him into such a king, he resisted them (John 6:15).

In Mark 12:35–37, Jesus also redefines traditional understandings of the son of David in his short discussion on Ps. 110:1: he is something more than a mere human son of David. Combining Jesus’ implicit affirmation that he is the Messiah in Mark 8:30 with his teaching about the Son of Man in 8:31, we see that Jesus is a Messiah who will “suffer many things and be rejected by the elders, the chief priests, and the teachers of the law” (8:31) and through whom redemption will come (10:45). Jesus came not to defeat the Roman legions, but to bring victory over Satan, sin, and death.

In the book of Acts, Peter reaffirms the messiahship of Jesus at the conclusion of his sermon: “Therefore let all Israel be assured of this: God has made this Jesus, whom you crucified, both Lord and Messiah” (2:36 [cf. 5:42; 9:22]). Since it is now apparent that through suffering and death Jesus the Messiah would effect salvation, there is no risk of the Jews misunderstanding Christ’s messiahship. However, he is still a deliverer and savior like the Lord’s anointed of the OT, but he brings about this salvation through unexpected means (3:18–20). Further, Jesus is now the ascended and exalted messianic king in the style of Ps. 110:1 (cf. Acts 2:34–36), which he predicted during his earthly ministry (Mark 14:62). The reality of Jesus’ exalted messianic status is so pervasive in early Christian thinking that the title Christos becomes a synonym for “Jesus” or is used in combination with “Jesus.” And indeed, the earliest followers of Jesus after the resurrection become know as Christianoi (Acts 11:26).

Metheg Ammah

A term of uncertain meaning in 2 Sam. 8:1 describing David’s conquest of the Philistines. Most translations simply transliterate the Hebrew term as “Metheg Ammah,” perhaps suggesting that it was a place name. By contrast, the NASB ventures the translation of “chief city,” as in “capital city.” In 1 Chron. 18:1 “Gath” replaces “Metheg Ammah,” which suggests that Gath had become the chief Philistine city. Literally, “Metheg Ammah” means something like “bridle of the mother,” perhaps using a figure of a bridle as a tool for exacting submission.

Methods of Study

Reading, understanding, interpreting, and properly applying the word of God to life and ministry is the work of Bible study. The essence of this work is the systematic and methodical analysis of the biblical text. The methods that one uses to understand the text of Scripture will vary in keeping with one’s presuppositions concerning the nature of the Bible and the preunderstandings of the interpreter. A methodical study of the Bible considers the nature and state of the biblical text, the issues related to the interpreter, and a procedure for discovering authorial intent.

The Nature of the Bible

Revelation. We begin with the assumption (or presupposition) that the Bible is the revealed word of God, the contents of which were progressively made known to authors guided by the Holy Spirit. God guided the authors of Scripture, using their personalities and writing styles, so that the canonical books of the Bible were composed exactly as God intended. These books in their original form are inspired and inerrant. The word of God is true and trustworthy and thus a reliable rule for faith and practice.

The ability of God to communicate with his creation, along with his desire to make himself known to his human creatures, is the essence of revelation. The preservation of God’s communication, the revelation of his will to people in the word of God, is what makes the Bible a unique literary document, distinguished from all other literary productions. God manifests himself in a general way to all people through creation and conscience (general revelation) and in a special way to select individuals at particular times (special revelation). These communications and manifestations are available now only by consulting certain sacred writings. The revelation given by God and recorded by people in the canon of Scripture is what God spoke in the past. However, the living and abiding nature of the word (Heb. 4:12) spoken in a past, historical context continues to be relevant. The voice of God can still be heard today. Just as revelation determines how theology is formulated, so revelation determines how a biblical text is to be read in the process of literary analysis.

Given the nature of the Bible’s origin, it is historically accurate in what it teaches. This accuracy is not limited to spiritual and doctrinal issues; it is inseparably connected with the historical and factual. Thus, when the Bible makes reference to political and historical figures, it speaks with authority and accuracy.

Accessibility and clarity. The word of God is a written text revealed and inspired by God (2 Tim. 3:16–17), who engaged about fifty authors over a period of approximately eleven hundred years. The OT text was originally recorded in Hebrew and Aramaic (Gen. 31:47; Ezra 4:8–6:18; 7:12–26; Jer. 10:11). The NT text was originally recorded in Koine Greek. Since the text was composed using the languages and literary conventions of the day, it was written to be intelligible and understandable. The biblical text has been distributed throughout the world and translated into just about every major language, so that the text continues to be accessible to many people today.

As Martin Luther observes in The Bondage of the Will, the clarity of the Bible is twofold. There is external clarity that can be discerned through the laws of grammar, and there is internal clarity attained through the work of the Holy Spirit illuminating the reader of Scripture. Related to these points is the perspicuity of Scripture, which refers to the clarity of Scripture in its main points. Unnuanced, these principles can create unfortunate misunderstandings. The clarity and perspicuity of Scripture relate to the result or the outcome of Bible study and only to major teachings. The intended message of Scripture is clear, understandable, and accessible.

Historical, literary, and theological aspects. While the Bible is written to be clear and accessible, the process of discerning the clarity is complex and involves a thorough examination of the historical, literary/linguistic, and theological aspects of each biblical text. Since the Bible is a document characterized by literary, historical, and theological impulses, it must be interpreted with these impulses in mind.

The historical character of the text affirms that the historical details (culture, setting, time, people or characters in the story, and readers of the composition) of a narrative are absolutely essential to the meaning and the message of the text. Historical details create the stage for what God is doing with his people in time and space. Historical details remind the reader that the written word has a context. The text is anchored to time and place.

The literary character of the text involves both the rhetorical strategies and the linguistic factors of a written text that are critical to the communication process. The act of literary communication involves the author/sender sending a message or text to the reader/recipient. The Bible must be interpreted in keeping with the act of literary communication: author, reader, and text. Literary types, structural development, and discourse function are formal features of the text that contribute to the communicating author’s intended meaning. The OT uses at least five basic literary types or genres: law, historical narrative, poetry, wisdom, and apocalyptic. The NT uses some of the same literary types, as well as parables and the epistolary, or letter, form. Gospel can also be considered a distinct literary form.

Finally, the text has a theological aspect, an ideology, a message, and an intention that God reveals on the historical stage by means of appropriate literary devices.

Unity and diversity. There is a definite unity to the diversity of the Bible that must be grasped in the interpretive process. Opinions vary depending on one’s understanding of the origin and nature of Scripture. Some readers stress the diversity of the biblical text, choosing to highlight apparent contradictions and irresolvable situations. Others go to the other extreme and may be in danger of oversimplifying, collapsing contexts, and ignoring the message of the text. Consider, for example, the importance of not reading too much into the discussion of faith and works as developed by Paul and James. The diversity of emphasis in these two authors is not contradictory in the overall message of the Bible.

Diversity obviously exists in the languages, writers, cultures, and message of various books of the Bible. However, given the reality of divine authorship, these diverse pieces are woven together coherently. There are longitudinal themes such as kingdom, covenant, and messiah that run from the OT into the NT. In addition, there is the developed use of terminology across both Testaments with terms such as “redemption” and “the word.”

The unity/diversity aspect of the biblical text ultimately contributes to an enriched understanding of both biblical and systematic theology. Biblical theology tends to consider the diversity of the writers and the different time periods and is willing to let diverse themes stand together. Systematic theology, which builds upon the findings of biblical theology, is more attentive to the unity of Scripture. These approaches complement each other and encourage what is called an “analogy of faith.” Once again, Luther gave shape to this phrase by opposing the ecclesiastical tradition of the church in favor of Scripture as the basis of dogma. The “analogy of faith” principle advocates that doctrine must cohere and not contradict the holistic teaching of Scripture. Doctrine cannot be a formulation of a few proof texts.

Summary. These summations concerning the nature of Scripture are by no means exhaustive, but they do provide a foundation for determining the nature and use of various interpretive methods. The process of interpretation will be given more attention below, but at this point it is worth emphasizing that methods of Bible study must contribute to the discovery of the author’s intended meaning. Since God is the ultimate author, our concern is to know his intended meaning. This goal is not without challenge. Many conclude that original authorial intent is unattainable because of the distance between our present cultural and historical situation and that of the biblical writers. An additional obstacle is the variety of interpretations that arise from community use of the biblical text. The challenges of time, culture, geography, and language can be faced successfully to arrive at the clear meaning of Scripture by means of a methodical analysis of all aspects of the biblical text.

The Role of the Interpreter

Before considering the relation of the interpreter to the process of Bible study methods, it is helpful to sort out who is the audience of a text. Written texts are composed with someone in mind, an original audience or recipients, who may or may not read the finished product. Beyond the original readers there is an extended audience of readers throughout time, including us, who read and interpret the word of God and seek to apply it to their lives.

Preunderstandings and presuppositions. The readers of the biblical text apply the methods of Bible study in order to understand the intended meaning of Scripture. In addition to the science of methodology there is an art to interpretation that involves recognizing personal preunderstandings brought to the text and presuppositions influencing an interpretation of the textual data.

So how do we differentiate a preunderstanding from a presupposition? “Preunderstanding” refers to the preconceived notions and understandings that one brings to the text, which have been formulated, both consciously and subconsciously, before one actually studies the text in detail. This includes specific experiences and encounters with the text that tend to make us assume that we already understand it. Sensitivity to preunderstanding reminds us that we are never approaching the text for the first time, completely neutral or totally objective. Our personal experiences, cultural influences (music, movies, literature), family background, church, race, and nationality are factors influencing our preunderstanding. These preunderstandings are ultimately corrected or nurtured by the constant influence of the biblical text.

Presuppositions, on the other hand, are the faith commitments held by Christians that do not change each time they study the Bible (in contrast to preunderstanding). This article, for example, began with a statement of presuppositions regarding God and the Bible. The analogy of faith deems such presuppositions to be unchangeable constants.

Approach to the text. How, then, should the interpreter approach the text? Although total objectivity is not a realistic goal, Christian readers do want to understand what God has revealed for them. So, the text is approached through faith and by means of the Holy Spirit, who gives understanding of the word that God authored. In order for this to happen, the reader must stand before the biblical text and allow it to speak rather than standing behind it to push it in a predetermined direction. The goal of Bible study is discovery of meaning, not creation of meaning.

A critical factor in Bible study is the realization that the process is an exercise with sacred dimensions. The primary object in this task is to know God, to understand his will, and to love and trust him, which is Paul’s desire for all Christians (Col. 1:9–14; Eph. 1:15–23; 3:14; Phil. 3:8–13). God is glorified when we find our joy and delight in him through an enriched understanding of his word. This can happen when one depends upon the Holy Spirit for understanding (1 Cor. 2:9–16). The study of the sacred text is a delicate balance of thinking, working, and analyzing while reverently and humbly depending upon the Spirit.

The Methods of Bible Study

Terminology. The activity of interpretation is best described as a spiral, a twist of assorted factors that take the reader from the intention of the original context to the present context of life within the community of the church. The process involves terms and procedures that can be confusing. The word “hermeneutics” is most commonly understood to describe the science and art of biblical interpretation. The goal of hermeneutics is to discern the original intent of the text (“what it meant”) and the contemporary significance of the text (“what it means”). Scholars regularly discuss which of these two is primary in hermeneutical process. The term, however, is broad enough to cover both aspects.

The English word “exegesis” is derived from a Greek term meaning “to lead out.” When applied to Bible study, it defines the nature of the work as taking meaning out of the text and not reading meaning into it. The exegetical process involves the study of words, syntax, grammar, and theology. Another critical term, “contextualization,” refers to an aspect of the interpretive process involving cross-cultural communication of the text’s significance for today.

Defining these key terms in hermeneutics brings to the surface an ongoing discussion associated with Bible study, the question of meaning, which is defined in several ways. Meaning is understood by some as the author’s intention. Some scholars explain meaning as referent (what the author is talking about), others describe it as sense (what is being said about the referent), and finally it can be understood as significance (a contemporary, cross-cultural significance).

Inductive Bible study. How one gets to meaning involves a process of study, the crux of which is the practice of inductive Bible study. Although this objective process can be defined in several ways, it is distinguished by four key elements.

(1) The first element is observation. This involves a careful, close reading of the text to determine exactly what it says. This step makes repeated use of the who, what, when, where, and why questions that enable the reader to become fully saturated with the particulars of the passage. Attention to textual detail will result in accurate interpretation. Observation requires a will to observe, exactness in making observations, and persistence and endurance in the process. Observation is focused on the words of the passage, the structure (the relations and interrelations between terms), the literary form, and the atmosphere or tone. (2) Interpretation follows. The goal of this element is to define meaning and to answer the question, What does this text mean? (3) Correlation, the third element, asks, How does this text relate to the rest of the Bible (cf. analogy of faith)? (4) The fourth element, application, asks, What does this text mean to me?

Each step in the inductive process is elaborate and includes its own particular interests and issues that are critical for determining meaning. Take, for example, the issues of meaning associated with the second step, interpretation. This process must be fully engaged for accuracy in interpretation. The business of interpretation involves a constant interaction of parts. Microaspects are observed in light of macrofeatures, and vice versa.

The interpretive process of the text is fairly standard. Given the nature of inductive analysis, the inductive process begins at the microlevel of examining and interpreting terms, words, and sentences. It then highlights the next structural levels of paragraphs, units of paragraphs, chapters, and then the book itself.

Context and literary type. Since context and literary type are critical elements in the exercise of analysis, attention will be given to each. It is often said that context determines meaning. This statement is a reminder that a term, a theme, or a structural element is ultimately governed by a larger set of factors. The term “trunk,” for example, in the context of a family vacation could refer to what is packed, whereas in the conversation of lumberjacks it could be a reference to a tree. Context takes into consideration all historical referents. In addition, context includes all the individual parts of a composition (phrases, sentences, paragraphs, chapters). Examination of a book’s particular historical context involves also looking at the geography, politics, economics, and cultural practices of a given audience featured. The danger of ignoring context in biblical study is that original authorial intent is replaced with all kinds of self-centered textual understandings.

Literary type is also a critical factor in the inductive process. Another word for literary form is genre, derived from a French term that can be translated “kind, sort, style.” It denotes a type or species of literature or literary form. Genre analysis profitably yields an understanding of the author’s intention in a given literary composition. For example, genre triggers the reader’s expectations and reading strategy. Genre guides the reader in understanding how to read and interpret a given text. For example, we read and interpret a story differently from the way we read and interpret a poem. Each of these genres has its own rules and strategies for communicating meaning. Genre analysis involves observing the form along with the mood, setting, function, and content of the text.

Each literary type has a set of distinctive characteristics that must be examined. To understand what the biblical authors are saying (and what God is saying through them), we must play by the rules of the literary genre that they selected. Genre is a generalization or an abstraction within which variation occurs. Thus, a genre may be defined broadly and include many texts that share fewer traits, while on the other hand it may be defined in a more narrow way and include fewer texts sharing many more traits.

The process of genre analysis is undertaken inductively. The analysis begins with the literary class, continues with the individual texts, and then interacts with both. Genre can be understood only by analyzing the parts of a given text. Although there are plenty of helpful textbooks devoted to virtually every literary type, one must keep in mind that genre descriptions arise out of the details of the text. Genre is not a predescribed form that is imposed on the text for the discovery of authorial intent.

Once the historical, literary, and theological aspects of the particular book are settled, the book is then analyzed in its specific canonical context (NT or OT) and then considered in the overall canon (the Bible). The results of this process are then pursued in relation to the interests of biblical and systematic theology.

Summary. The method of inductive Bible study is not only a specific procedure of analysis, but also a guide for a variety of methodical practices. The process of inductive Bible study encourages a spirit of attention to detail and reminds the reader of the overall goal in interpretation: to know what the text meant and means. In addition, the very nature of the inductive method promotes a curiosity and yields a definite joy of discovery. The inductive process is a guide to the interpreter in an analysis of either the Hebrew or the Greek text.

Other methods of Bible study. There are other methods of Bible study associated with distinct views of the Bible’s nature and origin. These critical methods of interpretation arise out of a discussion regarding how the Bible should be interpreted. The history of this discussion goes all the way back to the third century AD with the debates between the Alexandrians and Antiochians. The sixteenth-century Reformation, the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, and the twentieth century were significant turning points that yielded new ways of conceiving the world and the biblical text. Thus, it is important to understand that there are no neutral methods of biblical interpretation.

Historical-critical approaches. The more-popular critical methods of Bible study came to the forefront in the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries with the rise of deism and rationalism. The prevailing opinion of this time was the fundamental similarity of all historical texts and all historical events. The historical-critical method was founded on the principles of criticism, analogy, and correlation. The supernatural origin of the Bible is denied, and it is considered to be a book like all other historical documents. The biblical text is viewed as a tradition created. It is an artifact of the evolutionary process preserved and passed along to a subsequent generation and must be approached with an attitude of doubt.

In contrast to the approach taken in this article, the historical-critical understanding of the locus of revelation is not the biblical text revealed by God. The locus of revelation shifts outside the text. The reader no longer looks to the text to hear the word of God. The reader now looks behind or beyond the biblical text to another story, one that is independent of the biblical text. Instead of studying a process of progressive revelation, the historical-critical methodologies are committed to sorting out complex historical traditions. Sources are identified, sorted chronologically, and studied for their distinctive themes. The methods are sometimes organized according to the particular interests of schools of thought: history of religions, history of traditions, history of forms, history of redactions.

Literary approaches. Finally, there are methods of Bible study associated with the set of literary presuppositions. First, this approach to the biblical text takes an ahistorical view of the text. In other words, there is no concern for its historical cause and effect. It is concerned only with a synchronic analysis of the finished product. Second, the text is viewed as an autonomous entity. Once a text is completed, it has a life of its own. The interpretive process is then devoted to the text’s final form, looking at the whole instead of the parts. Meaning comes from the language and style of the text. Finally, meaning is understood as aesthetics; it is not related to authorial intention or a historical occasion. Theoretically, the literary approach views the text as if it is cut off from an author and from a historical context. In this construct, meaning shifts from the past to the present. Interpretation then is an interaction of text and reader. The methods of interpretation associated with these literary presuppositions include literary criticism, rhetorical criticism, structuralism, narrative criticism, and reader response criticism.

Methuselah

Dying at 969 years of age, he is the oldest human reported in the Bible. He lived before the flood and was the son of Enoch and the father of Lamech (Gen. 5:25–27). He is remembered later in Scripture in the opening genealogy of Chronicles (1 Chron. 1:3) and in Luke’s genealogy of Jesus (Luke 3:37).

Methushael

A descendant of Cain, he was the great-grandson of Enoch and the father of Lamech (Gen. 4:18 [KJV: “Methusael”). Some scholars consider “Methushael” to be a variant of “Methuselah,” the son of Enoch and the father of Lamech in the lineage of Seth (Gen. 5:21, 25).

Meunim

One of the men whose descendants are listed as temple servants after the return from exile in Babylon (Ezra 2:50 [KJV: “Mehunim”]; Neh. 7:52). See also Meunites.

Meunites

A Transjordanian people who were destroyed and dispossessed by Israelite clans from the tribe of Simeon seeking pastureland for their flocks near the area of Gedor during the reign of Hezekiah (1 Chron. 4:41). The name may derive from the town name “Ma’an” (or “Maon”), which is about twelve miles southeast of Petra. The Meunites are also included in the list of peoples in Philistia that God helped King Uzziah to subdue (2 Chron. 26:7 [KJV: “Mehunims”]). The descendants of Meunim are listed as temple servants among those returning to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezra 2:50; Neh. 7:52). The designation here may refer to servants who perhaps were from the town of Maon or, alternatively, to descendants of Meunites who were taken captive.

Mezobaite

Possibly a title of Jaasiel, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:47 [KJV: “Mesobaite”]). Some versions (REB, TEV) emend the text to agree with the reading in 1 Chron. 18:3: “from Zobah.”

Mezuzah

Hebrew term for the side posts of a city gate or doorposts of a building (Judg. 16:3; 1 Sam. 1:9; 1 Kings 6:33). Blood from the Passover lamb was applied to the doorposts of each Israelite residence in Egypt (Exod. 12:7). The Israelites were commanded to write God’s commands on their hearts and their doorposts (Deut. 6:1–9). Later, this command was taken literally, and God’s commandments were attached to the doorposts. In later Jewish tradition the term refers to a small glass or metal box, affixed to the right-hand doorpost, that contains small parchment scrolls with the words of the Shema (Deut. 6:4–9; cf. 11:13–21) written on them. A mezuzah parchment was found at Qumran.

Miamin

(1) A priest contemporary with David who was assigned the sixth of twenty-four positions in the priestly order of service (1 Chron. 24:9). (2) A priest who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:5). (3) One of the priests who signed the covenant renewal following Ezra’s public reading of the law (Neh. 10:7). (4) One of the Israelites (not a priest or Levite) who agreed to divorce their foreign wives at Ezra’s prompting (Ezra 10:25).

Mibhar

The son of Hagri, he was one of David’s thirty mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:38). In 1 Chron. 11:38 the Hebrew is mibkhar ben-hagri (“Mibhar son of Hagri”); the parallel text, 2 Sam. 23:36, exhibits a copying error of the Hebrew: mitsobah bani haggadi (“from Zobah, Bani the Gadite”).

Mibsam

(1) The fourth of the twelve sons of Ishmael, ancestors of Arab tribes (Gen. 25:13; 1 Chron. 1:29). (2) A member of the tribe of Simeon, he was the son of Shallum and the father of Mishma (1 Chron. 4:25).

Mibzar

(1) An Edomite chief and his clan (Gen. 36:42; 1 Chron. 1:53). (2) Mibzar may also be a place name, identified as the location Mabsara in northern Edom or Bozrah in Moab (Gen. 36:33; Amos 1:12). The name means “fortified city” (cf. Ps. 108:10).

Mica

(1) A son of Saul’s grandson Mephibosheth (2 Sam. 9:12), also called “Micah” (1 Chron. 8:34; 9:40). (2) The father of Mattaniah, a Levite (1 Chron. 9:15; Neh. 11:17; 11:22). (3) A Levite who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh. 10:11).

Micah

The name “Micah” is related to the names “Mica/Mika,” “Micaiah,” “Michael,” and “Micayahu.” The meaning of all these names pertains to the incomparability of Israel’s God (“who is like Yahweh/God?”). (1) A man from the hill country of Ephraim during the period of the judges (Judg. 17–18), also called “Micayahu,” in Hebrew (Judg. 17:1, 4). It is ironic in this story that a man whose name points to the incomparability of Yahweh is portrayed as a thief and as one who established an idolatrous cult shrine (Judg. 17:1–5). This story graphically illustrates how in the time of the judges “everyone did as they saw fit” (Judg. 17:6). (2) A son of Mephibosheth (Merib-Baal) and a great-grandson of Saul from the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:34; 9:40), also called “Mika” (2 Sam. 9:12). (3) The firstborn son of Uzziel and a descendant of Kohath from the tribe of Levi (1 Chron. 23:20; 24:24–25). (4) The son of Shimei and the father of Reaiah from the tribe of Reuben (1 Chron. 5:5). (5) A prophet from Moresheth in the Judean Shephelah (Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1). A contemporary of Isaiah, he prophesied in the late eighth century BC during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. (6) The father of Abdon (Acbor), who was one of those sent to Huldah by King Josiah to inquire about the Book of the Law (2 Chron. 34:20). He is also called “Micaiah” (2 Kings 22:12).

Micaiah

(1) The son of Imlah, he was a faithful prophet who contradicted the false prophets and predicted King Ahab’s death, for which he was imprisoned (1 Kings 22; 2 Chron. 18). His commissioning and vision of God’s throne room are similar to Isa. 6. (2) The father of Akbor (Abdon), who was one of those sent to Huldah by King Josiah to inquire about the Book of the Law (2 Kings 22:12). He is also called “Micah” (2 Chron. 34:20). (3) The mother of King Abijah of Judah (2 Chron. 13:2 NIV mg.), she is also called “Maakah” (1 Kings 15:2; 2 Chron. 11:20). (4) One of five officials sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach in the towns of Judah (2 Chron. 17:7). (5) An ancestor of the Asaphite musician Zechariah, who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:35). (6) One of the priests who blew trumpets at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:41). (7) The son of Gemariah and grandson of Shaphan, he was an official of King Jehoiakim who reported Baruch’s reading of Jeremiah’s oracles to other officials of the king (Jer. 36:11–13).

Mice

One Hebrew word, ’akbar, includes rats, mice, and similar small rodents. These are unclean (Lev. 11:29; Isa. 66:17). The Philistines offered five gold rodents as a guilt offering during a rodent plague (1 Sam. 6).

Micha

The name “Micah” is related to the names “Mica/Mika,” “Micaiah,” “Michael,” and “Micayahu.” The meaning of all these names pertains to the incomparability of Israel’s God (“who is like Yahweh/God?”). (1) A man from the hill country of Ephraim during the period of the judges (Judg. 17–18), also called “Micayahu,” in Hebrew (Judg. 17:1, 4). It is ironic in this story that a man whose name points to the incomparability of Yahweh is portrayed as a thief and as one who established an idolatrous cult shrine (Judg. 17:1–5). This story graphically illustrates how in the time of the judges “everyone did as they saw fit” (Judg. 17:6). (2) A son of Mephibosheth (Merib-Baal) and a great-grandson of Saul from the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:34; 9:40), also called “Mika” (2 Sam. 9:12). (3) The firstborn son of Uzziel and a descendant of Kohath from the tribe of Levi (1 Chron. 23:20; 24:24–25). (4) The son of Shimei and the father of Reaiah from the tribe of Reuben (1 Chron. 5:5). (5) A prophet from Moresheth in the Judean Shephelah (Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1). A contemporary of Isaiah, he prophesied in the late eighth century BC during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. (6) The father of Abdon (Acbor), who was one of those sent to Huldah by King Josiah to inquire about the Book of the Law (2 Chron. 34:20). He is also called “Micaiah” (2 Kings 22:12).

Michael

(1) The father of Sethur, a leader of the tribe of Asher who was sent with eleven others to explore Canaan (Num. 13:13). (2) The head of a clan of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:13). (3) An ancestor of the Michael in 1 Chron. 5:13 (1 Chron. 5:14). (4) An ancestor of Asaph, a worship leader during the time of David (1 Chron. 6:40). (5) A son of Izrahiah who was a chief within the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:3). (6) A descendant of Benjamin through Beriah (1 Chron. 8:16). (7) A military leader of the tribe of Manasseh. He and his unit of one thousand men defected to David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:20). (8) The father of Omri, a military officer of the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 27:1). (9) A brother of King Jehoram of Judah whom Jehoram put to death after securing the throne (2 Chron. 21:1–4). (10) The father of Zebadiah, a man who accompanied Ezra to Jerusalem from Babylon (Ezra 8:8). (11) One of the few angelic beings whose names are identified in the Bible. Scripture refers to Michael as “one of the chief princes” (Dan. 10:13), a “great prince” (Dan. 12:1), and an “archangel” (Jude 1:9), indicating that Michael is a high-ranking leader of other angels (Rev. 12:7).

Michah

The name “Micah” is related to the names “Mica/Mika,” “Micaiah,” “Michael,” and “Micayahu.” The meaning of all these names pertains to the incomparability of Israel’s God (“who is like Yahweh/God?”). (1) A man from the hill country of Ephraim during the period of the judges (Judg. 17–18), also called “Micayahu,” in Hebrew (Judg. 17:1, 4). It is ironic in this story that a man whose name points to the incomparability of Yahweh is portrayed as a thief and as one who established an idolatrous cult shrine (Judg. 17:1–5). This story graphically illustrates how in the time of the judges “everyone did as they saw fit” (Judg. 17:6). (2) A son of Mephibosheth (Merib-Baal) and a great-grandson of Saul from the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:34; 9:40), also called “Mika” (2 Sam. 9:12). (3) The firstborn son of Uzziel and a descendant of Kohath from the tribe of Levi (1 Chron. 23:20; 24:24–25). (4) The son of Shimei and the father of Reaiah from the tribe of Reuben (1 Chron. 5:5). (5) A prophet from Moresheth in the Judean Shephelah (Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1). A contemporary of Isaiah, he prophesied in the late eighth century BC during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah. (6) The father of Abdon (Acbor), who was one of those sent to Huldah by King Josiah to inquire about the Book of the Law (2 Chron. 34:20). He is also called “Micaiah” (2 Kings 22:12).

Michaiah

(1) The son of Imlah, he was a faithful prophet who contradicted the false prophets and predicted King Ahab’s death, for which he was imprisoned (1 Kings 22; 2 Chron. 18). His commissioning and vision of God’s throne room are similar to Isa. 6. (2) The father of Akbor (Abdon), who was one of those sent to Huldah by King Josiah to inquire about the Book of the Law (2 Kings 22:12). He is also called “Micah” (2 Chron. 34:20). (3) The mother of King Abijah of Judah (2 Chron. 13:2 NIV mg.), she is also called “Maakah” (1 Kings 15:2; 2 Chron. 11:20). (4) One of five officials sent by King Jehoshaphat to teach in the towns of Judah (2 Chron. 17:7). (5) An ancestor of the Asaphite musician Zechariah, who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:35). (6) One of the priests who blew trumpets at the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:41). (7) The son of Gemariah and grandson of Shaphan, he was an official of King Jehoiakim who reported Baruch’s reading of Jeremiah’s oracles to other officials of the king (Jer. 36:11–13).

Michal

The younger daughter of Saul (1 Sam. 14:49) and a wife of David.

Saul used the offer of his daughters in marriage to try to kill his young rival David. Saul offered his older daughter, Merab, to David in exchange for his help in fighting the Philistines. Saul’s hope was that David would die in battle against the Philistines. But David demurred, and Saul gave her to Adriel of Meholah. When Saul learned that his younger daughter, Michal, loved David, he offered her to him. When David said that he could not pay the bride-price, Saul substituted one hundred Philistine foreskins for money, hoping that David would lose his life in the attempt to get them. However, David succeeded and married Michal, thus establishing a link to the royal house, a relationship that helped him in the future in his bid to become king of the northern tribes (2 Sam. 3:13–16).

Michal loved David early in their relationship, even working on his behalf against her father (1 Sam. 19:11–17). But it is never clear that David loved her, and after David fled Saul’s presence, Saul gave her to Paltiel (1 Sam. 25:44). When David became king of the north, she was forced to return to him (2 Sam. 3:13–16). She showed her contempt for David after he danced before the ark of the covenant (2 Sam. 6:16–23). For this, God did not allow her to bear children.

Michmash

This city (modern Mukhmas) and its sister city, Geba, were located on one of the routes from the Jordan Valley to the central Benjamin plateau. Although a branch of the Wadi Qilt separates the two towns, there was a “pass” across the deep valley (1 Sam. 13:23). As Isaiah describes the advance of the Assyrians toward Jerusalem, this geographical feature emerges (Isa. 10:28–29). It is also evident in a narrative about the Philistine incursion deep into Israelite territory in the early days of Saul’s monarchy. The Philistines held a forward outpost at Geba; Saul commanded the Israelite forces at Mikmash, across the pass to the northeast; and Jonathan was at Gibeah of Benjamin, south of Geba (1 Sam. 13:2–3). Saul did not attack the Philistines from Mikmash, since crossing the pass below Geba would have made his forces vulnerable. Instead, Jonathan’s attack drove the Philistines out of Geba. They regrouped at Mikmash, however, dislodged the forces of Saul, and dispatched raiding parties (1 Sam. 13:16–18). In order to retake this critical location, Jonathan and his armor-bearer set out from Geba, descended into the wadi, climbed up the other side, and attacked, conquering the outpost and routing the Philistines (1 Sam. 14:1–23).

Michmethath

The northernmost section of the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh. 16:6; 17:7). It probably lay east of Shechem, but the exact location is disputed. It is also uncertain whether the name refers to a settlement or a geographical feature.

Michri

A postexilic member of the tribe of Benjamin, an ancestor of Elah (1 Chron. 9:8).

Michtam

A Hebrew title of uncertain meaning found in the superscription of six psalms ascribed to David (Pss. 16; 56–60). Previous suggestions connect the title with Hebrew words for “gold” and “atonement.” The LXX renders the title as “inscription” (Gk. stēlographia), suggesting that the Hebrew should read the same (cf. Isa. 38:9). These psalms may have been inscribed on stelae in the temple.

Micmash

This city (modern Mukhmas) and its sister city, Geba, were located on one of the routes from the Jordan Valley to the central Benjamin plateau. Although a branch of the Wadi Qilt separates the two towns, there was a “pass” across the deep valley (1 Sam. 13:23). As Isaiah describes the advance of the Assyrians toward Jerusalem, this geographical feature emerges (Isa. 10:28–29). It is also evident in a narrative about the Philistine incursion deep into Israelite territory in the early days of Saul’s monarchy. The Philistines held a forward outpost at Geba; Saul commanded the Israelite forces at Mikmash, across the pass to the northeast; and Jonathan was at Gibeah of Benjamin, south of Geba (1 Sam. 13:2–3). Saul did not attack the Philistines from Mikmash, since crossing the pass below Geba would have made his forces vulnerable. Instead, Jonathan’s attack drove the Philistines out of Geba. They regrouped at Mikmash, however, dislodged the forces of Saul, and dispatched raiding parties (1 Sam. 13:16–18). In order to retake this critical location, Jonathan and his armor-bearer set out from Geba, descended into the wadi, climbed up the other side, and attacked, conquering the outpost and routing the Philistines (1 Sam. 14:1–23).

Micmethath

The northernmost section of the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh. 16:6; 17:7). It probably lay east of Shechem, but the exact location is disputed. It is also uncertain whether the name refers to a settlement or a geographical feature.

Micri

A postexilic member of the tribe of Benjamin, an ancestor of Elah (1 Chron. 9:8).

Midday

A general term for the middle segment of daylight hours; noontime. “Midday” occurs seven times in the OT (Deut. 28:29; 1 Kings 18:29; Ps. 91:6; Song 1:7; Isa. 59:10; Jer. 15:8; Zeph. 2:4). See also Noon.

Middin

A town in the desert area of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:61). Codex Alexandrinus of the LXX reads “Madon.”

Middle Gate

A gate of Jerusalem mentioned in Jer. 39:3. The king of Babylon’s officials sat at this gate during the capture of Jerusalem. The gate was located probably on the original city wall of the City of David before the city expanded to the north. An Iron Age gate was excavated in the Ophel Hill excavations, perhaps the Middle Gate of Jeremiah. The incident at the gate references the earlier message that Jeremiah had for Zedekiah when he prophesied that the king of Babylon and the Chaldeans would gather in the center of the city (Jer. 21:4).

Middle Wall

The NIV renders the Greek word mesotoichon in Eph. 2:14 as “dividing wall” (KJV: “middle wall”). Within the temple infrastructure stood a wall of one and a half meters. This temple balustrade separated the court of the Gentiles from the inner courts and the sanctuary in the Jerusalem temple. Because the wall is a powerful symbol of the separation of Gentiles from Jews, the NT declaration that this wall has been broken down is rhetorically significant (Eph. 2:14; cf. 1 Macc. 9:54). Christ has (symbolically) broken down this dividing wall through his death. Jews and Gentiles now stand as one as they approach God.

A difficulty in this interpretation of Eph. 2:14, however, is that the “dividing wall” in the temple was still standing until the destruction of the temple in AD 70. It seems preferable to see the reference to the “dividing wall” as an ad hoc formulation coherent to the context of Eph. 2:14. The writer continues with the partitioned house/temple theme in 2:19 and refers to the “holy temple” in 2:21. It was the purposeful and exclusive attitudes of the Jews that separated Jew from Gentile and created a barrier between them. This social barrier would have been closely associated with some of the boundary markers used by Jews to separate themselves from Gentiles.

Midian

Midian was one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah (Gen. 25:1–2). Just before dying, Abraham leaves everything to Isaac and sends Midian and his brothers away “to the land of the east” (25:5–6). The biblical narrative regards him as the progenitor of the Midianites, who inhabited what is now southern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The relations between the Israelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generally adversarial. Moses’ experience is the exception: After fleeing Egypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has an amicable relationship with Jethro, her father (also named Reuel), who was also a priest (Exod. 2–3). Jethro even accompanies the Israelites during part of their wilderness wanderings and gives Moses advice on leading the people (Exod. 18).

The remaining references to the Midianites in the OT are largely antagonistic. In Genesis, the merchants who buy Joseph from his brothers and take him down to Egypt are Midianite (37:25–36). (The merchants are also referred to as Ishmaelites in the same narrative, and it may well be that the term “Ishmaelite” could both refer to Ishmaelites proper and serve to denote Arabic nomadic peoples in general; see also Judg. 8:22–24.) In Numbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop the Israelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to curse them (Num. 22–24). Although this attempt fails, because God will not allow Balaam to curse the Israelites, idolatrous sexual relations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to put a plague on his own people (Num. 25). One of God’s last instructions to Moses before his death is to make war against the Midianites to exact revenge for their causing the Israelites to sin (Num. 31). On the other hand, when the Israelites continue their cycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to other nations, including the Midianites (Judg. 6–9). Israelite victories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated in various later passages in the OT (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Hab. 3:7).

Midianites

Midian was one of the sons of Abraham by his wife Keturah (Gen. 25:1–2). Just before dying, Abraham leaves everything to Isaac and sends Midian and his brothers away “to the land of the east” (25:5–6). The biblical narrative regards him as the progenitor of the Midianites, who inhabited what is now southern Jordan and northern Saudi Arabia. The relations between the Israelites and the Midianites over the next centuries are generally adversarial. Moses’ experience is the exception: After fleeing Egypt, Moses arrives in Midian, marries a Midianite woman, and has an amicable relationship with Jethro, her father (also named Reuel), who was also a priest (Exod. 2–3). Jethro even accompanies the Israelites during part of their wilderness wanderings and gives Moses advice on leading the people (Exod. 18).

The remaining references to the Midianites in the OT are largely antagonistic. In Genesis, the merchants who buy Joseph from his brothers and take him down to Egypt are Midianite (37:25–36). (The merchants are also referred to as Ishmaelites in the same narrative, and it may well be that the term “Ishmaelite” could both refer to Ishmaelites proper and serve to denote Arabic nomadic peoples in general; see also Judg. 8:22–24.) In Numbers, the Midianites join the Moabites in attempting to stop the Israelite advance through their territory, hiring Balaam to curse them (Num. 22–24). Although this attempt fails, because God will not allow Balaam to curse the Israelites, idolatrous sexual relations between the Israelites and the Midianites prompt God to put a plague on his own people (Num. 25). One of God’s last instructions to Moses before his death is to make war against the Midianites to exact revenge for their causing the Israelites to sin (Num. 31). On the other hand, when the Israelites continue their cycle of sin in the promised land, God delivers them to other nations, including the Midianites (Judg. 6–9). Israelite victories over Midian, given to them by God, are celebrated in various later passages in the OT (Ps. 83:9; Isa. 9:4; 10:26; Hab. 3:7).

Midrash

Rabbinic commentary on the Hebrew Bible, either the text or a biblical event. “Midrash” (pl. “midrashim”) is a noun derived from the verb darash, meaning “to seek” or “to inquire.” “Midrash” can refer to the commentary on a single passage, such as a midrash on Gen. 1, or to a whole collection of midrashim, such as Genesis Rabbah. It may also refer to the process by which ancient rabbis interpreted Scripture. Rabbinic midrash seeks theological and halakic answers to contemporary concerns; thus, it is concerned with the application of Scripture to various aspects of life.

Rabbinic Midrash

Midrash uses Scripture to interpret Scripture and uses the Bible as a whole, unified book. Although context is not ignored altogether, mid-rash juxtaposes verses from throughout the Hebrew Bible in order to illuminate a given text or illustrate a point. Verses are strung together to elucidate a theme that the text suggests either implicitly or explicitly. Within this system of Scripture interpreting Scripture, the Pentateuch holds pride of place as the center of the biblical witness. In rabbinic midrash, often the Prophets and the Writings do not have independent voices separate from the Pentateuch but serve a supporting role.

At times, the juxtaposition of verses that occur in midrash seems arbitrary, but this is not the case. A set of midrashic rules, middot, governs how the verses of Scripture are to be used and how argumentation is to be formed. Over time, the rules became more elaborate, but their earliest statement is attributed to the pre–AD 70 rabbi Hillel in the Babylonian Talmud. He lists seven rules:

1. Argument from the less significant to more significant, and vice versa.

2. Argument by analogy when Scripture uses identical expressions.

3. A statement in one verse applies to all topically related verses.

4. Same as the principle in three, but derived from two verses, not just one.

5. Argument from general to particular, and vice versa.

6. Argument from a similar expression found in another passage.

7. Argument from context.

The rabbinic rules of scriptural interpretation are similar to rules for Hellenistic rhetoric and Roman legal argument and thus reflect Hellenistic and Roman influence.

Rabbinic midrash can be characterized broadly as halakic (developing rules for Sabbath observance, ritual purity, sacrifice, etc.) and haggadic (theological, ethical, and whatever does not fall under halakic). Some bodies of rabbinic midrash explore a book of the Bible more or less verse by verse, and others are topical. Some midrashic works are homiletical in nature; they preserve sermon material from synagogue services.

Midrash in the Bible

Although the large compilations of mid-rash are rabbinic and are later than the Bible, midrashic material is also found much earlier. Midrash has its origins in the Bible. The clearest example is Chronicles, which in many respects is a midrash on Samuel and Kings. At Qumran, we find literature that can be classified as rewritten Scripture, such as the Temple Scroll, the book of Jubilees, and the Genesis Apocryphon, which have midrashic features. The Qumran Pesharim are also midrashic, although of a less sophisticated nature than the later rabbinic midrash, and seem to employ the middot.

The NT contains examples of midrashic material. Jesus’ teaching in the Gospels includes some midrashic material. In Luke 4:16–21, Jesus reads from the scroll of Isaiah and interprets the passage as applying to himself. Jesus is delivering a petikhah, a short exposition on a biblical text outside the main synagogue sermon. When debating with the Sadducees over the resurrection, Jesus gives midrashic comment to Exod. 3:6 (Luke 20:27–40). The apostle Paul engages in midrash even more explicitly: for example, he applies Deut. 25:4, concerning not muzzling an ox while it is threshing grain, to the idea that a minister is worthy of being paid for work (1 Cor. 9:9; 1 Tim. 5:18). Paul is arguing from the lesser to the greater in his application of Torah to his contemporary situation.

The most extended midrash in the NT is the book of Hebrews. For example, in Heb. 1–2 the writer applies numerous quotations from the Psalter to Jesus in order to show how he is greater than the angels. In Heb. 4 the writer, through an interpretation of Ps. 95:11, does a midrash on entering into God’s rest, by which he applies God’s resting from his work (Gen. 2:2) to Christians’ entering that rest because of the unbelief of Israel in the wilderness. It appears that the author is forming an argument by analogy in relating Gen. 2:2 and Ps. 95:11.

It can be demonstrated that Jews employed midrashic techniques in their interpretation of Scriptures centuries before the earliest rabbinic midrash compilations were created. We see these techniques in Qumran Pesharim, Philo’s writings, and in the NT. The rabbis made use of long-established interpretive techniques and made them more sophisticated. The difference between Qumranite, ancient Christian, and rabbinic interpretation of Scripture was one of emphasis. For the Qumranites, all Scripture had to speak of their community, which was the true, believing community in the end of days. For the Christians, all Scripture had to speak of Jesus and the salvation that he brought. For the rabbis, all Scripture upheld Torah and obedience to that Torah as the center of Jewish life.

Midwife

During childbirth a woman would squat on a birthstool, and a midwife often assisted the birthing process (see also Stool). Whether they were older female relatives or friends of the mother, their duties could include cutting the umbilical cord, cleansing the baby, rubbing it down with salt (purpose still unknown), and wrapping the baby in strips of cloth (Ezek. 16:4). A midwife assured Rachel of a safe delivery of her son (Gen. 35:17), and another determined the firstborn of twins by tying a scarlet cord on his hand (Gen. 38:27–30). Pharaoh instructed two midwives to kill all the male infants of the Hebrew women. They refused because of their fear of God and were rewarded with families of their own (Exod. 1:15–22).

Migdal Eder

A location where Jacob camped after leaving Bethel and finally arriving home near Hebron. The name means “tower of the flock,” a phrase familiar from Mic. 4:8 (ESV, NASB). If the location is the same, the parallel line identifies it as the “stronghold of Daughter Zion,” and thus should be located more precisely near Jerusalem.

Migdal El

This fortified city, whose name means “tower of god/God,” was in the territory allotted to the tribe of Naphtali (Josh. 19:38). The location is probably in northern Galilee.

Migdal Gad

This fortified city, whose name means “tower of Gad,” was in the Shephelah (lowland area) near Lachish and was part of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:37).

Migdol

This name is associated with several different places. The location of each of these sites is uncertain, and the possibility that some of them may refer to the same location cannot be ruled out. However, since the Hebrew word migdol, which means “tower” or “fortress,” became an Egyptian loanword used as a place name for several military stations on Egypt’s boundaries, it is likely that multiple locations are designated by this name. The correspondence found at Tell el-Amarna refers to Migdol, but not to its precise location.

(1) A town located on the route of the exodus. In Exod. 14:2; Num. 33:7 it is referred to as being near the place where the Israelites camped before they crossed the Red Sea. The biblical narrator mentions Migdol along with Baal Zephon to help locate Pi Hahiroth for the reader. However, the location of all these sites is debated, and the very route that the Israelites took out of Egypt is the subject of much controversy. Migdol must be in the eastern Nile Delta region, but the exact site is uncertain. For the location of this Migdol, scholars have proposed Tell el-Her, Tell el-Maskhuta, and the ancient fortress of Serapeum. However, Tell el-Her would be too far north to fit with the biblical exodus narratives (though it may be identified with the Migdol of either Jer. 44:1; 46:14; or Ezek. 29:10 [see below]), and Serapeum would be too far west.

(2) A main residential location of Israelites in Lower Egypt in the late seventh and early sixth centuries BC (Jer. 44:1; 46:14). Its location is uncertain, and it is possible that it is identical with the Migdol of Exod. 14:2; Num. 33:7. (3) A location in northern Egypt. Ezekiel 29:10 refers to it along with Syene (NIV: “Aswan”) as geographical extremes of Egypt’s bound-aries, with Syene used for the southern point and Migdol for the opposite northern extreme. This Migdol may be the Magdolum mentioned in the Antonini Itinerarium (a third-century AD register of the stations and distances along roads of the Roman Empire), around twelve miles from Pelusium, but its identification is uncertain.

Mighty Warriors

David’s elite warriors (2 Sam. 23:8–39; 1 Chron. 11:11–47). The list is textually difficult and may not be as neatly organized as the NIV’s division into “the Three” and “the Thirty” suggests. They may be arranged by rank, starting with “chief captain”; then “three,” an interim rank; and then “thirty.” This could explain the closing note that there were thirty-seven in all. The last warrior mentioned in Samuel is Uriah the Hittite.

Migron

A town or region (1 Sam. 14:2; Isa. 10:28) in the territory of Benjamin. Saul and six hundred of his soldiers encamped here outside Gibeah, northeast of Jerusalem, when they went up against the Philistines. This area is described as being south of Mikmash. The town in Isaiah is described as being between Aiath and Mikmash, or north of Mikmash. If Migron indicates a region, the issue is resolved.

Mijamin

(1) A priest contemporary with David who was assigned the sixth of twenty-four positions in the priestly order of service (1 Chron. 24:9). (2) A priest who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:5). (3) One of the priests who signed the covenant renewal following Ezra’s public reading of the law (Neh. 10:7). (4) One of the Israelites (not a priest or Levite) who agreed to divorce their foreign wives at Ezra’s prompting (Ezra 10:25).

Mika

(1) A son of Saul’s grandson Mephibosheth (2 Sam. 9:12), also called “Micah” (1 Chron. 8:34; 9:40). (2) The father of Mattaniah, a Levite (1 Chron. 9:15; Neh. 11:17; 11:22). (3) A Levite who sealed the covenant with God following Ezra’s reading of the law (Neh. 10:11).

Mikloth

(1) A Benjamite and a descendant of Jeiel who lived at Gibeon, he was the father of Shimeah/Shimeam (1 Chron. 8:32; 9:37–38). (2) The chief officer under Dodai in the second monthly division of David’s army, he was responsible for a division of twenty-four thousand men (1 Chron. 27:4).

Mikmash

This city (modern Mukhmas) and its sister city, Geba, were located on one of the routes from the Jordan Valley to the central Benjamin plateau. Although a branch of the Wadi Qilt separates the two towns, there was a “pass” across the deep valley (1 Sam. 13:23). As Isaiah describes the advance of the Assyrians toward Jerusalem, this geographical feature emerges (Isa. 10:28–29). It is also evident in a narrative about the Philistine incursion deep into Israelite territory in the early days of Saul’s monarchy. The Philistines held a forward outpost at Geba; Saul commanded the Israelite forces at Mikmash, across the pass to the northeast; and Jonathan was at Gibeah of Benjamin, south of Geba (1 Sam. 13:2–3). Saul did not attack the Philistines from Mikmash, since crossing the pass below Geba would have made his forces vulnerable. Instead, Jonathan’s attack drove the Philistines out of Geba. They regrouped at Mikmash, however, dislodged the forces of Saul, and dispatched raiding parties (1 Sam. 13:16–18). In order to retake this critical location, Jonathan and his armor-bearer set out from Geba, descended into the wadi, climbed up the other side, and attacked, conquering the outpost and routing the Philistines (1 Sam. 14:1–23).

Mikmethath

The northernmost section of the boundary between Ephraim and Manasseh (Josh. 16:6; 17:7). It probably lay east of Shechem, but the exact location is disputed. It is also uncertain whether the name refers to a settlement or a geographical feature.

Mikneiah

One of the Levitical musicians who accompanied the ark of the covenant when David brought it from the house of Obed-Edom to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:18, 21).

Mikri

A postexilic member of the tribe of Benjamin, an ancestor of Elah (1 Chron. 9:8).

Miktam

A Hebrew title of uncertain meaning found in the superscription of six psalms ascribed to David (Pss. 16; 56–60). Previous suggestions connect the title with Hebrew words for “gold” and “atonement.” The LXX renders the title as “inscription” (Gk. stēlographia), suggesting that the Hebrew should read the same (cf. Isa. 38:9). These psalms may have been inscribed on stelae in the temple.

Milalai

A member of one of the choirs that Nehemiah organized to give thanks to God during the ceremony to dedicate the rebuilt wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:36). Milalai, one of the associates of Zedekiah, played a musical instrument during this procession, which was led by Ezra the scribe.

Milcah

(1) The wife of Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gen. 11:29). She was the grandmother of Rebekah, wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:24). This ancestry of Rebekah is important to the narrative because it was necessary for the wife of Isaac to be not a Canaanite but rather one of Abraham’s own relatives (Gen. 24:3–4). (2) One of the daughters of Zelophehad. After appealing to Moses, these daughters received their father’s inheritance and established the precedent that in the absence of a son, a man’s property goes to his daughters (Num. 27:7–8).

Milcom

The national god of the Ammonites, who appears both in the Bible and in Ammonite inscriptions, including the ninth-century BC Amman citadel inscription.

In the MT “Milkom” appears only three times (1 Kings 11:5, 33; 2 Kings 23:13), but the ancient Greek translations have it also in 2 Sam. 12:30; 1 Kings 11:7; 1 Chron. 20:2; Jer. 49:1, 3; Amos 1:15; Zeph. 1:5. This difference can be explained by the fact that the original Hebrew had no vowels, and the word mlkm could be vocalized either as milkom, the name of the Ammonite deity transliterated as “Milkom” (KJV, ESV, NRSV: “Milcom”), or malkam, meaning “their king.” Determining the correct reading in each of these cases is difficult, but the presence of priests in Jer. 49:3 argues strongly that “Milkom” should be read there and in 49:1. This reading is also probable in Amos 1:15; Zeph. 1:5, and it is at least possible in 2 Sam. 12:30 (see NIV mg.); 1 Chron. 20:2.

Although the NIV uses “Molek” to refer to both Molek and Milkom, evidence suggests these are two deities with different worship sites (see 2 Kings 23:10, 13) and different cults. Only Molek was associated with child sacrifice. The worship of Milkom was introduced into Israel by Solomon and persisted until Josiah’s reform.

Mildew

In Lev. 13–14 the same Hebrew word, tsara’at, is used for both a skin disease and a growth of mildew on fabric or a house. When mildew was found, a priest performed a ritual involving quarantine (13:50; 14:38), the treatment or removal of the infected area (13:54–56; 14:40–42), and ritual cleansing (13:58; 14:49–53). However, if the mildew spread, the fabric or house had to be destroyed (13:52; 14:45).

Mile

A Roman measure of a thousand paces (1,618 yards, not quite the 1,760 yards in the modern mile) and often expressed by milestones on highways (Matt. 5:41).

Miletus

A seaport on the southwest coast of Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), about thirty-five miles south of Ephesus. Paul and his companions sailed into Miletus on his third missionary journey (Acts 20:15). From Miletus he summoned the elders of the Ephesian church to say farewell to them before departing for Jerusalem (20:17–38). After a subsequent visit, Paul informed Timothy that he had left his ailing companion Trophimus in Miletus to convalesce (2 Tim. 4:20).

Ancient Miletus was colored by Cretan, Hittite, and Carian influence before its prominence as one of twelve Greek Ionian cities in the seventh and sixth centuries BC. Ancient Western philosophy has its roots in Miletus with the pre-Socratic philosophers of that age. Miletus twice came under Persian control in the following centuries, until Alexander the Great captured the city in 334 BC, and it became a thriving Hellenistic seaport. Miletus became part of the Roman province of Asia Minor in 133 BC. When Paul visited in AD 51, its four harbors had already begun to fill with silt, which would greatly diminish their use. Despite ongoing refurbishing efforts, it was useless as a harbor by the sixth century AD. Today Miletus is a well-preserved ruin of historical interest five miles inland, much like its companion city of Ephesus to the north.

Milk

A staple of the Hebrew diet, milk is one of the things considered essential for life by Jesus ben Sira, a Jewish writer of the Second Temple period (Sir. 39:26). In the ancient Near East humans consumed the milk not just from cows but also from goats, sheep, and even camels (Gen. 32:15; Deut. 32:14; Isa. 7:21–22). Since there was no process of pasteurization or refrigeration, milk often was processed to create curds, cheese, butter, or slightly soured and fermented milk. The souring process was done inside an animal skin used to hold the liquid until it was needed (Judg. 4:19).

With the prominent place that milk held in the life of the people of Israel, it is no surprise that it appears in the Bible in many contexts. The land of Canaan is frequently described as a land “flowing with milk and honey,” a metaphor for prosperity and a promise of abundant pasturelands (Exod. 3:8; Lev. 20:24; Num. 13:27; Deut. 6:3). Milk sometimes is associated with honey or wine, and it may have been consumed in such combinations (Gen. 49:12; Isa. 55:1; Joel 3:18). Milk (like wine and honey) is a heavy liquid that leaves a pleasant aftertaste, and it may suggest the pleasures of kissing in Song of Songs (see, e.g., Song 4:11). The OT law proclaims, “Do not cook a young goat in its mother’s milk” (Exod. 23:19; Deut. 14:21). This mysterious prohibition probably refers to a Canaanite custom in which a young goat was cooked in its mother’s milk as part of a pagan religious ritual. This prohibition was later interpreted by Jewish scholars to indicate a total prohibition on eating meat and dairy products together in the same meal, which is a major aspect of kosher regulations. In the NT, milk is used metaphorically for nourishing spiritual teaching (1 Pet. 2:2). Paul reworks this image to indicate that believers, like growing infants, must move beyond the mere milk of basic principles to mature spiritual instruction (1 Cor. 3:2; cf. Heb. 5:12–13).

Milkah

(1) The wife of Nahor, Abraham’s brother (Gen. 11:29). She was the grandmother of Rebekah, wife of Isaac (Gen. 24:24). This ancestry of Rebekah is important to the narrative because it was necessary for the wife of Isaac to be not a Canaanite but rather one of Abraham’s own relatives (Gen. 24:3–4). (2) One of the daughters of Zelophehad. After appealing to Moses, these daughters received their father’s inheritance and established the precedent that in the absence of a son, a man’s property goes to his daughters (Num. 27:7–8).

Milkom

The national god of the Ammonites, who appears both in the Bible and in Ammonite inscriptions, including the ninth-century BC Amman citadel inscription.

In the MT “Milkom” appears only three times (1 Kings 11:5, 33; 2 Kings 23:13), but the ancient Greek translations have it also in 2 Sam. 12:30; 1 Kings 11:7; 1 Chron. 20:2; Jer. 49:1, 3; Amos 1:15; Zeph. 1:5. This difference can be explained by the fact that the original Hebrew had no vowels, and the word mlkm could be vocalized either as milkom, the name of the Ammonite deity transliterated as “Milkom” (KJV, ESV, NRSV: “Milcom”), or malkam, meaning “their king.” Determining the correct reading in each of these cases is difficult, but the presence of priests in Jer. 49:3 argues strongly that “Milkom” should be read there and in 49:1. This reading is also probable in Amos 1:15; Zeph. 1:5, and it is at least possible in 2 Sam. 12:30 (see NIV mg.); 1 Chron. 20:2.

Although the NIV uses “Molek” to refer to both Molek and Milkom, evidence suggests these are two deities with different worship sites (see 2 Kings 23:10, 13) and different cults. Only Molek was associated with child sacrifice. The worship of Milkom was introduced into Israel by Solomon and persisted until Josiah’s reform.

Mill

One of several different types of stone implements used to grind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily, so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life (Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod. 11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21), might be made to perform the mundane task.

Mills often were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldest type of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt or other hard stone (Job 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second, smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Judg. 9:53) back and forth on the lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs, and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as a handle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. A large, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shaped lower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone by pushing posts set into sockets. References to casting large millstones into the sea (Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21) probably refer to such a large upper millstone.

Millennium

The millennium is a thousand-year period related to Christ’s return described in Rev. 20. Yet difficulties in interpreting this passage, combined with questions about how this period fits with other events in redemptive history, have led to some very different views.

Premillennialists believe that Christ’s return will be before the millennium, and postmillennialists believe that his return will be after the millennium. Amillennialism, taken literally, is the belief that there is no millennium, although it is more accurate to say that amillennialists deny the kind of literal millennium associated with either premillennialism or postmillennialism. All these views represent an attempt to organize the various relevant prophecies of Scripture into a coherent system, but each one does so in a different way. The central issue involves which approach does the best job and thus is most faithful to Scripture.

Premillennialism. The key distinctive of premillennialism is that Christ returns in order to establish his millennial kingdom. Since this millennium is a direct work of God, it is a golden age, totally different from anything experienced previously on earth. Very literally, “The wolf will live with the lamb, . . . and a little child will lead them” (Isa. 11:6). Dispensational premillennialism has become perhaps the leading view here, with its sharp distinction between Israel and the church. God was actively at work with Israel in the OT era but shifted his attention to the church in the church age. At Christ’s return, God will shift his attention back again to a Jewish-oriented tribulation and millennium, fulfilling the remaining OT prophecies made to Israel. Historic premillennialists, on the other hand, do not share this sharp distinction between Israel and the church, but see themselves as being in continuity with the early church in their view of a future golden age inaugurated by Christ.

Postmillennialism. Postmillennialism has had a significant following throughout most of church history, but in more recent years it has become a minority view. Here the idea is that God will gradually build his church over a millennium prior to Christ’s return. This approach is built on more than simply the idea of human progress; normally, there is a high view of the supernatural transforming power of the gospel whereby “the earth will be filled with the knowledge of the Lord as the waters cover the sea” (Isa. 11:9). The millennium here is a silver age involving unprecedented advances of the gospel throughout the world. Postmillennialists are divided over whether this is literally a thousand-year period and if it has already begun.

Amillennialism. Amillennialists believe in a different kind of millennium. There are two different kinds of amillennialists. Some believe that those reigning with Christ in Rev. 20 are believers in this present life who experience the intimacy of Christ’s presence, as described in texts such as Rev. 3:20: “I will come in and eat with that person, and they with me.” Other amillennialists believe that this thousand-year period of reigning with Christ specifically involves departed believers who are currently reigning with Christ in the intermediate state between death and Christ’s return. Here, the millennium is not the golden age of the premillennialist, nor is it the silver age of the postmillennialist; it is spiritual life in the present.

Summary. Several factors orient people toward one view or another. Those who approach Scripture more literally tend to be premillennialists, while those who approach it with more openness to figurative language and symbolism tend to be postmillennialists and amillennialists. Those who give greater weight to potentially unfulfilled prophecies from the OT tend to be premillennialists, while those who give greater weight to the explicit teachings of Jesus and the apostles in the NT tend to be postmillennialists and amillennialists. However, the key deciding factor may well be one of personality, especially of how one looks ahead to the future. Those who are more pessimistic (things are getting worse and worse) tend to be premillennialists, while those who are more optimistic, especially in the sense of focusing on God’s power to transform this present world, tend to be postmillennialists. Amillennialists focus on other issues, and they are neither unduly pessimistic nor optimistic.

In each of these different views there is undoubtedly at least a kernel of truth that must be considered and built into a proper understanding of God’s work in this present world and in the kingdom to come. See also Revelation, Book of.

Millet

A small round grain suitable for human consumption and often prepared as flat bread (Ezek. 4:9) or combined with various other grains. It may also be used as fodder for livestock. Species of millet include Panicum miliaceuem and Setaria italica.

Millo

This name, meaning “fill” in Hebrew, refers to several places or structures in the OT. (1) A part of the defensive fortifications of Jerusalem, the construction of which apparently was begun after David conquered the city (2 Sam. 5:9; 1 Chron. 11:8 [NIV: “terraces,” but see NIV mg.]). Its exact nature and location in Jerusalem are disputed. It has been proposed that it was a terraced structure upon which houses were built, or that it was a platform that connected the Temple Mount and David’s citadel by filling in the valley between them.

The completion or rebuilding of the Millo was one of Solomon’s building projects, although it is also possible that Solomon’s Millo was a separate structure altogether (1 Kings 9:15, 24; 11:27). Solomon put Jeroboam, who later became the first king of the northern kingdom, in charge of this project (1 Kings 11:27–28). In addition to repairing broken walls and building towers, Hezekiah included the strengthening of the Millo in his preparations for the siege of Sennacherib (2 Chron. 32:5).

(2) The house of Millo, where Joash of Judah was assassinated, may be a part of the structure in Jerusalem (2 Kings 12:20 [NIV: “Beth Millo”]), but this is not certain.

(3) Beth Millo (“house of Millo”) was a fortress or city near or a part of Shechem (Judg. 9:6, 20). Although the Hebrew name is almost identical to the one in 2 Kings 12:20, it is likely that they are distinct places.

Millstone

One of several different types of stone implements used to grind grain, usually by hand. This chore was often performed daily, so the sound of mills grinding grain became a symbol of normal life (Jer. 25:10; Rev. 18:22). Women (Matt. 24:41) or servants (Exod. 11:5) typically used mills, or prisoners, like Samson (Judg. 16:21), might be made to perform the mundane task.

Mills often were small enough for one person to use. Apparently, the oldest type of hand mill included a lower, concave stone made of basalt or other hard stone (Job 41:24). The person grinding rubbed a second, smaller, loaf-shaped upper millstone (Judg. 9:53) back and forth on the lower one to grind the grain. Later mills had two circular slabs, and the user rotated the upper stone by a wooden peg attached as a handle. Larger mills were also used in commercial operations. A large, well-carved double inverted cone was set on a cone-shaped lower stone. A pair of people or animals rotated the upper stone by pushing posts set into sockets. References to casting large millstones into the sea (Matt. 18:6; Rev. 18:21) probably refer to such a large upper millstone.

Mina

It is difficult to imagine a world without consistent metrological systems. Society’s basic structures, from economy to law, require a uniform and accurate method for measuring time, distances, weights, volumes, and so on. In today’s world, technological advancements allow people to measure various aspects of the universe with incredible accuracy—from nanometers to light-years, milligrams to kilograms.

The metrological systems employed in biblical times span the same concepts as our own modern-day systems: weight, linear distance, and volume or capacity. However, the systems of weights and measurements employed during the span of biblical times were not nearly as accurate or uniform as the modern units employed today. Preexisting weight and measurement systems existed in the contextual surroundings of both the OT and the NT authors and thus heavily influenced the systems employed by the Israelite nation as well as the NT writers. There was great variance between the different standards used merchant to merchant (Gen. 23:16), city to city, region to region, time period to time period, even despite the commands to use honest scales and honest weights (Lev. 19:35–36; Deut. 25:13–15; Prov. 11:1; 16:11; 20:23; Ezek. 45:10).

Furthermore, inconsistencies and contradictions exist within the written records as well as between archaeological specimens. In addition, significant differences are found between preexilic and postexilic measurements in the biblical texts, and an attempt at merging dry capacity and liquid volume measurements further complicated the issue. This is to be expected, especially when we consider modern-day inconsistencies—for example, 1 US liquid pint = 0.473 liters, while 1 US dry pint = 0.550 liters. Thus, all modern equivalents given below are approximations, and even the best estimates have a margin of error of + 5 percent or more.

Weights

Weights in biblical times were carried in a bag or a satchel (Deut. 25:13; Prov. 16:11; Mic. 6:11) and were stones, usually carved into various animal shapes for easy identification. Their side or flat bottom was inscribed with the associated weight and unit of measurement. Thousands of historical artifacts, which differ by significant amounts, have been discovered by archaeologists and thus have greatly complicated the work of determining accurate modern-day equivalents.

Beka. Approximately 1⁄5 ounce, or 5.6 grams. Equivalent to 10 gerahs or ½ the sanctuary shekel (Exod. 38:26). Used to measure metals and goods such as gold (Gen. 24:22).

Gerah. 1⁄50 ounce, or 0.56 grams. Equivalent to 1⁄10 beka, 1⁄20 shekel (Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25).

Litra. Approximately 12 ounces, or 340 grams. A Roman measure of weight. Used only twice in the NT (John 12:3; 19:39). The precursor to the modern British pound.

Mina. Approximately 1¼ pounds, or 0.56 kilograms. Equivalent to 50 shekels. Used to weigh gold (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69), silver (Neh. 7:71–72), and other goods. The prophet Ezekiel redefined the proper weight: “The shekel is to consist of twenty gerahs. Twenty shekels plus twenty-five shekels plus fifteen shekels equal one mina” (Ezek. 45:12). Before this redefinition, there were arguably 50 shekels per mina. In Jesus’ parable of the servants, he describes the master entrusting to his three servants varying amounts—10 minas, 5 minas, 1 mina—implying a monetary value (Luke 19:11–24), probably of either silver or gold. One mina was equivalent to approximately three months’ wages for a laborer.

Pim. Approximately 1⁄3 ounce, or 9.3 grams. Equivalent to 2⁄3 shekel. Referenced only once in the Scriptures (1 Sam. 13:21).

Shekel. Approximately 2⁄5 ounce, or 11 grams. Equivalent to approximately 2 bekas. The shekel is the basic unit of weight measurement in Israelite history, though its actual weight varied significantly at different historical points. Examples include the “royal shekel” (2 Sam. 14:26), the “common shekel” (2 Kings 7:1), and the “sanctuary shekel,” which was equivalent to 20 gerahs (e.g., Exod. 30:13; Lev. 27:25; Num. 3:47). Because it was used to weigh out silver or gold, the shekel also functioned as a common monetary unit in the NT world.

Talent. Approximately 75 pounds, or 34 kilograms. Equivalent to approximately 60 minas. Various metals were weighed using talents: gold (Exod. 25:39; 37:24; 1 Chron. 20:2), silver (Exod. 38:27; 1 Kings 20:39; 2 Kings 5:22), and bronze (Exod. 38:29). This probably is derived from the weight of a load that a man could carry.

Table 12. Biblical Weights and Measures and Their Modern Equivalents:

Weights

Beka – 10 geraahs; ½ shekel = 1/5 ounce = 5.6 grams

Gerah – 1/10 beka; 1/20 shekel = 1/50 ounce = 0.56 grams

Litra – 12 ounces = 340 grams

Mina – 50 shekels = 1 ¼ pounds = 0.56 kilograms

Pim – 2/3 shekel = 1/3 ounce = 9.3 grams

Shekel – 2 bekas; 20 gerahs = 2/5 ounce = 11 grams

Talent – 60 minas = 75 pounds = 34 kilograms

Linear measurements

Cubit – 6 handbreadths = 18 inches = 45.7 centimeters

Day’s journey = 20-25 miles = 32-40 kilometerse

Fingerbreadth – ¼ handbreadth = ¾ inch = 1.9 centimeterse

Handbreadth – 1/6 cubit = 3 inches = 7.6 centimeters

Milion – 1 mile = 1.6 kilometers

Orguia – 1/100 stadion = 5 feet 11 inches = 1.8 meters

Reed/rod – 108 inches = 274 centimeters

Sabbath day’s journey – 2,000 cubits = ¾ mile = 1.2 kilometers

Span – 3 handbreadths = 9 inches = 22.8 centimeters

Stadion – 100 orguiai = 607 feet = 185 meters

Capacity

Cab – 1 omer = ½ gallon = 1.9 liters

Choinix – ¼ gallon = 0.9 liters

Cor – 1 homer; 10 ephahs = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Ephah – 10 omers; 1/10 homer = 3/5 bushel; 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Homer – 10 ephahs; 1 cor = 6 bushels; 48.4 gallons = 183 liters

Koros – 10 bushels; 95 gallons – 360 liters

Omer – 1/10 ephah; 1/100 homer = 2 quarts = 1.9 liters

Saton – 1 seah = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Seah – 1/3 ephah; 1 saton = 7 quarts = 6.6 liters

Liquid Volume

Bath – 1 ephah = 6 gallons = 22.7 liters

Batos – 8 gallons = 30.3 liters

Hin – 1/6 bath; 12 logs = 1 gallon; 4 quarts = 3.8 liters

Log – 1/72 bath; 1/12 hin = 1/3 quart = 0.3 liters

Metretes – 10 gallons = 37.8 literes

Linear Measurements

Linear measurements were based upon readily available natural measurements such as the distance between the elbow and the hand or between the thumb and the little finger. While convenient, this method of measurement gave rise to significant inconsistencies.

Cubit. Approximately 18 inches, or 45.7 centimeters. Equivalent to 6 handbreadths. The standard biblical measure of linear distance, as the shekel is the standard measurement of weight. The distance from the elbow to the outstretched fingertip. Used to describe height, width, length (Exod. 25:10), distance (John 21:8), and depth (Gen. 7:20). Use of the cubit is ancient. For simple and approximate conversion into modern units, divide the number of cubits in half for meters, then multiply the number of meters by 3 to arrive at feet.

1 cubit = 2 spans = 6 handbreadths = 24 fingerbreadths

Day’s journey. An approximate measure of distance equivalent to about 20–25 miles, or 32–40 kilometers. Several passages reference a single or multiple days’ journey as a description of the distance traveled or the distance between two points: “a day’s journey” (Num. 11:31; 1 Kings 19:4), “a three-day journey” (Gen. 30:36; Exod. 3:18; 8:27; Jon. 3:3), “seven days” (Gen. 31:23), and “eleven days” (Deut. 1:2). After visiting Jerusalem for Passover, Jesus’ parents journeyed for a day (Luke 2:44) before realizing that he was not with them.

Fingerbreadth. The width of the finger, or ¼ of a handbreadth, approximately ¾ inch, or 1.9 centimeters. The fingerbreadth was the beginning building block of the biblical metrological system for linear measurements. Used only once in the Scriptures, to describe the bronze pillars (Jer. 52:21).

Handbreadth. Approximately 3 inches, or 7.6 centimeters. Equivalent to 1/6 cubit, or four fingerbreadths. Probably the width at the base of the four fingers. A short measure of length, thus compared to a human’s brief life (Ps. 39:5). Also the width of the rim on the bread table (Exod. 25:25) and the thickness of the bronze Sea (1 Kings 7:26).

Milion. Translated “mile” in Matt. 5:41. Greek transliteration of Roman measurement mille passuum, “a thousand paces.”

Orguia. Approximately 5 feet 11 inches, or 1.8 meters. Also translated as “fathom.” A Greek unit of measurement. Probably the distance between outstretched fingertip to fingertip. Used to measure the depth of water (Acts 27:28).

Reed/rod. Approximately 108 inches, or 274 centimeters. This is also a general term for a measuring device rather than a specific linear distance (Ezek. 40:3, 5; 42:16–19; Rev. 11:1; 21:15).

Sabbath day’s journey. Approximately ¾ mile, or 1.2 kilometers (Acts 1:12). About 2,000 cubits.

Span. Approximately 9 inches, or 22.8 centimeters. Equivalent to three handbreadths, and ½ cubit. The distance from outstretched thumb tip to little-finger tip. The length and width of the priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:16).

Stadion. Approximately 607 feet, or 185 meters. Equivalent to 100 orguiai. Used in the measurement of large distances (Matt. 14:24; Luke 24:13; John 6:19; 11:18; Rev. 14:20; 21:16).

Land Area

Seed. The size of a piece of land could also be measured on the basis of how much seed was required to plant that field (Lev. 27:16; 1 Kings 18:32).

Yoke. Fields and lands were measured using logical, available means. In biblical times, this meant the amount of land a pair of yoked animals could plow in one day (1 Sam. 14:14; Isa. 5:10).

Capacity

Cab. Approximately ½ gallon, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1 omer. Mentioned only once in the Scriptures, during the siege of Samaria (2 Kings 6:25).

Choinix. Approximately ¼ gallon, or 0.9 liters. A Greek measurement, mentioned only once in Scripture (Rev. 6:6).

Cor. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equal to the homer, and to 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of flour and grains (1 Kings 4:22; 1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10; 27:5; Ezra 7:22). In the LXX, cor is also a measure of liquid volume, particularly oil (1 Kings 5:11; 2 Chron. 2:10; Ezra 45:14).

Ephah. Approximately 3⁄5 bushel (6 gallons, or 22.7 liters). Equivalent to 10 omers, or 1⁄10 homer. Used for measuring flour and grains (e.g., Exod. 29:40; Lev. 6:20). Isaiah prophesied a day of reduced agricultural yield, when a homer of seed would produce only an ephah of grain (Isa. 5:10). The ephah was equal in size to the bath (Ezek. 45:11), which typically was used for liquid measurements.

Homer. Approximately 6 bushels (48.4 gallons, or 183 liters). Equivalent to 1 cor, or 10 ephahs. Used for measuring dry volumes, particularly of various grains (Lev. 27:16; Isa. 5:10; Ezek. 45:11, 13–14; Hos. 3:2). This is probably a natural measure of the load that a donkey can carry, in the range of 90 kilograms. There may have existed a direct link between capacity and monetary value, given Lev. 27:16: “fifty shekels of silver to a homer of barley seed.” A logical deduction of capacity and cost based on known equivalences might look something like this:

1 homer = 1 mina; 1 ephah = 5 shekels; 1 omer = 1 beka

Koros. Approximately 10 bushels (95 gallons, or 360 liters). A Greek measure of grain (Luke 16:7).

Omer. Approximately 2 quarts, or 1.9 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄10 ephah, 1⁄100 homer (Ezek. 45:11). Used by Israel in the measurement and collection of manna in the wilderness (Exod. 16:16–36) and thus roughly equivalent to a person’s daily food ration.

Saton. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1 seah. The measurement of flour in Jesus’ parable of the kingdom of heaven (Matt. 13:33; Luke 13:21).

Seah. Approximately 7 quarts, or 6.6 liters. Equivalent to 1⁄3 ephah, or 1 saton. Used to measure flour, grain, seed, and other various dry goods (e.g., 2 Kings 7:1; 1 Sam. 25:18).

Liquid Volume

Bath. Approximately 6 gallons, or 22.7 liters. Equivalent to 1 ephah, which typically was used for measurements of dry capacity. Used in the measurement of water (1 Kings 7:26), oil (1 Kings 5:11), and wine (2 Chron. 2:10; Isa. 5:10).

Batos. Approximately 8 gallons, or 30.3 liters. A Greek transliteration of the Hebrew word bath (see above). A measure of oil (Luke 16:6).

Hin. Approximately 4 quarts (1 gallon, or 3.8 liters). Equivalent to 1⁄6 bath and 12 logs. Used in the measurement of water (Ezek. 4:11), oil (Ezek. 46:5), and wine (Num. 28:14).

Log. Approximately 1⁄3 quart, or 0.3 liter. Equivalent to 1⁄72 bath and 1⁄12 hin. Mentioned five times in Scripture, specifically used to measure oil (Lev. 14:10–24).

Metretes. Approximately 10 gallons, or 37.8 liters. Used in the measurement of water at the wedding feast (John 2:6).

Mind

The process or result of perception; one’s worldview, attitude, thought, and opinion (Luke 24:45; 1 Cor. 14:4; Phil. 4:7; Rev. 13:18; 17:9). The mind perceives, orders, and controls how we understand our place in the world. Embracing all the instruments of senses, memory, and intellect, the mind constitutes the inner person, the heart or sense of self, and is therefore partly contrastive with the body (1 Cor. 2:16). However, the Bible does not attempt to explain the relationship between mind and brain, which is a matter of current scientific, psychological, philosophical, and theological debate. As a force, the mind directs the body for good or evil.

At the beginning of his argument in Romans, Paul claims that God gave sinful human beings over to a corrupted mind, which enslaved them to debasing thoughts and behaviors (1:28–32). This corruption is not confined to the individual; it is a worldview hostile to God (12:2). But through faith and grace, God calls forgiven, redeemed human beings to be transformed by the renewing of their minds (12:2). Having rejected the mind or thinking of God, we rediscover it and live accordingly. Paul, however, is referring not just to the mind of individuals but also to the communal mind (way of thinking) of the body of Christ, the church (see 1 Cor. 1:10).

The mind, then, is not so much a soliloquy as it is a conversation. It is not autonomous but rather is sparked by either the thinking of God (Christ) or Satan (see, e.g., Eph. 2:1–3). These worldview shapers occupy two distinct (conflicting) spheres. God and Satan do not partner in our perception. Although our minds are not autonomous, we are able to exercise some control over our thoughts. This brings an element of human freedom into the process of sanctification. The gospel invites Christians to begin a conversation with the Spirit of Christ; over time, as an expression of discipleship, this conversation transforms how Christians make sense of reality.

Minerals and Metals

The Bible contains many references to minerals and metals. Minerals can encompass a wide array of topics, thus the focus here is on valuable minerals such as ornamental stones as well as precious and useful metals. Gold is mentioned in the Bible as early as the garden of Eden (Gen. 2:11) and at the end is pictured as making up the streets of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:21). Among the metals mentioned in Scripture are gold, silver, bronze, copper, tin, lead, and iron. Precious stones and minerals also appear in Scripture, often used to adorn items, such as the high priest’s breastpiece (Exod. 28:15–21). Here these materials will be discussed in chronological order of appearance.

Copper

Copper was the first metal to be used for simple farm tools and weapons. It was used as early as the middle of the fourth millennium BC but was not in widespread use until approximately 3300 BC. Copper mines have been found on the Sinai Peninsula at places such as the Timna Valley and Faynan and also extensively on the island of Cyprus, which supplied copper to the Egyptian, Greek, and Roman empires.

References to copper within the Bible are few. Several passages discuss the basic origins of copper, such as the gathering of ore or the smelting process (Deut. 8:9; Job 28:2; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 24:11). Several NT passages acknowledge the presence of minted copper coins as currency (Matt. 10:9; Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2). Pure copper, however, was hard to use, although it could be combined with tin to make the alloy bronze.

Bronze

The use of bronze, an alloy made of copper and tin, in biblical lands dates to about 2300 BC. Bronze, compared to pure copper, is easier to work with and has a longer life. It can be worked with hammer and anvil or poured into a mold. It has the same available applications as copper; thus it was used to make all the tools and weapons that were made of copper. Bronze was widely used during the second millennium BC, encompassing the biblical time period from Abraham to the judges, and its use continued as the raw materials were available. It was the metal of choice until the advanced technology of ironworking.

The first biblical reference to bronze is found in Gen. 4:22, in which we are told that Tubal-Cain forged tools out of bronze and iron. Next, bronze is mentioned in its use in the tabernacle built in the desert. Among the bronze items included were the many bronze clasps and bases for the tent construction (Exod. 26:11, 37; 27:10–11, 17–19). The altar and all its utensils were made of, or overlaid with, bronze (27:1–8). God also instructed Moses to make a bronze basin for washing (30:18). Moses also made a snake out of bronze and placed it on top of his staff when the Israelites were struck with an abundance of venomous snakes (Num. 21:9). Samson was bound with shackles of bronze (Judg. 16:21), and Goliath wore armor and carried weapons of bronze (1 Sam. 17:5–6). Solomon used an extensive amount of bronze in his building of the temple (2 Kings 25:16), and there was bronze in the statue that Daniel dreamed of (Dan. 2:32, 35). Many of the prophets used bronze as a way to discuss something that was to be strong or strengthened by God (Isa. 45:2; Jer. 1:18; Ezek. 40:3).

Iron and Steel

Iron originally was found in meteorites and thus was scarce and worked as a precious metal. After a permanent source of iron ore was found, iron began to be worked in a few areas around 1200 BC. It increased in popularity over time, and around 1000 BC, or roughly the time of the united monarchy, it was being extensively used. Phoenician traders were very active during this time, and they would have brought much iron from the mines of southern Spain. Around the tenth century BC the technology to work iron into steel through the quenching and carbonization of the metal became commonplace. A large number of iron-producing sites have not been found in Palestine, and no deposits of the raw material have been located. Iron deposits have been found between the Jordan and the Euphrates rivers, but whether the ancients were aware of these deposits is unknown.

Once the technology to turn iron into steel became known, both became highly valued. At the same time, it is possible that copper had become more difficult to obtain due to a change in international trading routes. The first steel implement to be unearthed in Palestine was a pick found in Upper Galilee dating to the eleventh century BC.

One of the earliest references to iron in Scripture is its use by the Canaanites to make chariots (Josh. 17:16, 18). This would have been an early use of the metal in the Iron Age I period (1200–1000 BC). Also, Goliath’s spear, which was as big as a weaver’s rod, is said to have had a head made of iron (1 Sam. 17:7). Elisha’s miracle of making a borrowed ax head float (2 Kings 6:6) shows the continued value of the metal. In his latter days, David amassed iron among the goods to give Solomon to use in building the temple (1 Chron. 22:14; 29:2); Solomon later used these materials with the help of Huram-Abi (2 Chron. 2:13–14). Ezekiel discusses the economic value of iron in the context of trading (Ezek. 27:12, 19), and Daniel uses it as a metaphor for discussing strength (Dan. 2:40–41). The NT recognizes the strength of iron when discussing Christ’s iron scepter (Rev. 2:27; 19:15).

Tin

Tin was initially used mainly to produce the copper alloy bronze. Tin was not used in its pure form until well into the Roman period, and even then seldom by itself. The sources of tin in the ancient world are currently debated. The tin from large deposits in Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12) was available through Phoenician traders. Tin is also found in large deposits in Anatolia, but it is currently unknown whether these deposits had been discovered and used during biblical times. A third option is modern-day Afghanistan. Archaeologists have discovered in modern Turkey the remains of a wrecked ship, dated to around 1350 BC, that was carrying ten tons of copper ingots and about one ton of tin ingots. These ingots possibly originated in the area of modern-day Afghanistan and were bound for the Mediterranean trade routes. Tin is mentioned only four times in Scripture, always within a list of other metals (Num. 31:22; Ezek. 22:18, 20; 27:12).

Lead

Lead was used early in human history, but its applications were few. It would have been mined with copper and silver ore and then extracted as a by-product. The Romans used it for various implements, most notably wine vessels. It is referenced nine times within Scripture, either in a list or in reference to its weight. The only two times it is referenced as an object is when Job mentions a lead writing implement (Job 19:24), and when Zechariah has the vision of a woman sitting in the basket with a lead cover (Zech. 5:7, 8).

Gold and Silver

Sought after for much of human history, gold and silver have been worked by humans for their ornamental value. The practical uses of these metals within the biblical setting were constrained mainly to their economic and ornamental value. Gold and silver jewelry were used as a form of payment and were minted into coins during the Greco-Roman era. Gold objects are relatively scarce in archaeological finds, mainly because most gold items would have been part of a large treasury carried off as tribute or plunder. Silver appears in the archaeological record more frequently; a remarkable hoard of silver in lump form was found at Eshtemoa (see 1 Sam. 30:26–28). This silver has been dated to the time of the kingdom of Judah, after the northern kingdom of Israel had fallen. The silver in raw lump form was most likely used as a monetary payment, even though it had not yet been minted into coins.

Gold in the ancient world came largely from Egypt and northern Africa. The Bible mentions Havilah as a land of gold (Gen. 2:11), as well as Ophir (1 Kings 9:28), but the exact location of both places is unknown. Silver was mined in southern Spain, along with other metals, and brought to the area through sea trading. The Athenians of the Classical period were also known for their vast silver-mining operations.

Silver and gold are mentioned repeatedly in the OT in reference to their uses in trading and their economic value. Most notably, the Israelites asked their Egyptian neighbors to give them gold and silver items just before they left Egypt (Exod. 3:22). The tabernacle was highly ornamented with these two metals, as was the temple built by Solomon. It is said that Solomon made the nation so wealthy that silver was considered as plentiful as stone (1 Kings 10:27). Perhaps the most notorious articles of silver within Scripture are those paid to Judas for his betrayal of Jesus (Matt. 26:15).

Precious Stones

Stones of various origins were used in and around Palestine. The Bible makes few references to their use. Like gold and silver, they were used mainly for their ornamental value. Their scarcity made them highly prized. One notable exception is turquoise. The Egyptian pharaohs were fascinated with turquoise, and they mined extensively for it on the Sinai Peninsula. The remains of several turquoise mines have been found with Canaanite markings, indicating the presence of Canaanite slaves working the Egyptian mines. There was also a line of forts along the northern edge of the Egyptian Empire, used presumably to protect the pharaohs’ turquoise interests. Precious stones were also found in Syria, where Phoenician traders would have been able to bring them from other parts of the known world.

Exodus 28:17–21 describes twelve stones set in the breastpiece worn by the Israelite high priest. Twelve stones likewise appear in the foundations of the new Jerusalem (Rev. 21:19–20). Ezekiel uses nine of these same twelve stones to discuss the adornment of the king of Tyre (Ezek. 28:13).

The Bible uses the blanket term “precious stones” to denote a hoard of riches, such as that owned by Solomon (1 Kings 10:10).

Mines

Given the vast amount of human history covered by the stories within Scripture, it is difficult to completely discuss the full history of mining. The techniques and the technology involved advanced extensively throughout the ages; thus it would be necessary to bring into the discussion a full history of metals and metalworking to be completely thorough. The discussion here will therefore necessarily be brief and focused.

Biblical References

There is only one clear reference to mining in the Bible, in Job 28:1–11: “Mortals put an end to the darkness; they search out the farthest recesses for ore in the blackest darkness. Far from human dwellings they cut a shaft, in places untouched by human feet; far from other people they dangle and sway” (vv. 3–4). This passage describes the typical form of tunneling often found in ancient mining. Included within the text of Job 28 are several types of metals and minerals that were mined, including iron, gold, silver, copper, and sapphires. Tin and bronze were also known, with tin most likely being the last to be used by itself, despite its use in the making of bronze. Most of the precious stones mentioned in Scripture appear in the breastpiece of the high priest and in the foundations of the new Jerusalem. There is also a list of precious stones mentioned in Ezek. 28:13, but these largely replicate those mentioned in the breastpiece of the high priest (Exod. 28:17–21).

Methods

The ancients had two methods of mining ores. The first included finding ore close to the surface and following the shaft of deposits as far as possible. Copper mines of this fashion have been found in Egypt, specifically in the northern regions. The tools used were picks and hoes. The shafts themselves were comparable to a coffin in size, allowing for little movement. If the ore was too hard to break apart, fires were lit in the shaft in order to heat and cool the ore, making it more brittle. The shafts themselves extended up to two hundred feet. After being broken, the ore was passed in baskets to the surface, where it was crushed and separated. This job was done almost entirely by slaves who worked night and day until death took them, at which time other slaves replaced them. Remains of their huts have been found at Serabit el-Khadim on the Sinai Peninsula.

The most infamous mines were run by the Greeks. Laurium was a veritable concentration camp operated by the Athenians in order to slake their thirst for silver. Known from ancient writings, Laurium is said to be the death place of some thirty thousand slaves who were captured in the various wars and battles undertaken by the Greek city-state. These slaves were owned mostly by wealthy Greeks who rented them out to the owners of the mines. Young boys appear to have been favored miners due to their smaller size and thus their ability to fit within the shafts. The shafts were almost four hundred feet deep and roughly the width of a coffin. There is also evidence up through the fifth century AD of forced slavery in mines as a penal sentence. References concerning religious persecutions mention victims penalized by being sent to the mines. This would have happened throughout the Roman period and could have been the fate of some early Christians.

Panning for tin and gold is also evidenced from ancient times. Pans have been discovered in Troy and Asshur that appear to have had this function, although little else is known of this form of mining. Surface mining was undertaken by the Romans, but this method required large amounts of water to wash away the top layer and therefore was not used often. Iron ore was also extracted from meteorites, but because of its scarcity, it was considered a precious metal and seldom used.

Sources

Copper. The geographical location of ancient mines is not always easy to pinpoint. Several copper mines have been found on the Sinai Peninsula, which lies between Egypt and Palestine. Timna and Faynan are two of the most recent mines in this location to attract archaeological attention. These mines lay close to the borders of Israel: Faynan closer to the Dead Sea, and Timna closer to the Red Sea. It is clear that copper from these mines was mined during the late Iron Age I stage (1200–1000 BC), or the time of the judges. These mines are in Edomite territory; thus trade with the neighboring enemy was scattered at best, but it is possible that this copper went to the Assyrian Empire as a trade item or as tribute.

The island of Cyprus has also been mined throughout history for its copper ore. Until recently, most of the mining was thought to have occurred under the empires of Greece and Rome. However, earlier mines and copper-smelting sites have been found on the island. These mines date to the Middle Bronze Age, or just before the time of the patriarchs. There is also written evidence found in Egypt of copper being traded between Cyprus and Egypt during the time when the Israelites are thought to have been in Egypt. In addition, research into trade routes and the technology of boats and seafaring vessels has increased understanding of the widespread trade within the Mediterranean region. For the Egyptians, the Nile served as a perfect harbor for connecting with other seaports, including those on Cyprus and along the coast of Israel. Copper was the only metal used for tools and weapons throughout the third and fourth millennia BC. It was not until around 2300 BC that bronze began to appear in the region of Palestine, probably a result of Syrian influence. Copper, however, was still needed, as bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.

Tin. The location of tin mines is difficult to determine for the earlier period. There are large tin deposits in what is now Afghanistan, and some scholars argue that this is the source of early tin ore for the biblical region. This source would have depended upon a fairly large overland trade route in order to bring the ore to the Mediterranean. Such routes were not unheard of, and most likely it existed. A shipwreck discovered by archaeologists in modern-day Turkey also provides evidence for the marine trade of such minerals. The ship was carrying a large load of copper and tin ingots thought to be from modern-day Afghanistan. This shipment dates to about 1350 BC. Tin deposits have also been found in Anatolia, north of Israel; however, it is currently unknown whether these deposits were exploited by the ancients. The only other resource for tin was southern Spain, which was accessible through the trade routes of the Phoenicians.

Gold. Egypt and, more broadly, northern Africa have been known throughout history to have large deposits of gold that have been mined for millennia. Also, the Assyrian and Babylonian empires facilitated trade with parts of India, allowing gold from that region to be accessible in Israel. Gold was also mined in Arabia, and biblical references include Havilah (Gen. 2:11), Ophir (1 Kings 10:11), and Sheba (Ps. 72:15). Ophir is as of yet unfound; however, it was most likely located somewhere along the Red Sea, as indicated by Solomon’s sending a fleet to Tar-shish by way of Ophir from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 9:26; 2 Chron. 9:21; 20:36). Ezion Geber sits on the Red Sea, which suggests that Solomon’s ships possibly circumnavigated Africa to reach Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12).

Iron and silver. There has been some discussion about the source of Deut. 8:9, in which Palestine is mentioned as being “a land where the rocks are iron.” Palestine itself has no legitimate source of ore to be mined. However, there is a possibility that Lebanon could be included in this description. Lebanon is known to have considerable iron deposits. Iron, however, was not used much until the twelfth to eleventh centuries BC. Earlier, iron was very expensive and hard to come by and thus was used mainly for jewelry and a limited number of weapons. However, once the technology to turn iron into steel became widely known, its uses increased dramatically. The earliest piece of steel found in Palestine dates from the eleventh century BC, but steel was not widely used until the tenth century BC, with the rise of the united monarchy.

Under the economic conditions of the monarchy, iron, steel, bronze, silver, and gold were all highly visible. Gold and silver articles, although mentioned often in the biblical narrative, have been few in number in archaeological finds. The large hoards of gold and silver in the temple probably were taken to Assyria or Babylon after these empires’ invasions. It does appear that silver, mainly in the form of ingots, was the preferred method of payment during this time. A large hoard of silver has been found in Eshtemoa, in the southern Hebron Hills, dating to this period.

As noted above, the Greeks mined silver at Laurium. It is also posited that as early as the period of the Phoenicians large amounts of silver were mined and traded out of southern Spain. Besides silver, southern Spain had large amounts of iron, lead, and tin.

Turquoise. Serabit el-Khadim has been identified as a location of Egyptian mining. Here archaeologists have found large mining operations for turquoise dating far earlier than the time of the patriarchs. These mines would have been in use during the period of the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt, and inscriptions of letters from the Canaanite alphabet (as opposed to Egyptian hieroglyphs) have been found at the site. In addition, devices for copper smelting and molding devices have been found in this region, but it is suspected that the copper industry was devoted strictly to making the appropriate tools to mine the turquoise. Egyptians used and highly desired the turquoise for its bluish color. It is found in the earliest of Egyptian tombs, which lack other precious items such as gold or silver.

Mines and Mining

Given the vast amount of human history covered by the stories within Scripture, it is difficult to completely discuss the full history of mining. The techniques and the technology involved advanced extensively throughout the ages; thus it would be necessary to bring into the discussion a full history of metals and metalworking to be completely thorough. The discussion here will therefore necessarily be brief and focused.

Biblical References

There is only one clear reference to mining in the Bible, in Job 28:1–11: “Mortals put an end to the darkness; they search out the farthest recesses for ore in the blackest darkness. Far from human dwellings they cut a shaft, in places untouched by human feet; far from other people they dangle and sway” (vv. 3–4). This passage describes the typical form of tunneling often found in ancient mining. Included within the text of Job 28 are several types of metals and minerals that were mined, including iron, gold, silver, copper, and sapphires. Tin and bronze were also known, with tin most likely being the last to be used by itself, despite its use in the making of bronze. Most of the precious stones mentioned in Scripture appear in the breastpiece of the high priest and in the foundations of the new Jerusalem. There is also a list of precious stones mentioned in Ezek. 28:13, but these largely replicate those mentioned in the breastpiece of the high priest (Exod. 28:17–21).

Methods

The ancients had two methods of mining ores. The first included finding ore close to the surface and following the shaft of deposits as far as possible. Copper mines of this fashion have been found in Egypt, specifically in the northern regions. The tools used were picks and hoes. The shafts themselves were comparable to a coffin in size, allowing for little movement. If the ore was too hard to break apart, fires were lit in the shaft in order to heat and cool the ore, making it more brittle. The shafts themselves extended up to two hundred feet. After being broken, the ore was passed in baskets to the surface, where it was crushed and separated. This job was done almost entirely by slaves who worked night and day until death took them, at which time other slaves replaced them. Remains of their huts have been found at Serabit el-Khadim on the Sinai Peninsula.

The most infamous mines were run by the Greeks. Laurium was a veritable concentration camp operated by the Athenians in order to slake their thirst for silver. Known from ancient writings, Laurium is said to be the death place of some thirty thousand slaves who were captured in the various wars and battles undertaken by the Greek city-state. These slaves were owned mostly by wealthy Greeks who rented them out to the owners of the mines. Young boys appear to have been favored miners due to their smaller size and thus their ability to fit within the shafts. The shafts were almost four hundred feet deep and roughly the width of a coffin. There is also evidence up through the fifth century AD of forced slavery in mines as a penal sentence. References concerning religious persecutions mention victims penalized by being sent to the mines. This would have happened throughout the Roman period and could have been the fate of some early Christians.

Panning for tin and gold is also evidenced from ancient times. Pans have been discovered in Troy and Asshur that appear to have had this function, although little else is known of this form of mining. Surface mining was undertaken by the Romans, but this method required large amounts of water to wash away the top layer and therefore was not used often. Iron ore was also extracted from meteorites, but because of its scarcity, it was considered a precious metal and seldom used.

Sources

Copper. The geographical location of ancient mines is not always easy to pinpoint. Several copper mines have been found on the Sinai Peninsula, which lies between Egypt and Palestine. Timna and Faynan are two of the most recent mines in this location to attract archaeological attention. These mines lay close to the borders of Israel: Faynan closer to the Dead Sea, and Timna closer to the Red Sea. It is clear that copper from these mines was mined during the late Iron Age I stage (1200–1000 BC), or the time of the judges. These mines are in Edomite territory; thus trade with the neighboring enemy was scattered at best, but it is possible that this copper went to the Assyrian Empire as a trade item or as tribute.

The island of Cyprus has also been mined throughout history for its copper ore. Until recently, most of the mining was thought to have occurred under the empires of Greece and Rome. However, earlier mines and copper-smelting sites have been found on the island. These mines date to the Middle Bronze Age, or just before the time of the patriarchs. There is also written evidence found in Egypt of copper being traded between Cyprus and Egypt during the time when the Israelites are thought to have been in Egypt. In addition, research into trade routes and the technology of boats and seafaring vessels has increased understanding of the widespread trade within the Mediterranean region. For the Egyptians, the Nile served as a perfect harbor for connecting with other seaports, including those on Cyprus and along the coast of Israel. Copper was the only metal used for tools and weapons throughout the third and fourth millennia BC. It was not until around 2300 BC that bronze began to appear in the region of Palestine, probably a result of Syrian influence. Copper, however, was still needed, as bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.

Tin. The location of tin mines is difficult to determine for the earlier period. There are large tin deposits in what is now Afghanistan, and some scholars argue that this is the source of early tin ore for the biblical region. This source would have depended upon a fairly large overland trade route in order to bring the ore to the Mediterranean. Such routes were not unheard of, and most likely it existed. A shipwreck discovered by archaeologists in modern-day Turkey also provides evidence for the marine trade of such minerals. The ship was carrying a large load of copper and tin ingots thought to be from modern-day Afghanistan. This shipment dates to about 1350 BC. Tin deposits have also been found in Anatolia, north of Israel; however, it is currently unknown whether these deposits were exploited by the ancients. The only other resource for tin was southern Spain, which was accessible through the trade routes of the Phoenicians.

Gold. Egypt and, more broadly, northern Africa have been known throughout history to have large deposits of gold that have been mined for millennia. Also, the Assyrian and Babylonian empires facilitated trade with parts of India, allowing gold from that region to be accessible in Israel. Gold was also mined in Arabia, and biblical references include Havilah (Gen. 2:11), Ophir (1 Kings 10:11), and Sheba (Ps. 72:15). Ophir is as of yet unfound; however, it was most likely located somewhere along the Red Sea, as indicated by Solomon’s sending a fleet to Tar-shish by way of Ophir from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 9:26; 2 Chron. 9:21; 20:36). Ezion Geber sits on the Red Sea, which suggests that Solomon’s ships possibly circumnavigated Africa to reach Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12).

Iron and silver. There has been some discussion about the source of Deut. 8:9, in which Palestine is mentioned as being “a land where the rocks are iron.” Palestine itself has no legitimate source of ore to be mined. However, there is a possibility that Lebanon could be included in this description. Lebanon is known to have considerable iron deposits. Iron, however, was not used much until the twelfth to eleventh centuries BC. Earlier, iron was very expensive and hard to come by and thus was used mainly for jewelry and a limited number of weapons. However, once the technology to turn iron into steel became widely known, its uses increased dramatically. The earliest piece of steel found in Palestine dates from the eleventh century BC, but steel was not widely used until the tenth century BC, with the rise of the united monarchy.

Under the economic conditions of the monarchy, iron, steel, bronze, silver, and gold were all highly visible. Gold and silver articles, although mentioned often in the biblical narrative, have been few in number in archaeological finds. The large hoards of gold and silver in the temple probably were taken to Assyria or Babylon after these empires’ invasions. It does appear that silver, mainly in the form of ingots, was the preferred method of payment during this time. A large hoard of silver has been found in Eshtemoa, in the southern Hebron Hills, dating to this period.

As noted above, the Greeks mined silver at Laurium. It is also posited that as early as the period of the Phoenicians large amounts of silver were mined and traded out of southern Spain. Besides silver, southern Spain had large amounts of iron, lead, and tin.

Turquoise. Serabit el-Khadim has been identified as a location of Egyptian mining. Here archaeologists have found large mining operations for turquoise dating far earlier than the time of the patriarchs. These mines would have been in use during the period of the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt, and inscriptions of letters from the Canaanite alphabet (as opposed to Egyptian hieroglyphs) have been found at the site. In addition, devices for copper smelting and molding devices have been found in this region, but it is suspected that the copper industry was devoted strictly to making the appropriate tools to mine the turquoise. Egyptians used and highly desired the turquoise for its bluish color. It is found in the earliest of Egyptian tombs, which lack other precious items such as gold or silver.

Mingled People

Since the earliest stages of Israel’s national history, the Israelites were a mixed people (cf. Exod. 12:37–38). Although intermarriage with non-Israelites was not strictly forbidden, it came with the condition that the non-Israelite spouse embrace Israel’s God (cf. Ruth 1:16; Ezra 6:21). This stipulation was not always obeyed (Num. 11:4), and occasionally drastic measures were employed to correct Israel’s mixed ethnic status (cf. Ezra 9:2; Neh. 13:3; Ps. 106:35). See also Mixed Multitude.

Miniamin

(1) A Levite of Hezekiah’s day (2 Chron. 31:15). (2) A family of priests in Nehemiah’s time, during the high priesthood of Joiakim (Neh. 12:17). (3) A priest in the time of Nehemiah who participated in the dedication of the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:41).

Mining

Given the vast amount of human history covered by the stories within Scripture, it is difficult to completely discuss the full history of mining. The techniques and the technology involved advanced extensively throughout the ages; thus it would be necessary to bring into the discussion a full history of metals and metalworking to be completely thorough. The discussion here will therefore necessarily be brief and focused.

Biblical References

There is only one clear reference to mining in the Bible, in Job 28:1–11: “Mortals put an end to the darkness; they search out the farthest recesses for ore in the blackest darkness. Far from human dwellings they cut a shaft, in places untouched by human feet; far from other people they dangle and sway” (vv. 3–4). This passage describes the typical form of tunneling often found in ancient mining. Included within the text of Job 28 are several types of metals and minerals that were mined, including iron, gold, silver, copper, and sapphires. Tin and bronze were also known, with tin most likely being the last to be used by itself, despite its use in the making of bronze. Most of the precious stones mentioned in Scripture appear in the breastpiece of the high priest and in the foundations of the new Jerusalem. There is also a list of precious stones mentioned in Ezek. 28:13, but these largely replicate those mentioned in the breastpiece of the high priest (Exod. 28:17–21).

Methods

The ancients had two methods of mining ores. The first included finding ore close to the surface and following the shaft of deposits as far as possible. Copper mines of this fashion have been found in Egypt, specifically in the northern regions. The tools used were picks and hoes. The shafts themselves were comparable to a coffin in size, allowing for little movement. If the ore was too hard to break apart, fires were lit in the shaft in order to heat and cool the ore, making it more brittle. The shafts themselves extended up to two hundred feet. After being broken, the ore was passed in baskets to the surface, where it was crushed and separated. This job was done almost entirely by slaves who worked night and day until death took them, at which time other slaves replaced them. Remains of their huts have been found at Serabit el-Khadim on the Sinai Peninsula.

The most infamous mines were run by the Greeks. Laurium was a veritable concentration camp operated by the Athenians in order to slake their thirst for silver. Known from ancient writings, Laurium is said to be the death place of some thirty thousand slaves who were captured in the various wars and battles undertaken by the Greek city-state. These slaves were owned mostly by wealthy Greeks who rented them out to the owners of the mines. Young boys appear to have been favored miners due to their smaller size and thus their ability to fit within the shafts. The shafts were almost four hundred feet deep and roughly the width of a coffin. There is also evidence up through the fifth century AD of forced slavery in mines as a penal sentence. References concerning religious persecutions mention victims penalized by being sent to the mines. This would have happened throughout the Roman period and could have been the fate of some early Christians.

Panning for tin and gold is also evidenced from ancient times. Pans have been discovered in Troy and Asshur that appear to have had this function, although little else is known of this form of mining. Surface mining was undertaken by the Romans, but this method required large amounts of water to wash away the top layer and therefore was not used often. Iron ore was also extracted from meteorites, but because of its scarcity, it was considered a precious metal and seldom used.

Sources

Copper. The geographical location of ancient mines is not always easy to pinpoint. Several copper mines have been found on the Sinai Peninsula, which lies between Egypt and Palestine. Timna and Faynan are two of the most recent mines in this location to attract archaeological attention. These mines lay close to the borders of Israel: Faynan closer to the Dead Sea, and Timna closer to the Red Sea. It is clear that copper from these mines was mined during the late Iron Age I stage (1200–1000 BC), or the time of the judges. These mines are in Edomite territory; thus trade with the neighboring enemy was scattered at best, but it is possible that this copper went to the Assyrian Empire as a trade item or as tribute.

The island of Cyprus has also been mined throughout history for its copper ore. Until recently, most of the mining was thought to have occurred under the empires of Greece and Rome. However, earlier mines and copper-smelting sites have been found on the island. These mines date to the Middle Bronze Age, or just before the time of the patriarchs. There is also written evidence found in Egypt of copper being traded between Cyprus and Egypt during the time when the Israelites are thought to have been in Egypt. In addition, research into trade routes and the technology of boats and seafaring vessels has increased understanding of the widespread trade within the Mediterranean region. For the Egyptians, the Nile served as a perfect harbor for connecting with other seaports, including those on Cyprus and along the coast of Israel. Copper was the only metal used for tools and weapons throughout the third and fourth millennia BC. It was not until around 2300 BC that bronze began to appear in the region of Palestine, probably a result of Syrian influence. Copper, however, was still needed, as bronze is an alloy of copper and tin.

Tin. The location of tin mines is difficult to determine for the earlier period. There are large tin deposits in what is now Afghanistan, and some scholars argue that this is the source of early tin ore for the biblical region. This source would have depended upon a fairly large overland trade route in order to bring the ore to the Mediterranean. Such routes were not unheard of, and most likely it existed. A shipwreck discovered by archaeologists in modern-day Turkey also provides evidence for the marine trade of such minerals. The ship was carrying a large load of copper and tin ingots thought to be from modern-day Afghanistan. This shipment dates to about 1350 BC. Tin deposits have also been found in Anatolia, north of Israel; however, it is currently unknown whether these deposits were exploited by the ancients. The only other resource for tin was southern Spain, which was accessible through the trade routes of the Phoenicians.

Gold. Egypt and, more broadly, northern Africa have been known throughout history to have large deposits of gold that have been mined for millennia. Also, the Assyrian and Babylonian empires facilitated trade with parts of India, allowing gold from that region to be accessible in Israel. Gold was also mined in Arabia, and biblical references include Havilah (Gen. 2:11), Ophir (1 Kings 10:11), and Sheba (Ps. 72:15). Ophir is as of yet unfound; however, it was most likely located somewhere along the Red Sea, as indicated by Solomon’s sending a fleet to Tar-shish by way of Ophir from Ezion Geber (1 Kings 9:26; 2 Chron. 9:21; 20:36). Ezion Geber sits on the Red Sea, which suggests that Solomon’s ships possibly circumnavigated Africa to reach Tarshish in southern Spain (Ezek. 27:12).

Iron and silver. There has been some discussion about the source of Deut. 8:9, in which Palestine is mentioned as being “a land where the rocks are iron.” Palestine itself has no legitimate source of ore to be mined. However, there is a possibility that Lebanon could be included in this description. Lebanon is known to have considerable iron deposits. Iron, however, was not used much until the twelfth to eleventh centuries BC. Earlier, iron was very expensive and hard to come by and thus was used mainly for jewelry and a limited number of weapons. However, once the technology to turn iron into steel became widely known, its uses increased dramatically. The earliest piece of steel found in Palestine dates from the eleventh century BC, but steel was not widely used until the tenth century BC, with the rise of the united monarchy.

Under the economic conditions of the monarchy, iron, steel, bronze, silver, and gold were all highly visible. Gold and silver articles, although mentioned often in the biblical narrative, have been few in number in archaeological finds. The large hoards of gold and silver in the temple probably were taken to Assyria or Babylon after these empires’ invasions. It does appear that silver, mainly in the form of ingots, was the preferred method of payment during this time. A large hoard of silver has been found in Eshtemoa, in the southern Hebron Hills, dating to this period.

As noted above, the Greeks mined silver at Laurium. It is also posited that as early as the period of the Phoenicians large amounts of silver were mined and traded out of southern Spain. Besides silver, southern Spain had large amounts of iron, lead, and tin.

Turquoise. Serabit el-Khadim has been identified as a location of Egyptian mining. Here archaeologists have found large mining operations for turquoise dating far earlier than the time of the patriarchs. These mines would have been in use during the period of the Israelites’ sojourn in Egypt, and inscriptions of letters from the Canaanite alphabet (as opposed to Egyptian hieroglyphs) have been found at the site. In addition, devices for copper smelting and molding devices have been found in this region, but it is suspected that the copper industry was devoted strictly to making the appropriate tools to mine the turquoise. Egyptians used and highly desired the turquoise for its bluish color. It is found in the earliest of Egyptian tombs, which lack other precious items such as gold or silver.

Minister

In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2 Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1 Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1 Tim. 3:1–13).

The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1 Pet. 5:3).

Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).

The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1 Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1 Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).

Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2 Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.

All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1 Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1 Tim. 1:12; 1 Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1 Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.

It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2 Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1 Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1 Thess. 2:19–20).

Ministry

In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2 Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1 Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1 Tim. 3:1–13).

The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1 Pet. 5:3).

Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).

The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1 Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1 Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).

Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2 Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.

All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1 Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1 Tim. 1:12; 1 Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1 Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.

It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2 Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1 Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1 Thess. 2:19–20).

Minni

One of three nations (the others being Ararat and Ashkenaz) called by God to attack Babylon as God’s judgment against it (Jer. 51:27). Most scholars identify Minni with the Manneans, a people located in the area south of Lake Urmia, northeast of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley.

Minnith

One of the twenty Ammonite cities conquered by Jephthah, perhaps marking the northern extent of his campaign (Judg. 11:33). According to Ezek. 27:17, Israel and Judah acquired wheat from Minnith to trade to Tyre. The church father Eusebius located Minnith in the central Transjordan between Rabbath-Ammon and Heshbon.

Minstrel

In 2 Kings 3:15 the KJV translates the Hebrew word menaggen as “minstrel,” most likely a harpist, as in the NIV and other modern versions. When one such musician played for Elisha, he received a revelation from God (2 Kings 3:15–19). In Matt. 9:23 the KJV again uses the term to translate the Greek word aulētēs, which more-recent versions rightly render as “flute player” or “people playing pipes” (NIV). These musicians were hired as professional mourners at funerals.

Mint

One of the herbs mentioned in Jesus’ condemnation of the teachers of the law and the Pharisees for what they had failed to do (Matt. 23:23; Luke 11:42). Jesus pointed out how they had tithed their spices but neglected the more important matters of being in a right relationship with God, such as justice, mercy, and faithfulness.

Miphkad Gate

One of two gates on the eastern enclosure wall of the temple precinct. This gate was between the East Gate (Neh. 3:29) to the south and “the room above the corner” and the Sheep Gate to the north (Neh. 3:31).

Miracles

Because Scripture sees all things as providentially arranged and sustained by God’s sovereign power at all times (Heb. 1:3), miracles are not aberrations in an otherwise closed and mechanical universe. Nor are miracles raw demonstrations of divinity designed to overcome prejudice or unbelief and to convince people of the existence of God (Mark 8:11–12). Still less are they clever conjuring tricks involving some kind of deception that can be otherwise explained on a purely scientific basis. Rather, God in his infinite wisdom sometimes does unusual and extraordinary things to call attention to himself and his activity. Miracles are divinely ordained acts of God that dramatically alert us to the presence of his glory and power and advance his saving purposes in redemptive history.

Terminology

The biblical writers describe miracles with various terms, such as “signs,” “wonders,” and “miracles” (or “powers”), which can carry various connotations. As the word “sign” suggests, divine miracles are significant and should cause us to think more deeply about God in a way that goes beyond mere amazement or curiosity (Exod. 4:30–31; John 2:11). Not all of God’s signs are miraculous. Some are given as part of his ordering of the natural world (Gen. 1:14) or as an encouragement to faith that God will do as he has said (e.g., the rainbow in Gen. 9:8–17; the blood of the Passover lamb in Exod. 12:13). (See also Sign.)

Often coupled with signs are “wonders” (Jer. 32:21; John 4:48; 2 Cor. 12:12). If the depiction of miracles as “signs” indicates an appeal to the intellect, that of “wonders” points to the emotions. Miracles evoke astonishment and awe at the one who did them.

The NT word “miracle” carries the meaning of power and therefore points to the supernatural source of these events (Luke 10:13; Acts 8:13).

Miracles in the Bible

Old Testament. In the OT, miracles are not evenly distributed but rather are found in greater number during times of great redemptive significance, such as the exodus and the conquest of Canaan. Miracles were performed also during periods of apostasy, such as in the days of the ninth-century prophets Elijah and Elisha. Common to both of these eras is the powerful demonstration of the superiority of God over pagan deities (Exod. 7–12; 1 Kings 18:20–40).

New Testament. In the NT, miracles often are acts of compassion, but more significantly they attest the exalted status of Jesus of Nazareth (Acts 2:22) and the saving power of his word (Heb. 2:3–4). In the Synoptic Gospels, they reveal the coming of God’s kingdom and the conquest of Satan’s dominion (Matt. 8:16–17; 12:22–30; Mark 3:27). They point to the person of Jesus as the promised Messiah of OT Scripture (Matt. 4:23; 11:4–6). John shows a preference for the word “signs,” and his Gospel is structured around them (John 20:30–31). According to John, the signs that Jesus performed were such that only the one who stood in a unique relationship to the Father as the Son of God could do them.

Miracles and faith. Just as entrenched skepticism is injurious to faith, so too is naive credulity, for although signs and wonders witness to God, false prophets also perform them “to deceive, if possible, even the elect” (Matt. 24:24). Christians are to exercise discernment and not be led astray by such impostors (Matt. 7:15–20).

The relationship between miracles and faith is not as straightforward as sometimes supposed. Miracles do not necessarily produce faith, nor does faith necessarily produce miracles. Miracles were intended to bring about the faith that leads to eternal life (John 20:31), but not all who witnessed them believed (John 10:32). Additionally, Jesus regarded a faith that rested only on the miracle itself as precarious (Mark 8:11–13; John 2:23–25; 4:48), though better than no faith at all (John 10:38). Faith that saves must ultimately find its grounding in the person of Jesus as the Son of God.

It is also clear that although Jesus always encouraged faith in those who came to him for help (Mark 9:23), and that he deliberately limited his miraculous powers in the presence of unbelief (Mark 6:5), many of his miracles were performed on those who did not or could not exercise faith (Matt. 12:22; Mark 1:23–28; 5:1–20; Luke 14:1–4).

The fact that Jesus performed miracles was never an issue; rather, his opponents disputed the source of his power (Mark 3:22). Arguments about his identity were to be settled by appeal not to miracles but to the word of God (Matt. 22:41–46).

The function of miracles. Miracle accounts function in a symbolic and prophetic manner. Hence, the cursing of the fig tree was prophetic of the coming judgment (Mark 11:12–21). The unusual two-stage healing of the blind man of Bethsaida symbolized Peter’s incomplete understanding of Jesus’ messiahship (Mark 8:22–33).

The miraculous element of Jesus’ ministry carries an eschatological significance, pointing to the order of things in the age to come. For example, the nature miracles (Mark 4:35–41) look forward to the redemption of creation itself, which is presently subject to frustration and decay (Rom. 8:20–21); the healing miracles point to a day when disease and deformity will be abolished (Rev. 21:4); and miracles in which the dead are raised to life anticipate a time when death itself will be no more (Rev. 20:14; 21:4). From this perspective, the miracles are a gracious foretaste of a far more glorious future.

Miriam

(1) The sister of Moses and Aaron, and the only known daughter of Amram and Jochebed (Num. 26:59). After Jochebed laid the infant Moses in a basket and placed it in the Nile River, Miriam followed the basket until Pharaoh’s daughter discovered it, and she promptly volunteered her mother to assist in caring for the child (Exod. 2:4–10). Miriam, referred to as a “prophet” (Exod. 15:20), led the Israelite women in celebration and worship after the successful crossing of the Red Sea as the Israelites fled Egypt (15:20–21). She is remembered as a central figure in Moses’ leadership team during the exodus (Mic. 6:4).

Along with Aaron, she came to oppose the leadership of Moses, apparently because of his interracial marriage to a Cushite woman (Num. 12:1). The end result was that God caused her to become leprous, for which she had to be cast out of the camp for seven days. She was healed because of Moses’ interceding prayer. She died and was buried in Kadesh (Num. 20:1).

(2) A descendant of Ezrah in the line of Judah (1 Chron. 4:17).

Mirmah

A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the last of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:10).

Mirror

Both Paul and James refer to mirrors in discussing spiritual truths. Ancient mirrors were made of polished bronze rather than glass (see Job 37:18). Paul likened the imperfect view in such a mirror to the partial human knowing that will exist until “we shall see face to face” (1 Cor. 13:9–12). James compared a person who listens to God’s word but does not obey it to “someone who looks at his face in a mirror and, after looking at himself, goes away and immediately forgets what he looks like” (James 1:23–24).

Misgab

A Hebrew term usually understood as “fortress” or “stronghold.” Some translations give it as a proper name in Jer. 48:1 (KJV, REB), listed parallel to two cities in Moab located approximately nine miles east of the northern end of the Dead Sea.

Mishael

(1) A son of Uzziel and a cousin of Moses and Aaron, he carried out of the camp and buried his cousins Nadab and Abihu, who died when they offered unauthorized fire before God (Exod. 6:22; Lev. 10:4). (2) One of the leaders who accompanied Ezra as he read the law (Neh. 8:4). (3) The Hebrew name of one of Daniel’s companions, also called by the Babylonian name “Meshach” (Dan. 1:6–7, 11, 19; 2:17).

Mishal

A Levitical city in the territory allotted to the tribe of Asher, located near the Carmel ridge (Josh. 19:26; 21:30). In 1 Chron. 6:74 it is called “Mashal.”

Misham

The second of Elpaal’s three sons, of the tribe of Benjamin. They built “Ono and Lod with its surrounding villages” (1 Chron. 8:12).

Misheal

A Levitical city in the territory allotted to the tribe of Asher, located near the Carmel ridge (Josh. 19:26; 21:30). In 1 Chron. 6:74 it is called “Mashal.”

Mishma

(1) A son of Ishmael, the ancestor of an Arab tribe (Gen. 25:14; 1 Chron. 1:30). (2) The son of Mibsam, a descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:25–26). The names “Mibsam” and “Mishma” occur in the lists of descendants of both Ishmael and Simeon, suggesting a prior relationship between the tribes, perhaps occurring as the territory of Simeon spread southward (1 Chron. 1:29–30; 4:25, 38–43).

Mishmannah

One of David’s mighty warriors, he was one of the men from Gad who joined forces with David at Ziklag (1 Chron. 12:10).

Mishnah

The Mishnah is a compilation of traditional Jewish oral law. It is both the culmination of prerabbinic Jewish tradition and the founding document of postbiblical rabbinic Judaism. It is written in a style of Hebrew that developed from biblical Hebrew, known as Mishnaic Hebrew. Rabbinic tradition attributes the formation of the Mishnah to Rabbi Judah the Patriarch around AD 200. He compiled it from previous oral tradition as well as tradition contemporary with him.

Mishnah is a Hebrew word, and it has been interpreted in various ways. It could mean “second,” “teaching,” or “instruction.” Hence, it could stress the mode of instruction by which the students learned Mishnah, or it could be a reference to the fact that Mishnah is second to the Torah, the Pentateuch.

Oral Torah. The Mishnah is the nucleus of Oral Torah. Traditional rabbinic Judaism has a dual Torah. The first part of the dual Torah is the Pentateuch, and the second is rabbinic literature, especially the Mishnah and the Talmud, but also to a certain extent the Tosefta and rabbinic midrash (see also Midrash). Traditionally, rabbinic Judaism teaches that God gave two Torahs to Moses at Sinai: the written Torah (the Pentateuch) and the Oral Torah. Eventually, the Oral Torah was written down. Thus, the Mishnah and other early rabbinic literature came into existence. The Oral Torah can be viewed as parallel to the Pentateuch or as the authoritative interpretation of the Pentateuch. Whatever the case, it is as authoritative as the Pentateuch. We can see such an attitude toward the received tradition, “the tradition of the elders,” in the Gospels, such as when the Pharisees ask Jesus why his disciples, eating with unwashed hands, do not follow the tradition of the elders (Mark 7:1–5).

Structure and historical context. The Mishnah is divided into six “orders,” which in turn are divided into a number of subdivisions called “tractates,” generally related in theme to the order to which they belong (see table 3). The longest of the orders is Teharot, comprising one-fourth of the Mishnah. This highlights the goal of the Mishnah, which is to promulgate a way of life by which all of Israel is pure. The other tractates spell out how every area of life is to be regulated with everything in its proper place. In the Mishnah, the holiness that characterized the temple and its service is applied to every aspect of the life of Israel. Heaven and earth are seen as brought into harmony through the carrying out of life by the laws of the Mishnah.

Table 3. Orders of the Mishnah

I. Zera’im (Seeds) – Laws dealing with agriculture

II. Mo’ed (Appointed days) – Laws dealing with festivals according to the lunar calendar

III. Nashim (Women) – Laws dealing with marriage contracts, women’s vows, suspected adulteresses, divorce, engagement, and so forth

IV. Neziqin (Damages) – Laws covering everyday social interaction, such as trade, real estate, and so forth, as well as penalties for damages by animals, other people, and so forth. It also discusses lawcourts and the penalties given for various offenses.

V. Qodashim (Holy things) – Laws dealing with sacrifices of various types, as well as the slaughter and consumption of animals not intended for sacrifice. Other topics involve the firstborn (of both animals and people), temple furnishings, the offerings of poor people, and so forth.

VI. Teharot (Purities) – Laws covering purities and impurities of all sorts

The Mishnah is a document that depicts an ahistorical ideal. It depicts Israelite life as it should be lived in relation to God. The Mishnah has no introduction that situates it in history. It simply begins by stating the judgments of various rabbis on a vast array of topics, and it abruptly ends when it is done. This serves to give the Mishnah a timeless quality.

Although the Mishnah depicts itself as timeless, it is most certainly a product of its times, about which one must have a general grasp in order to understand the necessity of the Mishnah for rabbinic Judaism. The Mishnah was necessitated by the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba Revolt, which took place in the second quarter of the second century AD. As punishment for the revolt, Emperor Hadrian expelled the Jews from Jerusalem and made it into a Gentile city. After this devastating blow, any realistic chance of rebuilding the temple was gone. This was a crisis of the highest enormity. How could Israel be a holy people before God with no temple and no hope of building one? The Mishnah asserts powerfully that Israel, through a totally sanctified existence in every sphere of life, can still be that holy people before God.

The Mishnah and the Bible. The Mishnah rarely quotes the Bible, and the material that contains biblical quotations is generally considered to be later additions. Although some of the sections of the Mishnah seem to be biblical paraphrase, this does not mean that the Mishnah is a body of biblical interpretation. In fact, much of its material seems to be independent of the Bible, and other material contradicts it.

The Mishnah is a compilation that includes much earlier traditional teaching, and as such, it contains material attributed to the Pharisees, with which the Mishnah is congenial. It would be a mistake to see rabbinic Judaism that began with the Mishnah as a continuation of the Pharisaic Judaism depicted in the NT. There is a decisive break between Pharisaic Judaism and later rabbinic Judaism, either with the destruction of the temple in AD 70 or with the expulsion of the Jews from Judah after the Bar Kokhba Revolt, with the latter being more likely.

Mishraites

A clan of descendants of Judah, from the family of Kiriath Jearim (1 Chron. 2:53), they were ancestors of the Zorathites and the Eshtaolites. The name indicates that they were residents of Mishra, but nothing is known of the location.

Mispar

One of the leaders who returned from the exile in Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2). In the parallel account the name is listed as “Mispereth” (Neh. 7:7).

Mispereth

One of the leaders who returned from the exile in Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2). In the parallel account the name is listed as “Mispereth” (Neh. 7:7).

Misrephoth Maim

A boundary of the territory of the Sidonians (a location possibly on the modern border between Israel and Lebanon). Joshua pursued King Jabin of Hazor to this point when the Canaanite coalition had come out against the Israelites at the Waters of Merom (Josh. 11:8). Although still to be conquered at the end of Joshua’s life, the area bounded by Misrephoth Maim was to be included in the inheritance of Israel (Josh. 13:6).

Mission

The word “mission” was coined by the Jesuits in the sixteenth century to refer to the sending of the Godhead into the world, reflecting a particular trinitarian formulation. The Jesuits used the term “mission” to describe the Father, who sends the Son, who sends the Holy Spirit, who sends the church into the world as an agent of redemption and reconciliation. Simply put, the Jesuits conceived of mission as sending. That biblical term “send” (e.g., Gk. apostellō) described the fundamental nature of the church as being sent by God into the world with a specific purpose, animated by the Holy Spirit to accomplish its task given by God, as a sign and instrument of God’s kingdom. Initially, the Jesuits employed the term in the context of both the conversion of heathens (those who failed to recognize the God of the Bible) and the reconversion of Protestants to Roman Catholicism.

The biblical notion of mission affirms that God is a sending God (Lat., missio Dei), who loves the world so much that he sent his Son into the world to redeem it (e.g., John 3:16), and whose Son then sends the Holy Spirit as the Counselor (Gk. paraklētos [e.g., John 16:5–7]) and guide so that the church can fulfill its purpose. Mission (sending), therefore, expresses both the heart of God and the nature of the church in the world.

The Role of Language and Culture

Functionally, mission is the sharing of the good news of Jesus Christ in word and deed across cultural and linguistic boundaries, without granting any particular language or culture a superior position in the divine economy. The Bible tells the story of God’s mission in offering human beings a covenantal relationship with himself. South African mission scholar David Bosch suggests that the missionary in the OT is God himself, whereas the NT presents several significant missionaries, with Jesus and his disciples being the most illustrative examples. Indeed, it can be said that the NT is itself a mission document, since it was written by people actively involved in mission (e.g., Paul, Luke). Biblically, the Christian mission implies a certain perspective on language and culture whereby all languages and cultures are relativized in the light of Christ, with no language or culture having privileged access to God, for God communicates through every particular language and culture. Thus, for instance, Koreans, Zulus, Cambodians, Quechuas, and Swedes have the same access to God through their own language and culture, and none of them are required to adopt another language or culture, such as Hebrew, Greek, or English, in order to know and worship God.

The importance of the parity of languages and cultures worldwide as vehicles of the gospel is exemplified biblically in the account of the Jerusalem council, where the apostle Paul confronted Jewish Christians who would have made Torah and circumcision the litmus test of authentic faith in Jesus Christ (Acts 15). Paul argued vigorously against those who sought to require new Christians to adopt Jewish ceremonial practices of the OT in order to join the body of Christ. The relativization of language and culture is so crucial to Christian mission that Scripture records Paul rebuking Peter for seeking to make Gentile Christians follow Jewish customs (Gal. 2:14). Requiring followers of Christ to adopt Jewish (or other) ceremonial traditions (e.g., circumcision) would render the grace of Christ useless, making a mockery of the cross (Gal. 2:21), since Christ liberates human beings within their own language and culture. Simply put, people were to become followers of Jesus Christ on the basis of their own language and culture (Greek or otherwise) rather than according to any other tradition. According to the biblical account, no language or culture is too profane to communicate the good news of Jesus Christ.

Mission as Sending

Biblically, sending implies a sender, the one sent, and a message. The sender is the agent who initiates the deliverance of the message. The one sent has been given the authority to deliver in word and deed the message of the sender. The message refers to the content in word and deed that is shared by the agent (e.g., missionary) of the sender. The authority of the sender is invested in the messenger, so much so that the messenger (e.g., the missionary) represents the sender directly. More broadly, the biblical term “sending” appears in both Testaments, and it occurs in mundane contexts that are not concerned with God’s mission (missio Dei) as well as in texts that are explicitly mission related. In the OT, the Hebrew term shalakh, which occurs in various forms over eight hundred times, refers to sending the intentions of an authority figure, often a king, judge, or other person of high status. An example would be God, as a demonstration of his authority, sending Adam out of the garden (Gen. 3:23). The act of sending expresses the intention of the sender. The mission of God as presented in the OT is communicated clearly in Gen. 12:1–3 (in what is known as the Abrahamic covenant), where God tells Abram to leave his country, guided by God, in order to be a blessing to the entire world. Following Israel’s continual disobedience, God promises to send them a savior (Isa. 19:20), a statement that Christians interpret as foreshadowing the birth and ministry of Jesus Christ.

In the NT, the Greek terms for “send,” and their variations, occur over two hundred times, appearing in texts such as “I am sending you out like sheep among wolves” (Matt. 10:16); “As the Father has sent me, I am sending you” (John 20:21); and “Jesus sent two of his disciples” (Mark 11:1). People often assume that there is one Great Commission text, Matt. 28:18–20, which summarizes the biblical warrant for mission. However, there are several “great commissions” in the Gospels, which might be better understood as “last commissions.” Each Gospel writer records his own version of the last commission, reflecting his theological purposes within the particular contexts out of which he writes his account. The last commissions appear in Matt. 28:16–20; Mark 16:14–20; Luke 24:44–47; John 20:19–23.

The most responsible interpretive strategy with regard to these passages is to read them within the larger context of each Gospel narrative rather than as individual texts (i.e., proof texts) disconnected from their wider context. That is to say, a faithful theology of mission in part entails letting the text interpret itself through study of the entire Gospel account. Otherwise, one may fail to understand the biblical notion of mission in its entirety. For instance, Luke 24:47 announces that “repentance for the forgiveness of sins will be preached in his [Christ’s] name to all nations, beginning at Jerusalem,” which emphasizes the need for confession, forgiveness, and redemption (vertical aspects of mission). Yet one could misinterpret Luke’s Gospel were one to understand mission solely through the words of Luke 24:44–47, the vertical (spiritual) aspect, while overlooking Luke 4:16–30, verses that announce Jesus’ mission to liberate captives and give sight to the blind, reflecting the horizontal (social) nature of mission. In Luke’s Gospel, mission is characterized as equally vertical (i.e., calling for repentance and forgiveness) and horizontal (i.e., seeking sociopolitical justice). According to Luke’s Gospel, then, both vertical and horizontal aspects must be present in mission.

Mission and Missions

It is worthwhile to note the difference between the terms “mission” (sg.) and “missions” (pl.). Whereas “mission” refers to the singular act of God, who sends his Son, who sends the Holy Spirit into the world, “missions” refers to the specific agencies and organizations in history and currently that have sought to carry out that mission of God. There is only one mission (missio Dei), with several missions aiming to accomplish that singular mission through time and space. Generally, missions are divided into denominational and faith missions. Denominational missions, such as those of Roman Catholic, Baptist, Methodist, Lutheran, or Presbyterian churches, send out missionaries financially supported by the denomination. Faith missions, such as Wycliffe Bible Translators, Operation Mobilization, or SIM (Serving in Mission, formally Sudan Interior Mission), require that missionaries serve in mission by faith, either by going where they are called by God without having prior financial support or by raising financial support from friends and churches prior to leaving for their intended region of service.

Conclusion

Finally, there are two important lessons from the biblical account of mission. First, Paul and the other disciples, while seeking to communicate the gospel of good news to particular people, sought to maintain the unity of the churches in the face of their diverse cultural and linguistic makeup (e.g., Eph. 4:4–7). This means that a biblical perspective on mission sees culture and language as channels rather than obstacles to the communication of the gospel. Second, Paul and the disciples never started missions but rather established churches. Since mission implies movement across cultural and linguistic frontiers, the earlier followers of Christ were on the move, with the conviction that the Holy Spirit would guide, direct, and protect them until Christ returned.

Mist

The biblical writers use mist in a figurative sense to refer to something that fades away. Although God would sweep away the Israelites’ sins “like the morning mist” (Isa. 44:22), he also spoke of their fickle love as mist (Hos. 6:4). James described human life itself as a fleeting mist (James 4:14). The word also occurs in a literal sense to describe water that arose from the earth in the time of Eden (Gen. 2:6 KJV, NASB), and in one instance, “mist” depicts the nature of blindness (Acts 13:11).

Mithan

A resident of Mithan, describing Joshaphat, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). The location of Joshaphat’s residence is unknown.

Mithcah

One of the Israelite encampments in the wilderness, between Terah and Hashmonah (Num. 33:28–29).

Mithkah

One of the Israelite encampments in the wilderness, between Terah and Hashmonah (Num. 33:28–29).

Mithnite

A resident of Mithan, describing Joshaphat, one of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:43). The location of Joshaphat’s residence is unknown.

Mithredath

(1) The treasurer of Persia at the time of Cyrus, he brokered the return of the temple vessels from Cyrus to Sheshbazzar, one of the key leaders of the return to Jerusalem after the exile (Ezra 1:8). (2) A Persian official (apparently located in Syria), but during the reign of Artaxerxes I (464–424 BC), he was part of a conspiracy that tried to block the rebuilding of the city of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7).

Mitre

Headwear worn by bishops in the Western church from the Middle Ages. The two points of this hat symbolize the tongues of flame from Pentecost, linking the bishop to apostolic authority. In the OT, the KJV refers to the turban worn by the high priest as a mitre (e.g., Exod. 28:4; Lev. 8:9). See also Turban.

Mitylene

An important harbor and resort city in Roman times (modern Mitilíni) on the eastern shore of the island of Lesbos, in the Aegean Sea off the northwestern coast of Asia Minor. Mitylene was a stop on the return leg of Paul’s third missionary campaign (Acts 20:14).

Mixed Multitude

This phrase translates the Hebrew term ’ereb in Exod. 12:38 (KJV, NET, RSV [NIV: “other people”]), referring to various peoples of non-Israelite descent who accompanied the Israelites in the exodus from Egypt. There is some ambiguity in the biblical text as to the moral character of this group. Most translations render the term neutrally and see the passage as a reference to God’s redemption extending beyond ethnic boundaries. Others translate the term more pejoratively as “rabble” or “riffraff” and consider this group to be the same as the “rabble” in Num. 11:4. The term ’ereb also occurs in Neh. 13:3, referring to people excluded from Israel on account of their “mixed ancestry” (NET [NIV: “foreign descent”]) as part of Nehemiah’s reforms. See also Mingled People.

Mizar

Mentioned only in Ps. 42:6, this mountain perhaps was in the foothills of Mount Hermon. Alternatively, the Hebrew word mits’ar could be understood as an adjective, so that the phrase here could also be translated as “little mountain.”

Mizpah

Meaning “watchtower,” this is the name of several sites in the Bible. In some Bible versions, the name also appears as “Mizpeh.” (1) Along with “Galeed,” a name given to the heap of stones that memorialized the covenant made between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31:48–49). (2) A region near Mount Hermon that was occupied by the Hivites (Josh. 11:3). (3) One of the towns occupying the region of the Shephelah, or coastal plain, listed in Josh. 15:38–39.

(4) The place where the Israelites assembled in response to the military threat from Ammon and made Jephthah their leader (Judg. 10:17; 11:11). It may have been the home of Jephthah and may be the same place mentioned in Gen. 31:49. From Mizpah, Jephthah and Israel attacked the Ammonites. Mizpah became the place where Jephthah fulfilled his ill-conceived vow (Judg. 11:34). This location is most likely synonymous with the Ramath Mizpah in the territory of Gad (Josh. 13:26). (5) A site in Moab where David had his parents stay, with the permission of the king of Moab (1 Sam. 22:3).

(6) A city in the tribal allotment of Benjamin. It is listed between Beeroth and Kephirah and seems to have been close to Gibeon and Ramah (Josh. 18:26; 1 Kings 15:22; Neh. 3:7). Of the various places to bear the name “Mizpah,” the Benjamite location has the most biblical significance. The men of Israel gathered here to decide how to deal with the Benjamites’ behavior toward the Levite’s concubine (Judg. 20:1–3; 21:1–8). It was also here that Samuel called the people of Israel together to pray and renew their relationship with God after the ark of the covenant had been sent back by the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:5–6). As a result, when the Philistines attacked, God caused them to panic, and Israel had the victory. Samuel regularly visited Mizpah to render judgment for the Israelites (1 Sam. 7:16). Also, Saul was presented to Israel as its king at Mizpah (1 Sam. 10:17).

Taken collectively, these references show the religious and civic importance of the site for the fledgling nation. After the division of the kingdom, Mizpah became part of the southern kingdom of Judah. King Asa of Judah fortified Mizpah against King Baasha of Israel with materials used from Baasha’s fortification at Ramah (1 Kings 15:16–22). Mizpah became an important civic center once again after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians in 587/586 BC. Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of the conquered region, set up his government center at Mizpah (2 Kings 25:23–25). The importance of Mizpah is commemorated by Judas Maccabeus in the intertestamental period (1 Macc. 3:46).

The location of the Benjamite Mizpah is debated today, with two possible sites being possible: Nebi-Samwil is approximately four and a half miles north of Jerusalem, and Tell en-Nasbeh, the more likely site, is approximately eight miles north of Jerusalem.

Mizpar

One of the leaders who returned from the exile in Babylon with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2). In the parallel account the name is listed as “Mispereth” (Neh. 7:7).

Mizpeh

Meaning “watchtower,” this is the name of several sites in the Bible. In some Bible versions, the name also appears as “Mizpeh.” (1) Along with “Galeed,” a name given to the heap of stones that memorialized the covenant made between Jacob and Laban (Gen. 31:48–49). (2) A region near Mount Hermon that was occupied by the Hivites (Josh. 11:3). (3) One of the towns occupying the region of the Shephelah, or coastal plain, listed in Josh. 15:38–39.

(4) The place where the Israelites assembled in response to the military threat from Ammon and made Jephthah their leader (Judg. 10:17; 11:11). It may have been the home of Jephthah and may be the same place mentioned in Gen. 31:49. From Mizpah, Jephthah and Israel attacked the Ammonites. Mizpah became the place where Jephthah fulfilled his ill-conceived vow (Judg. 11:34). This location is most likely synonymous with the Ramath Mizpah in the territory of Gad (Josh. 13:26). (5) A site in Moab where David had his parents stay, with the permission of the king of Moab (1 Sam. 22:3).

(6) A city in the tribal allotment of Benjamin. It is listed between Beeroth and Kephirah and seems to have been close to Gibeon and Ramah (Josh. 18:26; 1 Kings 15:22; Neh. 3:7). Of the various places to bear the name “Mizpah,” the Benjamite location has the most biblical significance. The men of Israel gathered here to decide how to deal with the Benjamites’ behavior toward the Levite’s concubine (Judg. 20:1–3; 21:1–8). It was also here that Samuel called the people of Israel together to pray and renew their relationship with God after the ark of the covenant had been sent back by the Philistines (1 Sam. 7:5–6). As a result, when the Philistines attacked, God caused them to panic, and Israel had the victory. Samuel regularly visited Mizpah to render judgment for the Israelites (1 Sam. 7:16). Also, Saul was presented to Israel as its king at Mizpah (1 Sam. 10:17).

Taken collectively, these references show the religious and civic importance of the site for the fledgling nation. After the division of the kingdom, Mizpah became part of the southern kingdom of Judah. King Asa of Judah fortified Mizpah against King Baasha of Israel with materials used from Baasha’s fortification at Ramah (1 Kings 15:16–22). Mizpah became an important civic center once again after the destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonians in 587/586 BC. Gedaliah, the Babylonian-appointed governor of the conquered region, set up his government center at Mizpah (2 Kings 25:23–25). The importance of Mizpah is commemorated by Judas Maccabeus in the intertestamental period (1 Macc. 3:46).

The location of the Benjamite Mizpah is debated today, with two possible sites being possible: Nebi-Samwil is approximately four and a half miles north of Jerusalem, and Tell en-Nasbeh, the more likely site, is approximately eight miles north of Jerusalem.

Mizraim

The second of Ham’s four sons and a grandson of Noah (Gen. 10:6; NIV: “Egypt”). Mizraim, like his brothers, Cush, Put, and Canaan, is named as the progenitor of people who lived in northern Africa or Palestine. As his descendants settled in Egypt, “Mizraim” became the common Hebrew word for Egypt as a kingdom and for the Egyptians as a people. The relationship between Mizraim and Ham is reflected in the psalms, which sometimes refer to Egypt as the land or tents of Ham (Pss. 78:51; 105:23, 27; 106:22).

Mizzah

The youngest of the four sons of Reuel and a grandson of Esau and his wife Basemath, he and his brothers were early chiefs of Edom (Gen. 36:13, 17; 1 Chron. 1:37).

Mnason

A man from Cyprus living in Jerusalem who was one of the earliest believers and hosted Paul and his travel companions at the end of Paul’s third missionary campaign (Acts 21:16).

Moab

The Geography of Moab

Undisputed territory. Moab proper lies between the Arnon and the Zered valleys east of the Dead Sea. The Arnon is the deepest gorge in Jordan (seventeen hundred feet) and is two miles wide at the upper edge. It served as a natural northern boundary for geopolitical Moab, even though the nation frequently expanded its control farther north. The canyon eventually splits into four branches, “the wadis [NIV mg.: “ravines”] of the Arnon” (Num. 21:14–15 NASB). The Zered to the south is the only river in Jordan that constituted a permanent political border.

The average elevation of Moab is about thirty-two hundred feet, with some mountains nearing four thousand feet. Moab receives considerably more rain (sixteen inches per year) than do the eastern fringes of Israel, as moisture is picked up from the humid Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea by the prevailing westerly winds. The band of arable land is narrow because the terrain next to the Rift Valley is rugged. Cities in Moab were among places mentioned as suitable for livestock for the two and one-half tribes settling in Transjordan (Num. 32:1–4).

The plateau and plains of Moab. When mishor refers to the plateau of Moab, it always has the definite article in Hebrew (Deut. 3:10; 4:43; Josh. 13:9, 16, 17, 21; Jer. 48:8, 21). The plateau begins where the foothills of Gilead end and extends south to the Arnon Gorge. The desert boundary to the east fluctuates somewhat, depending on wet or dry years. The average elevation is about twenty-six hundred feet, with an average rainfall of fourteen to sixteen inches. In the biblical period, primary contenders for control of this region were Moabites and Israelites. The Moabites considered the plateau part of their territory, with their northern boundary reaching the foothills of Gilead.

The “plains [’arebot] of Moab” (Num. 22:1; 26:3; 31:12; 33:48–50; 36:13; Deut. 34:1; Josh. 13:32) could refer to the southeastern corner of the Jordan Valley below the plateau opposite Jericho. Nevertheless, because the Hebrew preposition ’al, used repeatedly in the Numbers passages, can mean “above,” it might refer to plains “above” the Jordan opposite Jericho—in other words, part of the plateau. This makes more sense in light of the events that unfolded while the Israelites were camped there. Both expressions are indicative that the name of Moab was attached to territories beyond the strictly political boundaries.

The History of Moab in the Bible

Origins of the Moabites. After the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot’s daughters determined to carry on the family line by sleeping with their father (Gen. 19:30–38). The son of the elder daughter was named “Moab.” According to an etymology in the LXX, the name in Hebrew means “from my father” (Gen. 19:37).

The exodus and the conquest. Moses’ song refers to leaders of Moab among those whom Israel would encounter (Exod. 15:15). As the Israelites made their way past Edom (Num. 20:14–21), they may also have given a wide berth to geopolitical Moab, moving instead along the desert highway to the east (Num. 21:10–20; Deut. 2:8–9; Judg. 11:18; but see also Deut. 2:29) until they arrived at the territory that Sihon, king of the Amorites, had previously captured from the Moabites (Num. 21:21–26). This is the plateau (Heb. mishor) north of the Arnon (Deut. 2:36) stretching to Ammon (Josh. 13:10). The capital city of Sihon was Heshbon on the plateau (mishor) (Josh. 13:21). After defeating the Amorites, the Israelites camped on the “plains of Moab” (Num. 22:1; 33:48–50), where they remained until crossing the Jordan River. Most likely they did not jeopardize their security by moving down into the Jordan Valley.

Frightened by this multitude, the king of Moab and the elders of Midian sent for Balaam to curse the Israelites (Num. 21–24). Instead, Balaam pronounced four sets of blessings on Israel, and in the final one Balaam spoke of a “star . . . out of Jacob” who would “crush the foreheads of Moab” (Num. 24:17). Because the Moabites refused to welcome the Israelites and hired Balaam, the Moabites, along with Ammonites, were excluded from the assembly of the Lord for ten generations (Deut. 23:3–6). The verse immediately prior to this passage excludes those born of forbidden marriages, which might be the reason for specifying Moab and Ammon.

The plateau (mishor) was allocated to the tribes of Reuben and Gad (Num. 32:34–38; Josh. 13:8–9). Their presence enabled the Israelites to maintain a hold in the region, a fact that would be significant some three centuries later (Judg. 11:26). As the Israelites prepared to enter the land, Moses restated the covenant on the plains of Moab (Num. 36:13; Deut. 29:1). When it came time for Moses to die, he climbed Mount Nebo from the plains of Moab to the top of Pisgah, and after his death the Israelites mourned him there for thirty days (Deut. 34:1–8).

The judges through the monarchy. During the period of the judges, the Moabites pushed north across the Arnon and as far as Jericho. When Ehud killed Eglon, the Moabites were driven back and subjected to Israel for eighty years (Judg. 3). The respite was temporary, however, due to repeated apostasy on the part of the Israelites. They turned to worship the gods of the peoples around them, among them the gods of the Moabites (Judg. 10:6). At some point during the period of the judges, relations between Israel and Moab were sufficiently friendly that the family of Elimelek could take refuge there during the famine in Judah (Ruth 1). When all the men of the family died, the Moabite Ruth converted to the worship of Yahweh (Ruth 1:16), which meant that she could indeed become part of the congregation of Israel, overcoming the restriction in Deut. 23:3–6.

Ruth’s son was Obed, the father of Jesse, the father of David (Ruth 4:21). This family link with Moab may explain why David sought refuge for his father and mother in Moab in the dark days when he was fleeing from Saul (1 Sam. 22:1–4). David was appealing to a national enemy in doing this since Saul had been fighting against the Moabites along with the Ammonites, the Edomites, and the Philistines since he became king (1 Sam. 14:47). The complexity created for David by this combination of family allegiances and ongoing national concerns is evident in his later actions as king. When he defeated the Moabites, he brutally subdued them, reducing them to a vassal kingdom (2 Sam. 8:2–12). The united kingdom continued to control the plateau of Moab, evident in the towns noted in David’s census; it reached through the tribe of Gad to the city of Aroer in the Arnon Gorge (2 Sam. 24:5).

Solomon built places of worship for the gods of his wives, among them Chemosh, “the vile god of Moab” (2 Kings 23:13). As a result, God removed all but the southern kingdom of Judah from the Davidic dynasty and the plateau of Moab came under the control of the northern kingdom for more than half a century. The Moabite Stone, discovered in the nineteenth century AD at Dibon, indicated that Omri, king of Israel, conquered the plateau of Medeba and reestablished connections with the tribe of Gad. This continued until near the end of Ahab’s reign. Although the Moabite Stone indicates that Mesha revolted during the reign of Ahab, the biblical text puts it after Ahab’s death. The revolt prompted an alliance between Joram and Jehoshaphat to subdue Moab (2 Kings 3:4–27).

The prophets and after the exile. Moab is the object of stinging rebuke from several prophets (Isa. 15–16; 25:10; Jer. 48; Ezek. 25:8–11; Amos 2:1–3). Moab’s forthcoming judgment is described in grim terms, equating Moab’s end to that of Sodom and Gomorrah (Zeph. 2:9). Even so, God declares, “I will restore the fortunes of Moab in days to come” (Jer. 48:47). Moab will be humbled along with Edom and the Philistines at the word of the Lord (Pss. 60:8; 108:9). After the return from exile, Moabites were among those with whom the Israelites intermarried (Ezra 9:1; Neh. 13:1; cf. Deut. 23:3–6).

Moabite

The Geography of Moab

Undisputed territory. Moab proper lies between the Arnon and the Zered valleys east of the Dead Sea. The Arnon is the deepest gorge in Jordan (seventeen hundred feet) and is two miles wide at the upper edge. It served as a natural northern boundary for geopolitical Moab, even though the nation frequently expanded its control farther north. The canyon eventually splits into four branches, “the wadis [NIV mg.: “ravines”] of the Arnon” (Num. 21:14–15 NASB). The Zered to the south is the only river in Jordan that constituted a permanent political border.

The average elevation of Moab is about thirty-two hundred feet, with some mountains nearing four thousand feet. Moab receives considerably more rain (sixteen inches per year) than do the eastern fringes of Israel, as moisture is picked up from the humid Jordan Valley and the Dead Sea by the prevailing westerly winds. The band of arable land is narrow because the terrain next to the Rift Valley is rugged. Cities in Moab were among places mentioned as suitable for livestock for the two and one-half tribes settling in Transjordan (Num. 32:1–4).

The plateau and plains of Moab. When mishor refers to the plateau of Moab, it always has the definite article in Hebrew (Deut. 3:10; 4:43; Josh. 13:9, 16, 17, 21; Jer. 48:8, 21). The plateau begins where the foothills of Gilead end and extends south to the Arnon Gorge. The desert boundary to the east fluctuates somewhat, depending on wet or dry years. The average elevation is about twenty-six hundred feet, with an average rainfall of fourteen to sixteen inches. In the biblical period, primary contenders for control of this region were Moabites and Israelites. The Moabites considered the plateau part of their territory, with their northern boundary reaching the foothills of Gilead.

The “plains [’arebot] of Moab” (Num. 22:1; 26:3; 31:12; 33:48–50; 36:13; Deut. 34:1; Josh. 13:32) could refer to the southeastern corner of the Jordan Valley below the plateau opposite Jericho. Nevertheless, because the Hebrew preposition ’al, used repeatedly in the Numbers passages, can mean “above,” it might refer to plains “above” the Jordan opposite Jericho—in other words, part of the plateau. This makes more sense in light of the events that unfolded while the Israelites were camped there. Both expressions are indicative that the name of Moab was attached to territories beyond the strictly political boundaries.

The History of Moab in the Bible

Origins of the Moabites. After the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, Lot’s daughters determined to carry on the family line by sleeping with their father (Gen. 19:30–38). The son of the elder daughter was named “Moab.” According to an etymology in the LXX, the name in Hebrew means “from my father” (Gen. 19:37).

The exodus and the conquest. Moses’ song refers to leaders of Moab among those whom Israel would encounter (Exod. 15:15). As the Israelites made their way past Edom (Num. 20:14–21), they may also have given a wide berth to geopolitical Moab, moving instead along the desert highway to the east (Num. 21:10–20; Deut. 2:8–9; Judg. 11:18; but see also Deut. 2:29) until they arrived at the territory that Sihon, king of the Amorites, had previously captured from the Moabites (Num. 21:21–26). This is the plateau (Heb. mishor) north of the Arnon (Deut. 2:36) stretching to Ammon (Josh. 13:10). The capital city of Sihon was Heshbon on the plateau (mishor) (Josh. 13:21). After defeating the Amorites, the Israelites camped on the “plains of Moab” (Num. 22:1; 33:48–50), where they remained until crossing the Jordan River. Most likely they did not jeopardize their security by moving down into the Jordan Valley.

Frightened by this multitude, the king of Moab and the elders of Midian sent for Balaam to curse the Israelites (Num. 21–24). Instead, Balaam pronounced four sets of blessings on Israel, and in the final one Balaam spoke of a “star . . . out of Jacob” who would “crush the foreheads of Moab” (Num. 24:17). Because the Moabites refused to welcome the Israelites and hired Balaam, the Moabites, along with Ammonites, were excluded from the assembly of the Lord for ten generations (Deut. 23:3–6). The verse immediately prior to this passage excludes those born of forbidden marriages, which might be the reason for specifying Moab and Ammon.

The plateau (mishor) was allocated to the tribes of Reuben and Gad (Num. 32:34–38; Josh. 13:8–9). Their presence enabled the Israelites to maintain a hold in the region, a fact that would be significant some three centuries later (Judg. 11:26). As the Israelites prepared to enter the land, Moses restated the covenant on the plains of Moab (Num. 36:13; Deut. 29:1). When it came time for Moses to die, he climbed Mount Nebo from the plains of Moab to the top of Pisgah, and after his death the Israelites mourned him there for thirty days (Deut. 34:1–8).

The judges through the monarchy. During the period of the judges, the Moabites pushed north across the Arnon and as far as Jericho. When Ehud killed Eglon, the Moabites were driven back and subjected to Israel for eighty years (Judg. 3). The respite was temporary, however, due to repeated apostasy on the part of the Israelites. They turned to worship the gods of the peoples around them, among them the gods of the Moabites (Judg. 10:6). At some point during the period of the judges, relations between Israel and Moab were sufficiently friendly that the family of Elimelek could take refuge there during the famine in Judah (Ruth 1). When all the men of the family died, the Moabite Ruth converted to the worship of Yahweh (Ruth 1:16), which meant that she could indeed become part of the congregation of Israel, overcoming the restriction in Deut. 23:3–6.

Ruth’s son was Obed, the father of Jesse, the father of David (Ruth 4:21). This family link with Moab may explain why David sought refuge for his father and mother in Moab in the dark days when he was fleeing from Saul (1 Sam. 22:1–4). David was appealing to a national enemy in doing this since Saul had been fighting against the Moabites along with the Ammonites, the Edomites, and the Philistines since he became king (1 Sam. 14:47). The complexity created for David by this combination of family allegiances and ongoing national concerns is evident in his later actions as king. When he defeated the Moabites, he brutally subdued them, reducing them to a vassal kingdom (2 Sam. 8:2–12). The united kingdom continued to control the plateau of Moab, evident in the towns noted in David’s census; it reached through the tribe of Gad to the city of Aroer in the Arnon Gorge (2 Sam. 24:5).

Solomon built places of worship for the gods of his wives, among them Chemosh, “the vile god of Moab” (2 Kings 23:13). As a result, God removed all but the southern kingdom of Judah from the Davidic dynasty and the plateau of Moab came under the control of the northern kingdom for more than half a century. The Moabite Stone, discovered in the nineteenth century AD at Dibon, indicated that Omri, king of Israel, conquered the plateau of Medeba and reestablished connections with the tribe of Gad. This continued until near the end of Ahab’s reign. Although the Moabite Stone indicates that Mesha revolted during the reign of Ahab, the biblical text puts it after Ahab’s death. The revolt prompted an alliance between Joram and Jehoshaphat to subdue Moab (2 Kings 3:4–27).

The prophets and after the exile. Moab is the object of stinging rebuke from several prophets (Isa. 15–16; 25:10; Jer. 48; Ezek. 25:8–11; Amos 2:1–3). Moab’s forthcoming judgment is described in grim terms, equating Moab’s end to that of Sodom and Gomorrah (Zeph. 2:9). Even so, God declares, “I will restore the fortunes of Moab in days to come” (Jer. 48:47). Moab will be humbled along with Edom and the Philistines at the word of the Lord (Pss. 60:8; 108:9). After the return from exile, Moabites were among those with whom the Israelites intermarried (Ezra 9:1; Neh. 13:1; cf. Deut. 23:3–6).

Moabite Stone

The Moabite Stone (also known as the Mesha Stela or Mesha Inscription) is a rather large (about 3.5 feet high, 2 feet wide, 14 inches thick) black basalt stela bearing a royal inscription from Mesha, a ninth-century BC king of Moab. This dedicatory inscription of thirty-four lines written in a script similar to ancient Hebrew praises Chemosh, Moab’s chief deity, for several victories but primarily for deliverance from King Ahab of Israel about 849 BC. Because the stela cites other events later in Mesha’s reign, it most likely was made between 840 and 830 BC. The inscription states that the stela was placed in Qarhoh at the “high place built for Chemosh.”

Charles Clermont-Ganneau heard stories about this stela from local Arabs, but Rev. F. A. Klein, a Prussian working for the Church Missionary Society in Jerusalem, found it at Dhiban (approximately fifty miles south of Ammon) in August 1868. Realizing the importance of this discovery, Arab tribal leaders broke the stela apart, hoping to sell its pieces for more money. Apparently, some Arabs working for Clermont-Ganneau were able to make a papier-mâché squeeze of the inscription before it was damaged. Most of the pieces were later recovered and reassembled, and in 1873 the stela was transported to the Louvre Museum in Paris.

The inscription corroborates and supplements the account of the battle between Israel and Moab recorded in 2 Kings 3:4–27. However, in the biblical account it is not Chemosh who gives victory to Mesha, but Yahweh who gives victory to Joram, Ahab’s son. The Israelites ended the battle and returned home after Mesha offered up his oldest son to Chemosh on the city walls.

Moabitess

A woman from Moab. The term is used in some Bible translations primarily to describe Ruth, the daughter-in-law of Naomi and wife of Boaz (Ruth 2:2, 6, 21; 4:5, 10), but it also describes Shimrith the mother of Jehozabad (2 Chron. 24:26). See also Moab.

Moadiah

An ancestor of a clan of priests during the time of the high priest Joiakim (Neh. 12:17). Some identify the name with Maadiah (Neh. 12:5; e.g., NIV).

Moderation

Avoidance of excess or extremes (Eccles. 5:10; Ezek. 16:47). The Bible generally condemns excessive wealth and extreme asceticism (Prov. 30:8; 1 Tim. 5:21). Paul appropriates one of the four cardinal virtues of the Stoics, “propriety,” which relates to moderation in eating, drinking, sex, and exercise, leading to soundness of mind (1 Tim. 2:9, 15).

Moladah

A city in the Negev near Beersheba. It was first allotted to Judah (Josh. 15:26) and is described as part of the land near the border of Edom. Later, it was allotted to Simeon as part of its inheritance that lay within the territory of Judah (Josh. 19:2). The city was reoccupied by Israelites returning from the exile (Neh. 11:26). The city is mentioned on an ostracon found at Horvat ’Uza, but its location is uncertain. Some identify Moladah with Malathah, the Edomite location that Herod Agrippa I used as a retreat. The two most frequently suggested sites are Tell el-Milh (southeast of Beersheba, between Arad and Beersheba) and Khirbet Kuseifeh (twelve miles east of Beersheba).

Moldy

In Josh. 9:5, 12 the NIV translates the Hebrew word niqqudim as “moldy,” describing the bread of the Gibeonites who made it seem as if they had traveled a far distance to meet the Israelites (Josh. 9:5, 12 [KJV: “mouldy”; NET: “hard”]).

Mole

Palestine has no true moles. In Isa. 2:20 the animal that some versions identify as a “mole” (NIV, KJV, NRSV, ESV, NASB) is more generically identified in others as a “rodent” (NET, NLT). This rodent, probably a mole-rat, along with the bat, lives in darkness, and both are symbols of the spiritually blind. In the KJV of Lev. 11:30, a mole (NIV: “chameleon”) is listed among unclean animals.

Molech

There are considerable questions about the identification of Molek. Generally, it has been believed that Molek was a god of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11:5). Molek has long been associated with the practice of child sacrifice, based on several references to the god within the Bible. For example, Leviticus associates child sacrifice with the worship of Molek and prescribes capital punishment for any practitioner of such (18:21; 20:2–5). Josiah is credited with destroying the altar (Topheth) to Molek in the Valley of Ben Hinnom, so that no one could sacrifice a child to Molek there (2 Kings 23:10–13).

The biblical text makes reference to the desecration of Topheth. It is not known exactly what Topheth was, but the Hebrew word likely means “to burn,” which suggests that it was an incinerator or specially formed altar. Whether this incinerator was for religious purposes only or had other uses, such as a kiln for firing pottery, is unknown. Jeremiah 19 records that Jeremiah pronounced an oracle at the Potsherd Gate against Topheth and the Valley of Ben Hinnom. In this oracle the god being worshiped is Baal rather than Molek; however, the location is still associated with child sacrifice. The fact that the gate at which Jeremiah offers the oracle is called the “Potsherd Gate” suggests that this may have been the place where potters worked, in which case there would have been a need for a kiln close by to fire the pottery. Could this be Topheth? Jeremiah 7:31 offers more evidence that Topheth and the Valley of Ben Hinnom were used for child sacrifice.

There is some debate about the terminology of “pass through the fire” (KJV, NRSV, NET), which is a more literal translation of the Hebrew text than the NIV’s “sacrifice” (see 2 Kings 16:3; 23:10). Some scholars attribute this phrase to Canaanite sources and question whether it refers to actually killing the sacrifice with fire or having the sacrifice symbolically burned by passing the child through the fire. It should be noted, however, that the terminology “pass through the fire” is not used exclusively in the Bible to refer to child sacrifice (see 2 Chron. 28:3).

Archaeology has proved that the Canaanites often performed child sacrifices, evidenced by large burial plots with many children near religious centers. Within the Canaanite pantheon the god Malik is fairly well attested. Malik was the god of fire and one that demanded human sacrifice. The names “Malik” and “Molek” have the same Semitic root, and it is possible that the OT has changed “Malik” to “Molek” to reflect its disgust by mixing the correct name with the Hebrew vocalization for “shame.”

Several kings of Israel are accused not only of worshiping Molek, but also of participating in child sacrifice and being a patron of the god. Solomon is accused of worshiping Molek and building a high place for Molek (1 Kings 11:5–7, 33). This high place is perhaps the Topheth that Josiah desecrates (2 Kings 23:10). Ahaz is recorded as sacrificing one of his sons in the fire (2 Kings 16:3), as did Manasseh (2 Kings 21:6).

Molek

There are considerable questions about the identification of Molek. Generally, it has been believed that Molek was a god of the Ammonites (1 Kings 11:5). Molek has long been associated with the practice of child sacrifice, based on several references to the god within the Bible. For example, Leviticus associates child sacrifice with the worship of Molek and prescribes capital punishment for any practitioner of such (18:21; 20:2–5). Josiah is credited with destroying the altar (Topheth) to Molek in the Valley of Ben Hinnom, so that no one could sacrifice a child to Molek there (2 Kings 23:10–13).

The biblical text makes reference to the desecration of Topheth. It is not known exactly what Topheth was, but the Hebrew word likely means “to burn,” which suggests that it was an incinerator or specially formed altar. Whether this incinerator was for religious purposes only or had other uses, such as a kiln for firing pottery, is unknown. Jeremiah 19 records that Jeremiah pronounced an oracle at the Potsherd Gate against Topheth and the Valley of Ben Hinnom. In this oracle the god being worshiped is Baal rather than Molek; however, the location is still associated with child sacrifice. The fact that the gate at which Jeremiah offers the oracle is called the “Potsherd Gate” suggests that this may have been the place where potters worked, in which case there would have been a need for a kiln close by to fire the pottery. Could this be Topheth? Jeremiah 7:31 offers more evidence that Topheth and the Valley of Ben Hinnom were used for child sacrifice.

There is some debate about the terminology of “pass through the fire” (KJV, NRSV, NET), which is a more literal translation of the Hebrew text than the NIV’s “sacrifice” (see 2 Kings 16:3; 23:10). Some scholars attribute this phrase to Canaanite sources and question whether it refers to actually killing the sacrifice with fire or having the sacrifice symbolically burned by passing the child through the fire. It should be noted, however, that the terminology “pass through the fire” is not used exclusively in the Bible to refer to child sacrifice (see 2 Chron. 28:3).

Archaeology has proved that the Canaanites often performed child sacrifices, evidenced by large burial plots with many children near religious centers. Within the Canaanite pantheon the god Malik is fairly well attested. Malik was the god of fire and one that demanded human sacrifice. The names “Malik” and “Molek” have the same Semitic root, and it is possible that the OT has changed “Malik” to “Molek” to reflect its disgust by mixing the correct name with the Hebrew vocalization for “shame.”

Several kings of Israel are accused not only of worshiping Molek, but also of participating in child sacrifice and being a patron of the god. Solomon is accused of worshiping Molek and building a high place for Molek (1 Kings 11:5–7, 33). This high place is perhaps the Topheth that Josiah desecrates (2 Kings 23:10). Ahaz is recorded as sacrificing one of his sons in the fire (2 Kings 16:3), as did Manasseh (2 Kings 21:6).

Molid

A descendant of Judah, he was the son of Abishur and Abihail (1 Chron. 2:29).

Moloch

A variant spelling of the Canaanite deity name “Molek” (Amos 5:26 KJV; Acts 7:43 KJV, NASB, NRSV).

Molten Sea

The huge bronze basin that was placed in the courtyard of Solomon’s temple (1 Kings 7:23–26; 2 Chron. 4:2–6 KJV, NRSV [NIV: “Sea of cast metal”]). It was approximately fifteen feet in diameter, seven and a half feet in height, and forty-five feet in circumference. There is a discrepancy in the biblical texts as to how much water it could contain, but it was probably anywhere from ten to fifteen thousand gallons. It rested on twelve cast bulls, three each facing north, west, east, and south. It was ornamented on the outside with figures of bulls and gourds. Scholars estimate that empty it would have weighed between twenty-five and thirty tons.

Functionally, the molten sea served as a basin for priests to wash in (2 Chron. 4:6), but most scholars are convinced that an even greater symbolic value was attached to it. Throughout the ancient Near East, gods were conceived of as having won great victories over the primeval waters. The God of Israel is portrayed this way as well in the OT, especially in the Psalter (Pss. 29:3, 10; 65:7; 74:13; 77:16; 89:9; 93:3–4; 104:7). The presence of the molten sea in the courtyard of the temple would have reminded worshipers of God’s sovereignty over the sea, the forces of nature, and over all the nations (see Ps. 65:7).

Money

Pieces of metal stamped with a particular impression, used as a medium of exchange. From time immemorial people used animals, grain, or other commodities to barter (Hos. 3:2), pay taxes (1 Sam. 8:15), or as a measure of wealth (Job 1:3). Substituting smaller, more easily handled pieces of precious metal had obvious advantages. Gradually people used precious metal such as silver or gold along with commodities (Gen. 20:14–16) and then in place of them (37:28) as a means of payment. Such metal had been refined, but it could have been in most any form (rings, bars, ingots, dust) as long as it weighed the appropriate amount. Local and international standards developed to regulate the weights, and later the concept grew in popularity to use standard, authorized, clearly stamped pieces of precious metal—coins.

Old Testament. Minting of coins may have begun as far back as the late eighth century BC, and it gradually spread throughout the known world. The first coins apparently were made in Asia Minor using electrum, a natural alloy of gold and silver.

When the Persians took over much of the ancient Near East in the sixth century BC, the use of coins spread, and Persian coins came to the land of the Bible. At the end of the Hebrew Bible there is mention of large quantities of Persian coins called “darics” (1 Chron. 29:7; Ezra 8:27), also translated as “drachmas” (NASB) or “drams” (KJV) (Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70–72). These darics were stamped with the likeness of Darius the Great (521–486 BC) and were minted from gold and occasionally silver. At about the same time, silver tetradrachmas (four-drachma coins) from Athens made their way to the western shores of the Mediterranean. Local imitations of this coin were stamped with “YHD” to represent the province of Judah.

New Testament. Coins appear dozens of times in the NT; some have Hellenistic roots, while others come from the periods of Hasmonean or Roman rule.

For several centuries after Alexander the Great conquered the ancient Near East (fourth century BC), coins with the images of Alexander or his Seleucid or Ptolemaic successors were circulated in Judea. In particular, silver shekels from the Phoenician port cities of Tyre and Sidon enjoyed wide usage for a long time. Also called a “stater,” the shekel or four-drachma coin recovered by Peter from the fish’s mouth (Matt. 17:27) may have been such a Tyrian coin. Many or all of the thirty silver coins that the chief priests gave Judas for betraying Jesus (Matt. 26:15; 27:3) probably were Tyrian shekels as well, since this coin came to be the accepted currency at the temple in Jerusalem and the priests would have had a good supply of them.

After the Hellenistic rulers lost control of Judea during the rebellion led by the Maccabean or Hasmonean family in the second century BC, the Jews could mint their own coins for the first time. The honor of producing the first Jewish coin apparently goes to John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC), son of Simon and nephew of Judas Maccabeus. Simon’s modest bronze lepton (pl. lepta), or prutah, has an inscription on one side and two cornucopias and a pomegranate on the other. Use of such agricultural symbols apparently fulfilled two purposes: it portrayed the fertility of the land that God had given his people, and it helped the Jews avoid depicting people on coins, as the Greeks and later the Romans would do. During this period devout Jews avoided such images in order to help fulfill the second commandment (Exod. 20:4), to avoid graven images. Hyrcanus I’s son Alexander Jannaeus (103–76 BC) minted great quantities of different types of bronze lepta, still often found in excavations in Israel today. These coins remained in circulation for many years, probably through the ministry of Jesus. Thus, the two small coins for which Jesus commended the widow for donating to the temple treasury (Mark 12:42; Luke 21:2) may well have been lepta of Alexander Jannaeus. The tiny lepton, typically smaller than a dime and worth only 1/400 of a shekel, also appears in Luke 12:59.

It is also possible that the aforementioned lepta were not minted by Alexander Jannaeus, since later rulers, including the Jewish king Herod the Great (40–4 BC), also minted large numbers of similar small bronze coins. Though not known for his piety, Herod continued to avoid human representations on his coins. For the most part, so did his sons and the later Roman procurators (including Pontius Pilate [governed AD 26–36]), who ruled Judea before the revolt in AD 66.

Other Roman coins, such as the silver denarius (pl. denarii) minted outside Judea, clearly did not avoid human representation, however. Jesus’ request for a coin with Caesar’s image and inscription (Matt. 22:15–22) refers to the denarius. The denarius in Jesus’ day could have portrayed the emperor Tiberius (r. AD 14–37) or even Augustus (r. 27 BC–AD 14), whose coins were probably still in circulation. The silver denarius came to represent the daily wage of a common laborer, as clearly shown in the parable of laborers (Matt. 20:1–16). The denarius also appears in many other passages, although modern translators sometimes use a more interpretive expression (“two silver coins” for “two denarii” in Luke 10:35; “a year’s wages” for “three hundred denarii” in Mark 14:5).

Although many of the references discussed above contain specific terms that can be identified with coins known from history, others cannot. General terms meaning “coins” or “pieces of money” sometimes appear, as when Jesus scattered the coins of the money changers (John 2:15), or the rather common term for silver that appears frequently and is often translated as “money” (Matt. 28:12; Luke 9:3) or “silver” (Acts 3:6; 1 Pet. 1:18) as well as “silver coins” (Matt. 27:3 GW).

Money Belt

In Matt. 10:9 the NASB renders the Greek word zōnē as “money belt,” referring to the container in which the disciples carried their money (KJV: “purse”; NIV: “belt”).

Money Changers

In the Gospels, those who exchange currency in the temple. Jewish males were required to pay the half-shekel temple tax with silver Tyrian coinage (see Exod. 30:13–16; Neh. 10:32; Matt. 17:24–27; Josephus, Ant. 18.312; Philo, Embassy 156; Let. Aris. 40; m. Ber. 8:7). Although the Tyrian coins bore the head of the pagan god Melqart (Gk. Herakles), their high silver content (90 to 92 percent) made them preferable over, for example, the Roman silver provincial tetradrachma, which was only 80 percent pure. The tax was equivalent to half a Tyrian stater. Therefore, it was convenient for two Jews to pay the tax with one stater (Matt. 17:27). Rabbinic literature records that the tables of the money changers were set up seasonally in the temple (as well as the provinces) for this purpose (m. Sheqal. 1:3). They were under the direct employment of the chief priests, who earned a considerable profit. Placing these actions in the court of the Gentiles was probably a recent innovation. An earlier Jewish visitor could claim concerning the cultic activities, “A general silence reigns. . . . Everything is carried out with reverence and in a manner befitting supreme divinity” (Let. Aris. 95–96). The money changers, along with those selling sacrifices, became the object of Jesus’ wrath. He overturned their tables, suggesting that they and the temple authorities behind them were stealing from the poor.

Monkey

In the list of luxuries that Solomon’s ships brought from Tarshish, the NIV translates the last word, tukki, as “baboon” (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chron. 9:21). A possible alternative is “monkey” (NAB, GW), probably referring to the small, long-tailed vervet monkey sometimes kept as a pet in the ancient world. Some modern translations render the word as “peacock” (NET, NASB, NLT).

Moon

The earth’s natural satellite. Its diameter is slightly more than one-quarter that of the earth. As a result of orbiting the earth, its appearance varies from a full moon (totally bright) to a new moon (totally dark) every 29.5 days. This cycle has influenced calendars throughout human history.

The ancient Jewish calendar was tied to the phases of the moon, with the months beginning with each new moon. The new moon was celebrated with multiple offerings (Num. 28:11–15). Festival days were calculated from the new moon.

The moon figures prominently in prophecy. At the day of the Lord, the sun and the moon will be darkened (e.g., Joel 2:10). While most ancient Near Eastern cultures worshiped the moon, Israel was forbidden such worship (Deut. 4:19).

The account of the moon’s creation recorded in Gen. 1:16 does not mention the moon by name. This is in keeping with the general tone of the creation story, wherein God, almost incidentally, creates the things that were worshiped by contemporary cultures.

Moral Decline

The moral course of the world is simultaneously moving in two directions. The morally innocent state in which God created humankind was lost at the fall (Gen. 3), and since then, sin, death, and corruption have reigned over all humanity (Rom. 5:12). In Noah’s time the world so declined morally that God had to wipe out nearly the entire human race (Gen. 6–8), and the Bible predicts that sin will come to a similar crescendo before Christ’s return (1 Tim. 4:1; 2 Pet. 3).

Despite this moral degeneration, the kingdom that Christ inaugurated in his first coming (Mark 1:15) will make continual progress in renewing creation until the consummation (Matt. 13:31–33). The new heavens and earth have already broken into the present age at the resurrection of Christ, who is now ruling at the right hand of the Father (Acts 2:33). Therefore, the age subject to death is passing away, but those in Christ are being renewed daily (1 Cor. 7:31; 2 Cor. 4:16). The Holy Spirit represents their down payment on the riches that await them at the final redemption (Eph. 1:14).

Morasthite

A resident of Moresheth, referring to the prophet Micah (Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1 KJV). See also Moresheth, Moresheth Gath.

Mordecai

(1) Esther’s Benjamite cousin, he lived in the Persian province of Susa due to the Jewish deportation in the Babylonian exile (Esther 2:5–7). After Esther’s parents died, Mordecai assumed a fatherly role in raising the child, and in time he played an influential role in Esther’s initial rise to prominence and in the deliverance of the Jews from imminent death at the hand of Haman. Mordecai also alerted King Xerxes (Ahasuerus) to a potential threat on his life, resulting in his own exaltation. (2) One of the exiled Jews who returned home (Ezra 2:2; Neh. 7:7).

Moreh

(1) A tree or plain that was a stopping point on Abraham’s journey from Harran (Gen. 12:6). If the Hebrew phrase in question (elon moreh) is translated as “tree of Moreh,” the tree would be an oak or terebinth. At this tree, near the city of Shechem, Abraham built an altar to God (Gen. 12:7). Some translations, notably the KJV (likely following the LXX), translate this geographic location as the “plain of Moreh.” In Deut. 11:30 this geographic location is a marker to help locate the mountains Ebal and Gerizim. There are several other mentions of trees in the OT in proximity to Shechem, including the places where Jacob buried his idols (Gen. 35:4) and where Joshua set up a marker commemorating the history of the Israelites (Josh. 24:26). In Judg. 9 two different trees are mentioned in proximity to Shechem. (2) A hill near where Gideon attacked and defeated the Midianites (Judg. 7:1). The exact location of this hill is uncertain.

Moresheth

A town in the foothills southwest of Jerusalem, near Lachish and about halfway between Jerusalem and the Mediterranean. It is the birthplace of the eighth-century BC prophet Micah (Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1). In his lament over the towns of this region, Micah says that Lachish will give Moresheth “parting gifts” (Mic. 1:14; here the town is named “Moresheth Gath”), a metaphorical allusion to a fatherly Jerusalem giving wedding gifts to his daughter as she departs to live with her husband. There is a possible reference to Moresheth in the Tell-al-Amarna letters, and the most likely site is modern Tell Judeideh, where archaeological remains from this period have been found.

Moresheth Gath

A town in the foothills southwest of Jerusalem, near Lachish and about halfway between Jerusalem and the Mediterranean. It is the birthplace of the eighth-century BC prophet Micah (Jer. 26:18; Mic. 1:1). In his lament over the towns of this region, Micah says that Lachish will give Moresheth “parting gifts” (Mic. 1:14; here the town is named “Moresheth Gath”), a metaphorical allusion to a fatherly Jerusalem giving wedding gifts to his daughter as she departs to live with her husband. There is a possible reference to Moresheth in the Tell-al-Amarna letters, and the most likely site is modern Tell Judeideh, where archaeological remains from this period have been found.

Moriah

The mountain to which God commanded Abraham to go and sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:2). The only other time a mountain of this name is mentioned is 2 Chron. 3:1, as the location of the future temple. There is some debate whether these two references indicate the same location. For instance, if Abraham was going to the well-wooded area around Jerusalem, why would he gather wood from Beersheba? Such questions lead some to suggest that they are two different places with the same name, while others suggest that 2 Chronicles draws a connection between the place of Abraham’s famous test of faith and the location of the temple for theological reasons. Questions also arise about the precise meaning of the name, but most believe that the name is connected to the Hebrew verb “to see” or “to provide,” thus suggesting a connection with the name Abraham gives to the location, “The Lord Will Provide” (Gen. 22:14).

Morning

The period of the day beginning at sunrise and often described as a time of great activity, such as embarking on a journey (Gen. 44:3), initiating a battle (Judg. 9:33), offering sacrifices (Amos 4:4), starting to work (Matt. 20:1), and meeting with God (Exod. 34:2–4; Mark 1:35; cf. Ps. 55:17). Morning is a time of joy (Ps. 30:5), though some may express this joy more loudly than others (Prov. 27:14).

Morning Star

In the OT, “morning star” may indicate a star (Job 3:9) or celestial beings in general; for example, “morning stars” is parallel to “angels” (lit., “sons of God”; see NIV mg.) in Job 38:7. In a passage addressed to the king of Babylon, Isa. 14:12–13 describes him as the “morning star [ESV, NRSV: “Day Star”], son of the dawn” who spoke presumptuously and fell from heaven. The KJV instead translates the term as “Lucifer,” a name that has traditionally been applied to Satan (see also Lucifer). NT imagery associates the brilliant morning star with the dawn of the messianic kingdom of David fulfilled in Jesus (2 Pet. 1:19 [KJV: “day star”]; cf. Num. 24:17; Isa. 60:1–3), promising the morning star to those who overcome (Rev. 2:28). In Rev. 22:16, Jesus identifies himself as the “bright Morning Star.”

Mortar

(1) A hollowed-out receptacle resembling a bowl, usually made of stone or possibly clay. The mortar, along with a pestle, was used for grinding, crushing, or mixing substances in food preparation. The food was placed in the mortar and ground with the pestle. This is the tool that the Israelites used in the desert to process the manna (Num. 11:8). The mortar was a common household item required to prepare food for consumption, and its function was so well known that it was employed in biblical metaphors (Prov. 27:22). (2) A binding agent used in mud-brick construction (Exod. 1:14; Nah. 3:14). Raw mud was the most common mortar used in this construction, but tar is also attested (Gen. 11:3). See also Pestle.

Moserah

An encampment location during the Israelites’ wandering in the wilderness route (Num. 33:30–31). It is the place where Aaron died and was buried (Deut. 10:6). The Hebrew singular (moserah) and plural (moserot) forms of the name, both of which are used in the Bible, result in the variant English spellings. Its location is unknown, but likely it was close to Mount Hor (Num. 33:38).

Moseroth

An encampment location during the Israelites’ wandering in the wilderness route (Num. 33:30–31). It is the place where Aaron died and was buried (Deut. 10:6). The Hebrew singular (moserah) and plural (moserot) forms of the name, both of which are used in the Bible, result in the variant English spellings. Its location is unknown, but likely it was close to Mount Hor (Num. 33:38).

Moses

Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6). Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story of God using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with an account of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death (Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyond his lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.

Abraham’s Descendants in Egypt

The book of Genesis prepares the way for the story of Moses and the founding of Israel. After recounting the creation of the world and the fall into sin, the book eventually describes God’s choice of Abraham as the one whose descendants he will make “a great nation” and bring a blessing to the world (Gen. 12:1–3). However, by the end of Genesis, Abraham’s descendants have gone to Egypt in order to survive a devastating famine. Although they are in a good relationship with the Egyptian government, the hope is expressed that God will eventually return them to the land of promise (Gen. 50:24–26).

Many years pass between the close of the book of Genesis and the beginning of Exodus. The Israelite population has grown from family size (about seventy people) to nation size. Out of fear, the Egyptians had begun to oppress them. Indeed, the size of the Israelite population so worried them that Pharaoh instituted a decree calling for the death of all male babies born to the Israelites.

Moses’ Life before the Exodus

Moses was born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’s decree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was born to Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’s decree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floated him down the river. This act seems desperate, but there are similar stories from the Near East (the account of the birth of Sargon, an Akkadian king), and perhaps it was a way of placing the endangered child in the hands of God. God guided the basket down the river and into the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 2:5–6), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hired Jochebed to take care of the child. When the infant grew older, Pharaoh’s daughter gave him a Hebrew name, “Moses,” which sounds like the Hebrew verb mashah, meaning “to draw out” (Exod. 2:10). This amazing story of Moses’ survival at birth informs later Israel that their human savior was really provided by their divine savior.

Modern movie adaptations of this story dwell on Moses’ upbringing in Pharaoh’s household, but the Bible itself is essentially silent on this period of his life (apart from a reference to Moses’ Egyptian education in Acts 7:22; cf. Heb. 11:24). The next major episode concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was being beaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process of rescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. Apparently, his relationship to the ruler’s household would not save him from punishment, so when it became clear that he was known to be the killer, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became a member of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marrying his daughter Zipporah.

The territory of Midian is vaguely described in the Bible, perhaps because its people were nomadic sheepherders. They were often found around the Gulf of Aqaba and sometimes farther northeast of the Jordan River. The question is whether the tent of Jethro and Mount Sinai were on the Sinai Peninsula or on the eastern side of Aqaba in what is today Saudi Arabia.

Although Moses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had different plans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared to him in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back to Egypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, and so God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany him as his spokesperson.

The Exodus and Wilderness Wandering

Upon Moses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series of plagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and cornered them on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the Red Sea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea and allowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgment on the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting his rod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered as the defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery (Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divine rescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).

After the crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai, the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went up the mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). He received the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructions to build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of a new covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic or Sinaitic covenant.

However, as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people, who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that they had created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid of the Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’s priestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against the offenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the total destruction of Israel.

Thus began Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God was particularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israelites had shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report (Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsome warriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty years of wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generation to die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown anger against God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to God when he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).

Thus, Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he had led the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab. There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book of Deuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the second generation of Israelites who were going to enter the land that they must obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of the sermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasion reaffirmed its loyalty to God.

After this, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see the promised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the following statements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face. . . . For no one has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).

Legacy and Dates

The NT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point that Jesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God and people (Acts 3:17–26; Heb. 3).

The date of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical text does not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to the thirteenth century BC and associate him with Ramesses II, but others take 1 Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end of the fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of Thutmose III.

Most High

A divine epithet, originally referring to El, the supreme god in the Canaanite pantheon, and later appropriated by Israel to refer to Yahweh. This term, which emphasizes divine transcendence, is often used by non-Israelites to refer to Israel’s God (Num. 24:16; Dan. 3:36; Acts 16:17).

Most Holy Place

The main structure of the tabernacle and later the temple consisted of two rooms, the holy place and the holy of holies, the latter otherwise known as the “Most Holy Place” (Exod. 26:33–35; 1 Kings 6:19–21). The ark of the covenant was placed in this room, which was entered by the high priest once a year on the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16).

Mote

In some older translations “mote” refers to a small piece of foreign matter that more-modern translations typically render as “splinter” or “speck.” It appears three times each in the parallel accounts of Matt. 7:3–5; Luke 6:41–42. There, Jesus is warning followers to concentrate on dealing with their own major shortcomings (“planks” or “beams”) before focusing on the lesser failings of others (“motes” or “specks”).

Moth

The moth appears throughout the Bible as an agent of destruction (e.g., Ps. 39:11; Matt. 6:19), often of garments (Job 13:28; Isa. 50:9; 51:8), illustrating the transience of humanity and earthly things. In his judgment on Ephraim, God compares himself to a moth (Hos. 5:12). However, in one case the moth itself is the victim of destruction (Job 4:19), and in another its fragile “cocoon” suggests its frailty (Job 27:18).

Mother

Although essentially characterized by bearing offspring, a mother is associated with much more in the Bible. Especially prominent are the characteristic ways in which a mother relates to her children: she tends to their needs (1 Thess. 2:7), looks after their welfare (1 Kings 3:16–27), comforts them (Ps. 131:2), and instructs them (Prov. 1:8; 31:1).

Motherhood is held in high regard. Bearing a child is an occasion for rejoicing (Gen. 4:1; Ps. 113:9). A virtuous and industrious mother is praised by her children and husband alike (Prov. 31:28). The Bible describes a mother both crowning a king (Song 3:11) and sitting beside his throne (1 Kings 2:19). The death of a mother brings extreme sorrow (Gen. 24:67; Ps. 35:14). Furthermore, God’s promises are often associated with the birth of a child (e.g., Gen. 3:15; 12:2–3; Judg. 13:3; Isa. 7:14). Mary is blessed among women as the mother of Jesus Christ (Luke 1:42–45). Finally, the Bible protects the dignity of a mother as it does that of the father. The law requires honor and reverence for both father and mother (Exod. 20:12; Lev. 19:3; Deut. 5:16) and condemns to death those who strike or curse either parent (Exod. 21:15, 17; Lev. 20:9).

There is also great concern that adult children look after the welfare of their parents as a means of honoring them. David makes provisions for his parents as he flees from Saul (1 Sam. 22:3–4). Jesus condemns the Pharisees and the scribes for taking the resources due their parents and offering them as a gift to God instead (Matt. 15:4–6). Even Jesus’ final act upon the cross is to ensure the welfare of his mother by defining her relationship with the Beloved Disciple as mother and son (John 19:26–27). On the other hand, Jesus makes clear that concern for one’s family is subordinate to discipleship to him (Matt. 10:37; Mark 3:35; Luke 14:26).

The word “mother” also carries symbolic or metaphorical senses. Sometimes the “mother” is a fitting example of other things or persons like it, such as Babylon the Great as the mother of prostitutes and earthly abominations (Rev. 17:5). In the extended analogy between Hosea’s marriage and God’s relationship to Israel, the nation is called a “mother,” and its inhabitants are her “children” (Hos. 2:4; 4:5; cf. Isa. 50:1; Jer. 50:12). The image of a mother may also refer to a large city (2 Sam. 20:19; Gal. 4:26).

Mother-in-Law

The mother of an individual’s spouse. Isaac married Rebekah, Milkah’s daughter. Milkah is thus Isaac’s mother-in-law (Gen. 24:47). The most well-known biblical example is Naomi, Ruth’s mother-in-law (Ruth 1:3–4). Jesus healed Peter’s mother-in-law of a fever (Luke 4:38–39). The law forbade a man to have sexual intercourse with his mother-in-law (Deut. 27:23). Social chaos was often described as a breakdown of family relationships, including that between daughter-in-law and mother-in-law (Mic. 7:6; Luke 12:53).

Mount Baal Hermon

The highest peak in the traditional territory of Israel, belonging by allotment to Manasseh (1 Chron. 5:23). See also Baal Hermon.

Mount Carmel

The wooded mountain promontory on the Mediterranean, near modern Haifa. The name means “the garden.” It forms a northern barrier to the coastal plain of Sharon. Mount Carmel provided the perfect stage for its most significant event, the confrontation between Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kings 18), the god of storms and therefore agricultural produce. The mountain’s high elevation meant that it was lush until a drought. When the prophets threatened that Carmel would wither, conditions were extreme (Isa. 33:9; Amos 1:2; Nah.1:4).

Mount Ephraim

The part of the hill country in north-central Israel allotted to the large, powerful tribe of Ephraim (Josh. 16). In Jeremiah, it is referred to as the “hills of Ephraim” (4:15; 31:6; 50:19); the KJV uses the term “Mount Ephraim.” This part of the hill country included cities such as Shechem (Josh. 20:7), Shiloh, and Joshua’s home of Timnath Serah (Josh. 24:30). The region was largely comprised of high, rugged hills that made for difficult travel. Since the area had only been sparsely settled before the Israelite conquest, the Ephraimites had to clear the natural forestation (Josh. 17:15–18) in order to take advantage of the naturally fertile soil.

Mount Heres

(1) A mountainous region, along with Aijalon and Shaalbim, inhabited by the Amo-rites. The tribe of Dan was unable to expel them from this region during the conquest of Canaan (Judg. 1:34–35). (2) The region through which Gideon returned after defeating Zebah and Zalmunnah. Gideon captured the two Midianite kings and routed their armies (Judg. 8:13). (3) Part of the name of the location of Joshua’s burial place. The name is given as “Timnath Heres” in Judg. 2:9. It was located near Mount Gaash in the territory of Ephraim. The town is also described as Timnath Serah in Josh. 19:50; 24:30.

Mount Hermon

The highest mountain in ancient Israel, with its highest peak reaching over 9,200 feet. Due to its height, its peak is snow-covered year-round, causing abundant dew in comparison to the arid land in that region, with its melting ice serving as a major source of the Jordan River.

The Canaanites referred to Hermon as Sirion or Senir (Deut. 3:9), as do some biblical texts (e.g., 1 Chron. 5:23). It is located above the Lebanon Valley (Josh. 11:17) and above Mizpah (11:3), where Joshua pursued the Canaanite kings and defeated them at the Waters of Merom (11:1–7). Hermon is identified with the modern Jebel es-Sheik (Arabic for “mountain of the sheik”), about thirty miles southwest of Damascus.

Hermon formed the northern frontier of Israel’s Amorite conquests (Deut. 3:8; Josh. 11:17). Before the Israelites conquered the region, the Hivites dwelled there (Judg. 3:3), and it was ruled by King Og of Bashan (Josh. 12:4–5) and the Amorite king Sihon (Josh. 13:10–11) and was known as “the area of the Gebalites [NIV: “Byblos”]” (Josh. 13:5).

Ancient Near Eastern mythology associated high mountains with the dwelling of the gods, so it is no surprise that the Canaanites regarded the mountain as sacred. Archaeologists have discovered some Iron Age (1200–586 BC) remains on the summit and more than twenty temples dating from later times. This probably explains references in the Bible to “Baal Hermon” (Judg. 3:3) and “Baal Gad below Mount Hermon” (Josh. 13:5).

Hermon is mentioned fifteen times in the Bible (Deut. 3:8, 9; 4:48; Josh. 11:3, 17; 12:1, 5; 13:5, 11; Judg. 3:3; Pss. 42:6; 89:12; 133:3; Song 4:8; 1 Chron. 5:23). It is known for its lions and leopards (Song 4:8) and pine trees (Ezek. 27:5). It is praised for its dew (Ps. 133:3) and mentioned in reference to other mountains (89:12), the Jordan River (42:6), and the power of God (29:6). Hermon is not mentioned in the NT, but due to its geographical proximity to Caesarea Philippi, some have suggested it was the location for Jesus’ transfiguration, which Mark 9:2 locates on a “high mountain.”

Mount Hor

(1) The mountain where Aaron died and was buried (Num. 20:22–29; 33:37–39; Deut. 32:50). In Deut. 10:6 it is called “Moserah” (meaning “chastisement”), probably because it was due to Aaron’s earlier sin that he died there (cf. Num. 20:24; Deut. 32:51).

Hor is always referred to as “Hor the mountain,” suggesting that it was a prominent mountain in the area. Josephus identified Mount Hor with Jebel Nebi Harun (“Mount of Aaron”), near Petra. However, this location is doubtful because, at 4,800 feet in height, it is too high for Aaron’s burial to take place in “the sight of the whole community” (Num. 20:27) and is located in the middle of Edomite territory rather than on the border of Edom as Num. 20:23 asserts. A more likely candidate is Jebel Madurah, near Kadesh (Deut. 10:6), though absolute certainty is not possible.

(2) A mountain marking the northern border of Israel (Num. 34:7–8), probably one of the northern summits of the Lebanese range near the Mediterranean coast (possibly Hermon).

Mount Nebo

(1) Mount Nebo is located in Abarim, a mountain range in northwest Moab separating the Transjordan Plain from the Jordan Valley. Nebo is usually identified with a mountain of the same modern name that is five miles northwest of Madaba and is well over four thousand feet in elevation. This was the mountain that God commanded Moses to ascend to get a glimpse of the promised land before he died (Deut. 32:48–52; 34:1). On a clear day, it offers a spectacular view. In the period right after the entry into the land, the area was controlled by the Reubenites (Num. 32:3, 38). Later, it is mentioned as a prominent location in the land of Moab (Jer. 48:1, 22). (See also Abarim.) (2) The god Nebo was considered the son of the Babylonian chief god, Marduk, and was himself the god of wisdom and writing. He was thus the patron god of scribes (Isa. 46:1). (3) Nebo is listed as an ancestor of seven men who had married foreign women during the postexilic period (Ezra 10:43). (4) The hometown of fifty-two men returned from the Babylonian exile (Ezra 2:29).

Mount of Assembly

In a prophetic taunt against the Babylonian king, he is said to presume that he will ascend to the “mount of assembly” (Isa. 14:13; cf. REB: “mountains where the gods assemble” [KJV: “mount of the congregation”]). The mount of the assembly is the sacred mountain where, according to Babylonian mythology, the gods congregate.

Mount of Beatitudes

The site of Jesus’ Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7; cf. Luke 6:17–49). The mount is not specifically identified in the Gospels, but traditionally it is located at Karn Hattin (its ancient name, “Eremos,” means “solitary” in Greek), a hill near Capernaum, on the northwest shore of the Sea of Galilee.

Mount of Corruption

A mountain or hill to the east of Jerusalem that had a high place on it that was destroyed by Josiah (2 Kings 23:13 [KJV: “Mount of Corruption”; NRSV, NASB: “Mount of Destruction”]). According to 1 Kings 11:7–8, these high places were erected by Solomon to the gods Chemosh and Molek. In rabbinic tradition this mountain is more commonly identified as the Mount of Olives.

Mount of Olives

A ridge of peaks about two miles long running north-south to the east of Jerusalem. It may also refer to the middle two of these peaks directly east of the temple. Kidron and Gethsemane lie at the foot of the mount. It was so named for the large number of olive trees there in ancient times.

David wept here because of Absalom’s betrayal (2 Sam. 15:30). Here the glory of the Lord rested after withdrawal from Jerusalem (Ezek. 11:23). The Lord will return to the Mount of Olives (Zech. 14:4).

Sometimes Jesus spent the night here (Luke 21:37). He customarily withdrew to Gethsemane at the foot of this mount (John 18:2). Thus, on the evening before his trial Jesus and the disciples went to the Mount of Olives (specifically Gethsemane) after leaving the upper room (Matt. 26:30), and it was there that the betrayal by Judas took place.

Jesus’ triumphal entry began on the Mount of Olives (Matt. 21:1), and he discoursed about the future there (Matt. 24:3). After his resurrection, Jesus gathered and instructed his disciples on the Mount of Olives before ascending to heaven (Acts 1:12).

Mount of the Amalekites

A region of mountains in the territory allotted to the tribe of Ephraim (Judg. 12:15 KJV [NIV: “hill country of the Amalekites”]).

Mount of the Amorites

A region of mountains into which the Israelites advanced after leaving Horeb (Deut. 1:7, 20 KJV [NIV: “hill country of the Amorites”]). This was part of the territory allotted to Judah and Ephraim.

Mount of the Congregation

In a prophetic taunt against the Babylonian king, he is said to presume that he will ascend to the “mount of assembly” (Isa. 14:13; cf. REB: “mountains where the gods assemble” [KJV: “mount of the congregation”]). The mount of the assembly is the sacred mountain where, according to Babylonian mythology, the gods congregate.

Mount of the Valley

The uncertain location of Zereth Shahar, a Moabite town near Heshbon and Dibon in the Transjordan allotted to Reuben (Josh. 13:19; NIV: “the hill in the valley”). The term suggests a mountain in or near the Jordan Valley, perhaps on the eastern shore of the Dead Sea.

Mount Seir

“Seir” means “hairy” and derives from Esau’s hairiness (Gen. 25:25) or the woody nature of the mountain. It is located south of the Dead Sea. Although it was once occupied by the Horites (Gen. 14:6), Yahweh gave Mount Seir to Esau’s descendants (Deut. 2:4–12). Thus, it is used in both biblical and extrabiblical literature to refer to Edom (2 Chron. 20:10–33). The Edomites’ sense of security, arising from the height and ruggedness of Mount Seir, coupled with their hostility against Judah made them a constant object of prophetic diatribes (Isa. 63:1–7; Jer. 49; Ezek. 35:2–15; Obad. 1).

Mount Sinai

The mountain where Moses met with God and received the law and instructions for building the tabernacle. It is important to note that Sinai is sometimes referred to as Horeb. Scholars who believe that the Pentateuch is composed of sources from different periods of time suggest that the J and P sources used the name “Sinai” while “Horeb” is used by the E and D sources, but that the mountain is the same one. Sinai figures prominently in the biblical narrative between Exod. 19 and Num. 10, while the Israelites are camped around the mountain. During this time, Moses makes several trips up the mountain. He first ascends the mountain alone when the Israelites initially camp around it (Exod. 19–23). Next, Moses along with Aaron and the elders go up the mountain, followed another time by Moses and Joshua (Exod. 24). Moses then ascends for forty days and nights, at which time he receives the instructions for the tabernacle. This ascent is ruined for Moses when he descends the mountain to find the people worshiping a golden calf (Exod. 32). Moses once again climbs the mountain and receives a reiteration of the law (Exod. 34). All of this culminates with the descent of God from the top of the mountain to take up residence within the new tabernacle (Exod. 40).

Leviticus implies that it is a continuation of the law that Moses received on the mountain. Finally, the first ten chapters of Numbers describe the Israelites moving away from Sinai and toward the promised land. The mountain also plays a significant role in the book of Deuteronomy, which looks back at the earlier narrative. Sinai is also the location of Elijah’s sojourn after his supernatural encounter with God on another mountain, Carmel (1 Kings 19). Interestingly, in the Elijah narrative the same physical elements of smoke, fire, earthquake, and wind are evidenced in the story, but God is found only in a small whisper. Because this is the place where Moses receives the law from God, a mountain often is seen as a symbol of God’s revelation (cf. Matt. 5:1–2; 17:1–2; Rev. 21:10). In Galatians, Paul uses Sinai as a symbol or type of the old covenant.

The exact location of the mountain cannot be determined with certainty. Complicating matters is the fact that the desert and the peninsula on which the mountains sit are both called “Sinai.” Furthermore, although some have speculated that the mountain must be a volcano, given the description of smoke coming from the mountain and the earthquakes (Exod. 19:16, 18), this suggestion is of little specific help because many of the mountains in this region at one time were active volcanoes. Several locations for the mountain have been suggested. The traditional location is Jebel Musa, in the southern part of the peninsula. The Greek Orthodox monastery of Saint Catherine marks this location. This is also the site of the discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus, one of the earliest and most complete Greek versions of the Bible. Although Jebel Musa is the tallest mountain in the area, several other mountains in this vicinity have also been suggested. Another possible location advocated by some scholars is in the northern part of the peninsula near Kadesh Barnea. Much of the debate about the site has to do with the amount of time it took the Israelites to go from the location where the Red Sea was parted to the mountain. The northern location favors a shorter travel time, while the southern location favors a much longer trip.

Mountain

Mountains, both literally and metaphorically, play a highly significant role in biblical history, religion, and theology. People are shaped by the geography of the location in which they live, and this was no less the case with the Israelites. Mountains, as permanent and immovable, form natural barriers and borders (Josh. 15), afford protection from invaders (Judg. 6:2; Ps. 125:2), serve as places of refuge (Gen. 14:10; 19:17; 1 Sam. 14:22), and provide bases from which to launch attacks (Judg. 4:14; 9:36). Often in the Bible, mountain imagery is used to describe God as eternal and a strong refuge (Pss. 36:6; 90:2; 121:1–2; 125:2).

But mountains are also places of mystery. In the religious world of the ancient Near East, gods were thought to either live or make their presence known on mountains—portals, as it were, between heaven and earth. The garden of Eden is regarded by Ezekiel as having been located on “the holy mount of God” (Ezek. 28:13–14). God mysteriously reveals himself in a flame of fire to Moses at Mount Horeb (Exod. 3), and then later from that same mountain God gives the law amid thunder, fire, and smoke; the people are not allowed to approach the mountain lest they die (Exod. 19). Moses has another theophany on the same mountain (Exod. 33:17–34:8), and Elijah has a very Moses-like encounter there with God as well (1 Kings 19).

Because of this association between gods and mountains, it was the norm to build temples for deities on mountaintops. Thus, the temple in Jerusalem is built on Mount Zion, which is also the place where Abraham had been ready to sacrifice Isaac (Gen. 22:2; 2 Chron. 3:1). Thus, this mountain is the “mountain of the Lord” (Gen. 22:14), the mountain of God’s “inheritance” (Exod. 15:17), his “holy mountain” (Ps. 48:1). Even the plans for the tabernacle and temples are given on mountaintops (Exod. 25:40; 26:30; 27:8; 2 Sam. 24:18–25; 1 Chron. 21:18–22:1; 28:11–12; Ezek. 40:1–2; Rev. 21:10). It should not escape notice that Israel’s legal tradition and liturgical tradition are both associated with mountains, Sinai and Zion (Jerusalem).

It is no wonder, then, that mountains play such a significant role in the NT and the life of Christ. On top of a high mountain, the devil tempts Jesus to worship him (Matt. 4:8–10). Jesus proclaims the law of the kingdom from a mountain (5:1). On a mountain, Jesus chooses to reveal to his disciples his true glory in the transfiguration (17:1). After his resurrection, Jesus has his disciples meet him at a mountain, from which he makes his declaration of authority and gives the Great Commission (28:16–20). But Jesus and the NT authors also “relocate” the place where people meet with God from any particular location, mountain or otherwise, to the human spirit and to the church (John 4:21–24; Heb. 12:22–23).

Mourn

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circumstances that produce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief and mourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they may occur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2 Sam. 13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), or repentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, or both.

The expressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2), wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes and wearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground (2 Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting on dust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16), singing songs of lament (2 Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35), pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair (Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek. 24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7), and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark 5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such as slashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), and the somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28; Deut. 14:1; cf. 1 Kings 18:28).

Thus, grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief was expressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressions ranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song. Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners, expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times David was a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief should be brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic of women was a Greek development that entered the church through people such as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had very briefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’s admonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have no hope (1 Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that it is wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in, not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death of Lazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John 11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heaven lament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests and once for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circumstances and illustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was to moan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaning silently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in any mourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah the circumstances that they would face, without opportunity to mourn properly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalem for “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving the cycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songs of lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lament honoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:17–27). After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang a lament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals (3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son of Bathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom (18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, David mourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had been prophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of his sins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of his other sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of some prophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9, 25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeral songs per se. Compare also the book of Lamentations and the psalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressions of grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance, combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin (2 Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

Mourner

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circumstances that produce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief and mourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they may occur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2 Sam. 13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), or repentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, or both.

The expressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2), wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes and wearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground (2 Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting on dust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16), singing songs of lament (2 Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35), pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair (Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek. 24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7), and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark 5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such as slashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), and the somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28; Deut. 14:1; cf. 1 Kings 18:28).

Thus, grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief was expressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressions ranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song. Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners, expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times David was a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief should be brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic of women was a Greek development that entered the church through people such as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had very briefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’s admonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have no hope (1 Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that it is wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in, not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death of Lazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John 11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heaven lament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests and once for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circumstances and illustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was to moan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaning silently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in any mourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah the circumstances that they would face, without opportunity to mourn properly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalem for “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving the cycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songs of lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lament honoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:17–27). After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang a lament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals (3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son of Bathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom (18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, David mourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had been prophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of his sins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of his other sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of some prophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9, 25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeral songs per se. Compare also the book of Lamentations and the psalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressions of grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance, combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin (2 Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

Mourning

Grief is great sadness or sorrow or the circumstances that produce such; mourning refers to expressions of grief. Grief and mourning are often thought of in conjunction with death, but they may occur with regard to any personal or national tragedy (2 Sam. 13:19), the impending prospect of tragedy (Esther 4:3; Isa. 37:1), or repentance prompted by prophetic word of tragedy, sorrow over sin, or both.

The expressions of mourning in the Bible include weeping (Gen. 23:2), wailing (Esther 4:3; Isa. 15:3; Mark 5:38), tearing clothes and wearing sackcloth (Gen. 37:34; 2 Sam. 3:31), lying on the ground (2 Sam. 13:31), putting dust and ashes on the head or sitting on dust and ashes (Ezek. 27:30), fasting (2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16), singing songs of lament (2 Sam. 1:17–27; 3:32–35), pulling hair out of one’s beard (Ezra 9:3), cutting the hair (Jer. 7:29), uncovering the head (Lev. 10:6), removing sandals (Ezek. 24:17, 23), covering the lips or mouth (Ezek. 24:17, 22; Mic. 3:7), and employing professional mourners (Jer. 9:17; Matt. 9:23; Mark 5:38). Some pagan mourning practices were prohibited, such as slashing the body, cutting patterns into the body (tattooing?), and the somewhat obscure act of making the forehead bald (Lev. 19:28; Deut. 14:1; cf. 1 Kings 18:28).

Thus, grief and mourning were anything but stoic and brief. Grief was expressed both physically and vocally, often loudly, with expressions ranging from inarticulate groaning to poetic compositions in song. Although women may have been prominent among professional mourners, expressing grief was not considered unmasculine. Several times David was a leader in expressing grief. That the expression of grief should be brief, relatively dispassionate, and primarily characteristic of women was a Greek development that entered the church through people such as Augustine, who, for example, felt grieved that he had very briefly grieved the loss of his mother.

Paul’s admonition that believers should not grieve as do those who have no hope (1 Thess. 4:13) should not be construed as a dictum that it is wrong to grieve. The thought of the resurrection is a comfort in, not a replacement for, grief. Even Jesus wept at the death of Lazarus, knowing full well that he would soon resurrect him (John 11:25, 35, 40). Further, saints who have died and gone to heaven lament (Rev. 6:10). Grief is restricted for active-duty priests and once for Ezekiel, but these are clearly special circumstances and illustrate the normalcy of giving expression to grief. Ezekiel was to moan with a groaning for the dead (often misread as groaning silently) when his wife died, but he was not to engage in any mourning rites (Ezek. 24:15–27). This illustrated to Judah the circumstances that they would face, without opportunity to mourn properly for their dead. Ezekiel 8:14 indicts the women of Jerusalem for “mourning for Tammuz,” a pagan ritual involving the cycle of life, death, and rebirth of the Babylonian god Dumuzi.

Songs of lament are common in the OT. David composed a song of lament honoring the deaths of Saul and Jonathan (2 Sam. 1:17–27). After Joab’s unauthorized killing of Abner, David also sang a lament for Abner and required Joab to participate in mourning rituals (3:31–37). David also mourned his own sons: the unnamed son of Bathsheba (12:16–18), Amnon (13:30–33), and Absalom (18:33–19:4). In the case of Bathsheba’s son, David mourned in advance of the boy’s death, which had been prophetically proclaimed through Nathan. As the consequences of his sins continued, he progressively became undone in the mourning of his other sons. Also, funeral songs are used as the form of some prophetic material (Ezek. 19:1–14; 26:17–18; 27:2–9, 25–36; cf. Jer. 22:18; Amos 5:16). Not all laments are funeral songs per se. Compare also the book of Lamentations and the psalms of lament, also known as complaint psalms.

Expressions of grief and mourning were called for as part of repentance, combining both fear of punishment and depth of sorrow over sin (2 Chron. 34:19; Isa. 15:3; Joel 1:13).

Mouse

One Hebrew word, ’akbar, includes rats, mice, and similar small rodents. These are unclean (Lev. 11:29; Isa. 66:17). The Philistines offered five gold rodents as a guilt offering during a rodent plague (1 Sam. 6).

Mouth

The word “mouth” has a variety of uses in the Bible. First, it is used in the literal sense of a human or animal mouth. Jeremiah says, “The Lord reached out his hand and touched my mouth” (Jer. 1:9). Numbers 22:28 refers to the literal mouth of a donkey, and likewise Ps. 22:21 refers to the mouth of a lion. In reference to eating, see Matt. 15:17. The word “mouth” is also used in an inanimate sense to refer to an opening of an object or geographical feature. Phrases such as “the mouth of his sack” (Gen. 42:27), “the mouth of the well” (Gen. 29:3), and “the mouth of the cave” (Josh. 10:18) are common in the Bible. The earth could also open its metaphorical mouth to swallow individuals, denoting divine punishment (Num. 16:30, 32).

The more common use of the word “mouth” occurs in phrases such as “I have put my words in your mouth” (Isa. 51:16; Jer. 1:9; cf. Exod. 4:15; Deut. 18:18). This phrase and similar ones, when speaking of God, refer to inspiration and the speech as belonging to God. Otherwise, putting words into one’s mouth is akin to giving that person instructions (Deut. 31:19 NRSV, KJV).

Moza

(1) A descendant of Judah, he was the second of the three sons of Caleb and his concubine Ephah (1 Chron. 2:46). (2) A Benjamite who was a descendant of King Saul, he was the son of Zimri and the father of Binea (1 Chron. 8:36–37; 9:42–43).

Mozah – A city in the territory allotted to the tribe of Benjamin (Josh. 18:26). Pottery vessels bearing the name “Mozah” have been found at Jericho and other sites, suggesting that it was once a prolific center for pottery production. The location is modern Qaluniya, four miles northwest of Jerusalem.

Muffler

In Isa. 3:19 the KJV translates the Hebrew word re’alah as “muffler,” referring to a type of scarf (NRSV, ESV) or veil (NIV, NASB, NET, TEV), part of the finery flaunted by the haughty women of Zion whom Isaiah’s prophecy rebukes.

Mule

The hybrid of a female horse and a male donkey. Although usually sterile, mules were prized possessions in the biblical world for their versatility and prestige. As luxury items, they were the preferred mount for Israelite kings and princes during the early monarchy (2 Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1 Kings 1:33, 38, 44; 18:5). The connection between mules and royalty is also attested for the kings of Mari in the eighteenth century BC.

It is unknown how the Israelites acquired mules. Crossbreeding is forbidden in Lev. 19:19. The presence of hybrids in ancient Israel may indicate either that the Israelites did not follow this law or that they acquired mules only from their neighbors via trade or tribute.

Muppim

The eighth of Benjamin’s ten sons (Gen. 46:21). In Num. 26:39 the name of this son is listed as “Shupham” (NIV, KJV, NET) or “Shephupham” (NRSV, NASB).

Murder

Murder is distinguishable in the Bible from the larger category of killing. Thus, the sixth commandment (Exod. 20:13) is appropriately translated by the NIV and other versions as “You shall not murder” rather than “You shall not kill.” The taking of lives in warfare, for example, would not have been considered murder. The word used in Exod. 20:13, ratsakh, occurs approximately fifty times in the OT and never refers to killing in battle, in contrast to two other words for “kill” that together occur over three hundred times and quite often refer to battle contexts. Ezekiel 21:22 (21:27 MT) might appear to be an exception, but ratsakh (NIV: “slaughter”) is probably used there to indicate the slaying of innocent people rather than military combatants.

Ratsakh, however, can also refer to unintentional killing or manslaughter (e.g., Num. 35:11); thus, the word does not necessarily mean “murder” but rather refers to the taking of any innocent life, whether intentionally or accidentally. The lone exception in Num. 35:30 is only apparently so; it is rather a statement of poetic justice: “the murderer shall be murdered.”

The prohibition against murder is grounded in the image-bearing character of humankind. Human beings are made in the image of God; therefore, to kill an innocent person is equivalent to striking out against God (Gen. 9:6).

Significantly, Jesus viewed his own approaching death in Jerusalem as a murder in a long line of murders stretching from the murder of Abel by Cain, through the killing of the OT prophets, to himself (Matt. 21:33–46; 23:29–39; Luke 11:47–54; 20:9–20).

Murdered

Murder is distinguishable in the Bible from the larger category of killing. Thus, the sixth commandment (Exod. 20:13) is appropriately translated by the NIV and other versions as “You shall not murder” rather than “You shall not kill.” The taking of lives in warfare, for example, would not have been considered murder. The word used in Exod. 20:13, ratsakh, occurs approximately fifty times in the OT and never refers to killing in battle, in contrast to two other words for “kill” that together occur over three hundred times and quite often refer to battle contexts. Ezekiel 21:22 (21:27 MT) might appear to be an exception, but ratsakh (NIV: “slaughter”) is probably used there to indicate the slaying of innocent people rather than military combatants.

Ratsakh, however, can also refer to unintentional killing or manslaughter (e.g., Num. 35:11); thus, the word does not necessarily mean “murder” but rather refers to the taking of any innocent life, whether intentionally or accidentally. The lone exception in Num. 35:30 is only apparently so; it is rather a statement of poetic justice: “the murderer shall be murdered.”

The prohibition against murder is grounded in the image-bearing character of humankind. Human beings are made in the image of God; therefore, to kill an innocent person is equivalent to striking out against God (Gen. 9:6).

Significantly, Jesus viewed his own approaching death in Jerusalem as a murder in a long line of murders stretching from the murder of Abel by Cain, through the killing of the OT prophets, to himself (Matt. 21:33–46; 23:29–39; Luke 11:47–54; 20:9–20).

Murderer

Murder is distinguishable in the Bible from the larger category of killing. Thus, the sixth commandment (Exod. 20:13) is appropriately translated by the NIV and other versions as “You shall not murder” rather than “You shall not kill.” The taking of lives in warfare, for example, would not have been considered murder. The word used in Exod. 20:13, ratsakh, occurs approximately fifty times in the OT and never refers to killing in battle, in contrast to two other words for “kill” that together occur over three hundred times and quite often refer to battle contexts. Ezekiel 21:22 (21:27 MT) might appear to be an exception, but ratsakh (NIV: “slaughter”) is probably used there to indicate the slaying of innocent people rather than military combatants.

Ratsakh, however, can also refer to unintentional killing or manslaughter (e.g., Num. 35:11); thus, the word does not necessarily mean “murder” but rather refers to the taking of any innocent life, whether intentionally or accidentally. The lone exception in Num. 35:30 is only apparently so; it is rather a statement of poetic justice: “the murderer shall be murdered.”

The prohibition against murder is grounded in the image-bearing character of humankind. Human beings are made in the image of God; therefore, to kill an innocent person is equivalent to striking out against God (Gen. 9:6).

Significantly, Jesus viewed his own approaching death in Jerusalem as a murder in a long line of murders stretching from the murder of Abel by Cain, through the killing of the OT prophets, to himself (Matt. 21:33–46; 23:29–39; Luke 11:47–54; 20:9–20).

Murdering

Murder is distinguishable in the Bible from the larger category of killing. Thus, the sixth commandment (Exod. 20:13) is appropriately translated by the NIV and other versions as “You shall not murder” rather than “You shall not kill.” The taking of lives in warfare, for example, would not have been considered murder. The word used in Exod. 20:13, ratsakh, occurs approximately fifty times in the OT and never refers to killing in battle, in contrast to two other words for “kill” that together occur over three hundred times and quite often refer to battle contexts. Ezekiel 21:22 (21:27 MT) might appear to be an exception, but ratsakh (NIV: “slaughter”) is probably used there to indicate the slaying of innocent people rather than military combatants.

Ratsakh, however, can also refer to unintentional killing or manslaughter (e.g., Num. 35:11); thus, the word does not necessarily mean “murder” but rather refers to the taking of any innocent life, whether intentionally or accidentally. The lone exception in Num. 35:30 is only apparently so; it is rather a statement of poetic justice: “the murderer shall be murdered.”

The prohibition against murder is grounded in the image-bearing character of humankind. Human beings are made in the image of God; therefore, to kill an innocent person is equivalent to striking out against God (Gen. 9:6).

Significantly, Jesus viewed his own approaching death in Jerusalem as a murder in a long line of murders stretching from the murder of Abel by Cain, through the killing of the OT prophets, to himself (Matt. 21:33–46; 23:29–39; Luke 11:47–54; 20:9–20).

Murrain

In Exod. 9:3 the KJV translates the Hebrew word deber as “murrain,” referring to a disease (TEV), pestilence (NRSV), or plague (NIV, ESV) upon livestock. “Murrain” is derived from the French morir, “to die.” The LXX renders the Hebrew word as “death” (thanatos). The Hebrew word usually describes human disease, and only here and in Ps. 78:50 is it applied to animals.

Mushi

A Levite, the second son of Merari (Exod. 6:19; Num. 3:20; 1 Chron. 6:19, 47; 23:21, 23; 24:26, 30), he is the ancestor of the Mushites, a Levitical family (Num. 3:33; 26:58).

Mushites

A Levite, the second son of Merari (Exod. 6:19; Num. 3:20; 1 Chron. 6:19, 47; 23:21, 23; 24:26, 30), he is the ancestor of the Mushites, a Levitical family (Num. 3:33; 26:58).

Music

The Bible often refers to songs, music, musical sounds and instruments, and dancing. We can infer several details about the instruments from their descriptions in the Bible as well as from archaeological finds and other ancient texts. NT references to music are scant; the OT material may be supplemented by ancient Near Eastern resources from Egypt, Canaan/Israel, Ugarit, and Mesopotamia.

Music

Style. In all likelihood, Israel’s music sounded much like that of its neighbors. This conjecture is particularly strengthened by findings from Ugarit, a city on the Syrian coast across from Cyprus. These findings, roughly from the time of the judges, mention some of the same musical instruments found in the Bible, some of which have been uncovered by archaeologists. The style of the poetry is very similar to the Song of Deborah (Judg. 5). Lyrically, some of the descriptions and titles used by the Canaanites for Baal are applied by Israel to Yahweh, to assert that he is the true God who has these attributes. Given these similarities in text, poetic style, and instrumentation, it is most probable that Israel’s music sounded much like that of its neighbors. Still, there is some evidence for regional styles. The direction to play psalms “according to gittith” (superscription to Pss. 8; 81; 84) may refer to the style of Gath, and similar regional interpretations are proposed for other directions in the psalms.

Lyrics. The lyric side of Israel’s songs exhibits rhythm and deliberate structure. The most obvious planned structure is the alphabetic acrostic, where the poet or songwriter composes one or more verses to begin with successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet. But the psalms exhibit many other structures involving symmetries and balance, such as equal halves, centered lines, symmetrical patterns of stanza length, and other features. The lines themselves usually demonstrate balance among their parts, having similar numbers of beats or accented syllables. Several lament poems exhibit a particular pattern known as qinah meter, which presumably also fits a musical template.

Performance. The performance of the psalms was, on at least some occasions, accompanied by multiple instruments and performed in a choir to achieve the volume necessary for community gatherings, which had no amplification equipment. It is generally assumed, though not known, that all choir members sang melody rather than in parts. They may well have integrated solo performances and musical interludes. From the poetry of the psalms, we observe different speaking voices. That is, in some instances, we hear the voice of the king, or of the people generally, or an official who addresses the audience, or a priestly or prophetic speaking voice, even the words of God himself. This is very suggestive that public performance may have brought different singers to the foreground at different times. There are also poems that employ a repeated refrain, suggesting an antiphonal performance, and others in which the priests or people in Jerusalem take up parts different from those of the arriving worshipers. While the exact execution of these songs is speculative, these elements suggest a certain amount of pageantry, at least for community settings. David is responsible for setting up Israel’s musical orders for the temple, with professional musicians with rotating responsibilities (1 Chron. 16; 25).

Instruments

Strings. The most frequently mentioned instrument is the kinnor, a lyre, also often referred to as a harp. The sound box of the harp is at the base, from which a straight or curved neck rises at a sharp angle so that the strings going from the box to the neck are of different length. The lyre has two uprights and a crosspiece on top, from which the strings of similar length stretch down to the sound box. The kinnor-lyre had eight to ten strings (based on Akkadian and Ugaritic findings and Jewish descriptions) and could be played with a pick or by hand. David’s “harp” was such a lyre. The “harp” mentioned in the NT (1 Cor. 14:7; Rev. 5:8; 14:2; 15:2) probably was also a lyre. Another OT lyre, or perhaps a harp, the nebel, complemented the kinnor-lyre. Jewish tradition about the strings implies that it produced a lower sound. The nebel-lyre is most often mentioned with other instruments, though occasionally alone. Another stringed instrument mentioned three times, the ’asor, may have been a harp or a lyre with ten strings (Pss. 33:2; 92:3; 144:9). In Pss. 45:8; 150:4 there is mention of “the strings,” which may refer to more than just the stringed instruments specifically mentioned in the Bible. The ancient world also had lutes, an instrument with a long, straight neck, fretted like a guitar or ukulele, proceeding from a small sound box.

Percussion. Timbrels, cymbals, and castanets or rattles are percussion instruments mentioned in the Bible. The timbrel, also known from Egypt and Ugarit, was a hand drum, like a tambourine but without metal jingles. The timbrel accompanies dancing and may have been used by the dancers (Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1 Sam. 18:6). Cymbals may have been paired or individual, but it is not certain whether these latter were suspended cymbals or finger cymbals, being four to six inches in diameter. In 2 Sam. 6:5 there is mention of another percussion instrument, mena’an’im (the root of this word means “to shake”), perhaps “sistrums” (NIV) or “castanets” (NASB) (although the KJV renders it as “cornets”). Egyptian sistrums were small, forked, metal instruments with three sliding crossbars that had hooked ends. Archaeologists have also found rattles made of pottery, with ceramic balls inside. Castanets were small hand-clappers joined with a string. Israel likely had all of these, though it is hard to know which is referred to in 2 Sam. 6:5. The cymbal is mentioned once in the NT (1 Cor. 13:1), though not as musically pleasing in that context.

Woodwinds and horns. The OT attests to both an animal horn, most frequently called a shopar, and a metal trumpet, the khatsotserah (Num. 10:2–10). The NT refers to a horn with a word used to translate both OT terms (salpinx). The ancient world had both flutes and shawms. Shawms have a bell-like flare at the end, while the shaft of a flute is straight to the end. What is likely a double-reed shawm is frequently translated “flute” (1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 30:29; Jer. 48:36 [NIV: “pipes”]). It is unclear whether the instrument mentioned in Gen. 4:21; Ps. 150:4 commonly translated as “flute” is a woodwind or a stringed instrument. The NT also mentions a flute or reed instrument (Matt. 11:17; 9:23; 1 Cor. 14:7; Rev. 18:22) that could be played for dancing or mourning.

Simplicity and complexity. Instruments such as horns, trumpets, and some percussion instruments were not used only for making music. The blowing of the ram’s horn or the trumpet might be used to sound the alarm, convene an assembly, or in preparation for an announcement. Aaron was to wear metal bells on the hem of his robe when entering the holy place (Exod. 28:33–35). Some of the percussion instruments may have been used to augment dance and keep rhythm more than to make music for singing. The strings were the primary instruments to accompany singing, though they were not necessarily accompanied by song.

A few Assyrian texts treat the tuning and playing of music with technical notations. From their string designations and tuning directions we can infer that their scales utilized seven notes as in the modern octave (seven notes plus one repeating). The notes for tuning stringed instruments suggest that the tunings produced different scales. Musical theory, then, was not completely absent. Many of the pictorial representations of musicians from Egypt and Mesopotamia include multiple instruments being played together (cf. Nebuchadnezzar’s instructions in Dan. 3:5, 7, 10, 15 and David’s celebration in 2 Sam. 6:5). These are not simply multiple kinds of noisemakers, although community gatherings would require volume. Rather, they exhibit a sense of understanding which instruments complemented each other well. While the singing of the ancient Near East no doubt included chanting, singing with multiple instruments suggests something more melodious than mere chanting interspersed with the strumming of a lute. This music could be styled to fit different moods, to soothe, to celebrate, to mourn, to worship. It is reasonable to suggest that the music accompanying the psalms reflected the wide range of emotions mentioned in the text.

Dancing

The dancing mentioned in the Bible is usually celebratory and positive and is combined with singing or the playing of musical instruments. Such dancing may occur at any happy occasion but is mentioned most often in connection with victory or worship (e.g., Exod. 15:20; Judg. 11:34; 1 Sam. 18:6). The women of Shiloh “join in the dancing” (Judg. 21:21) at an annual festival, which implies some manner of folk dancing. The dancing of Herodias’s daughter probably was erotic (Matt. 14:6; Mark 6:22), and the dancing of the Israelites around the golden calf probably was laden with sensuality as well (Exod. 32:19).

Mustard

A plant cultivated for its seeds (ground for spices and pressed for oil). The variety in Palestine, while fast-growing and able to reach ten feet in height, had the smallest seeds of plants then known. Jesus used the mustard plant in a parable to symbolize the growth of the kingdom of God (Matt. 13:31–32) and the seed to symbolize faith (17:20).

Muster Gate

One of two gates on the eastern enclosure wall of the temple precinct. This gate was between the East Gate (Neh. 3:29) to the south and “the room above the corner” and the Sheep Gate to the north (Neh. 3:31).

Mute

The inability or choice not to speak (Ps. 38:13; Isa. 56:10). Mosaic law claims that God either makes people mute or allows them to speak (Exod. 4:11). Muteness can be a divine judgment, as when Zechariah is unable to speak after he questions the message of the angel (Luke 1:20). The prophets anticipate a time of reversal, when “the mute tongue [will] shout for joy” (Isa. 35:6). Jesus heals at least two mute people (Matt. 9:32–34; 12:22–24). In both cases the condition is caused by demon possession. Ironically, as the Suffering Servant, one who bears God’s judgment, he becomes mute before his accusers (Isa. 53:7; Matt. 26:63; 27:12, 14; Acts 8:26–35). Paul claims that idols are “mute,” whereas God’s Spirit speaks through believers (1 Cor. 12:2–3).

Muteness

The inability or choice not to speak (Ps. 38:13; Isa. 56:10). Mosaic law claims that God either makes people mute or allows them to speak (Exod. 4:11). Muteness can be a divine judgment, as when Zechariah is unable to speak after he questions the message of the angel (Luke 1:20). The prophets anticipate a time of reversal, when “the mute tongue [will] shout for joy” (Isa. 35:6). Jesus heals at least two mute people (Matt. 9:32–34; 12:22–24). In both cases the condition is caused by demon possession. Ironically, as the Suffering Servant, one who bears God’s judgment, he becomes mute before his accusers (Isa. 53:7; Matt. 26:63; 27:12, 14; Acts 8:26–35). Paul claims that idols are “mute,” whereas God’s Spirit speaks through believers (1 Cor. 12:2–3).

Muth-Labben

A term in the superscription of Ps. 9. Some translations transliterate the Hebrew term (NRSV, NET, ESV, NASB, KJV), but others translate the phrase, “Death of the Son” (NIV, NLT). The term is probably a reference to a musical style or tune.

Mutter

To murmur, mumble, or whisper. According to Isaiah, when mediums and spiritists speak, they “whisper and mutter” (Isa. 8:19).

Muzzle

Placed over an animal’s mouth, a muzzle keeps the animal from biting or eating. The Mosaic code prohibited the muzzling of an ox while it was threshing grain, thus allowing it to eat both grain and straw (Deut. 25:4), which demonstrates humane care of animals within the law. Paul used the term metaphorically to illustrate that pastors/elders are worthy of being cared for by the church (1 Cor. 9:9; 1 Tim. 5:18).

Myra

The capital city (modern Dembre) of the Roman province of Lycia, on the southern coast of Asia Minor (with its port city Andriaca, modern Andraki). Paul changed ships here en route to Rome (Acts 27:5). The fourth-century bishop of Myra, Nicholas, later became revered as Santa Claus.

Myriad

A word derived from the Greek myrias, meaning “ten thousand.” “Myriad” is sometimes used inexactly in Greek and English translations to refer to a very large number, often of angelic beings (e.g., Heb. 12:22; Rev. 5:11).

Myrrh

The resin of the genus Commiphora, myrrh originates in southern Arabia and Somalia. The Israelites valued myrrh for its fragrant cosmetic and antiseptic properties, as a preservative, and for embalming (Gen. 37:25; Esther 2:12; Ps. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song 3:6). Upon Jesus’ birth, myrrh was a valuable gift from the magi (Matt. 2:11); at his death, myrrh mixed with wine was an undrinkable potion given to him as he hung on the cross (Mark 15:23).

Myrtle Tree

Common and valuable for food, beans were cooked while green in the pods or after being dried. Dry beans were threshed and winnowed like cereals and other grains. Beans are mentioned twice in the NIV (2 Sam. 17:28; Ezek. 4:9).

Mysia

A northern region of the Roman province of Asia in northwest Asia Minor, now Turkey. Paul entered Mysia from Galatia on his second missionary journey. When the Holy Spirit prevented his access northward into Bithynia, he proceeded through Mysia to the port city of Troas, where a vision instructed him to sail to Macedonia (Acts 16:6–10). He returned to Troas (Acts 20:6; cf. 2 Cor. 2:12; 2 Tim. 4:13) and Assos, another port city of Mysia (Acts 20:13–14). Its third seaport, Adramyttium, was the origin of the ship used on the first leg of Paul’s journey to Rome (Acts 27:2). The apostle John writes a letter to the church of Pergamum in Mysia, instructing them to repent from their adherence to false teaching (Rev. 1:11; 2:12–17).

Mystery

A mystery entails knowledge that is disclosed to some but withheld from others. Nothing is mysterious to God (Heb. 4:13), and he alone understands the full purpose of his will (Job 38:1–40:24; Isa. 46:10), but he also condescends to reveal portions of his will to those whom he chooses (John 16:15).

One way that God reveals such mysteries in the OT is through dreams and their interpretation. This is the dynamic at work in Dan. 2, where God reveals secrets to King Nebuchadnezzar through cryptic imagery. The meaning of this imagery remains hidden, however, until the “mystery was revealed to Daniel in a vision” (v. 19). Once revealed, the dreams detail God’s plans for the future of his kingdom.

Similarly, Jesus’ parables make known the character and future of God’s coming kingdom to his chosen servants, while also concealing it from those outside the circle (Matt. 13:18–23). Paul, by contrast, used “mystery” to refer to the disclosure of God’s plan for the redemption of humanity, namely the inclusion of Gentiles within “Israel” (Rom. 11:25). This plan, foreshadowed in the OT but nevertheless hidden in essentials, had only recently been fully revealed in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (Rom. 16:25; Eph. 1:9; 1 Tim. 3:16; cf. 1 Pet. 1:10–12). The gospel message is therefore the revelation of this mystery, the proclamation of the truth about Jesus Christ, now made public to the world (Eph. 3:3–9).

Mystery Religions

Mystery religions were secret cults that became popular during the NT era by providing initiates with the opportunity to develop a close relationship with a divinity in hopes of securing a more blessed afterlife. The mysteries promised that the chosen deity would provide special protection and privileges for initiates. These religions were popular in the Greco-Roman world because they provided a more experiential religious encounter than that of the traditional religious cults of the Roman Empire. They also offered a more defined theology of salvation and provided hope in overcoming fate. Additionally, the mystery religions created close-knit social ties between the initiates. There were two primary types of mystery religions: Greek and Eastern (the following lists are representative, not exhaustive).

Greek Mysteries

These mystery cults were native to Greece and foundational to all other mystery religions.

Eleusinian. The Eleusinian mysteries were among the oldest and most famous of the Greek mysteries. Initiates went to Eleusis, near Athens, to celebrate the fertility cult of Demeter (the Greek grain-goddess). Demeter was thought to provide abundant crops and a prosperous afterlife for her initiates.

Andanian. Andania was in the southwestern Peloponnese, and its mysteries were dedicated to Demeter, Hermes, Apollo, and others. The Rule of the Andanian Mysteries is an inscription outlining some of the public features of the religion, which included oath taking, wearing special clothing, chanting, singing, sacrifices, a processional, and a sacred banquet.

Cabiri. These deities were worshiped in several locations around the Aegean Sea. In general, the Cabiri were considered protective deities and were popular with sailors. Cabiri worship included ritual dances, animal sacrifices, and a unique rite of confession of sins.

Dionysiac (Bacchus). These were widespread mysteries found primarily in Asia Minor and the Greek islands. Their initiation ceremonies involved ecstatic activities with sexual promiscuity, the drinking of wine, and the eating of raw flesh from animals. The cult appealed especially to women, who played a major role in Dionysiac worship.

Eastern Mysteries

These religions, which had their origins in the Near East, were developed in the Greek mysteries and became popular throughout the Roman Empire as people became increasingly fascinated with foreign and sometimes exotic religious traditions.

Osiris and Isis. These mysteries were imported from Egypt and became the most popular of the non-Greek deities during the NT era. Osiris was the lord of the realm of death and the brother/husband of Isis. Isis became known as Sarapis in the Greek world. Osiris was thought to be a savior god with healing powers and was often compared with Zeus. Isis was considered a mother goddess in the Hellenistic world and was sometimes identified with Demeter and Aphrodite. Apuleius’s story about the initiate Lucius recounts a private ceremony in the mysteries of Isis and Osiris. In this narrative, after crossing the underworld, Lucius moves from darkness to light and is described as being “born again.”

Attis. This mystery religion came from Phrygia in Asia Minor and focused on Cybele and her young lover, Attis. The religion became known for its flamboyant followers called “Galli,” who castrated themselves in order to be eunuchs of the Great Mother (Cybele). The cult was also known for its ritual slaughter of a bull (this practice was known as the taurobolium) and the drenching of initiates in the blood of the bull.

Mithra. This mystery worshiped the Persian god Mithra (also called “Mithras”), who was a warrior of truth and justice. The cult focused on astrology and promised secret ways to control the celestial forces and thus control one’s fate. Mithraism may have been open only to men and was popular with sailors, soldiers, and government officials. The Mithraic rituals often included tests of courage. In fact, the Mithraic religion was symbolized by the slaying of a bull. The cult also included a meal in which initiates partook of bread and wine and recited certain formulas.

Christianity and Eastern Mysteries

Christianity was similar to the mystery religions in several ways: (1) They maintained a doctrine of salvation through personal choice. (2) Their members participated in ceremonies of purification. (3) They promoted egalitarianism and unity. (4) They incorporated a sacred meal into worship ceremonies. (5) They included resurrection imagery.

Christianity was different from the mystery religions in several ways: (1) Mystery initiation was highly secretive, whereas Christian initiation was a public event. (2) Mystery religions promised salvation from fate and the terrors of the afterlife, whereas Christianity promised salvation from sin through Christ. (3) The mysteries often promoted dying and rising as related to the cycle of nature, whereas Christianity promoted a true resurrection for its followers. (4) Mystery washings were for purification for initiation, whereas Christian baptism was the initiation itself. (5) The mysteries usually were expensive and thus only for the elite, whereas Christianity invited everyone to participate.

The popularity of the mystery religions during the NT era reveals that many people were frustrated with the traditional Roman religions. Their desire for a personal relationship with a benevolent deity who could provide salvation in the afterlife and lasting hope in the current life is telling. It is no surprise, therefore, that the message of Christianity was readily received and embraced by so many people during the first centuries of the Christian era. Christianity’s proclamation of the “mystery of Christ” (Col. 4:3) was the greatest mystery of all.