(Disabilities; Disability; Deformity; Deformities; Sickness]
The Bible often speaks of health, healing, disease, and
illness. Good health was a sign of God’s favor, and healing was
also the work of God and his divinely empowered agents. These agents
included the prophets (1 Kings 17:8–23; 2 Kings
5:1–15), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), and the messiah
(Mal. 4:2). The divine prerogative of Jesus was to heal (Mark 1:32;
6:56; Matt. 4:23; 8:16; 15:30; 21:14; Luke 6:10, 17–19), and
miraculous healings were a sign of his messianic office (Luke
7:20–23). Disease, on the other hand, was regarded as a sign of
God’s disfavor. Within a covenantal context, God could send
disease to punish the sinner (Exod. 4:11; 32:35).
The
Bible assigns a wide variety of names to various diseases and their
symptoms. These terms are nontechnical and generally descriptive.
Some are uncertain in meaning. In most cases they describe the
symptoms of the disease, not the disease itself. Diagnosis often was
based on incomplete observation and nonclinical examination. The
Bible also presupposes supernatural intervention in the life of a
person. Healing occurred when God’s agents touched individuals,
cast out demons, and resurrected the dead.
Ancient
Near Eastern Influences
In
the ancient Near East the knowledge of disease and medicine was
precritical. Bacteria and viruses were virtually unknown.
Mesopotamian literature contains many references to medicine,
physicians, and medical practice. Minerals, salts, herbs, and other
botanicals were used to make up treatments. Babylonian physicians
also administered prescriptions accompanied by incantations. Disease
was considered to be the result of a violation of a taboo or
possession by a demon. The Code of Hammurabi (1750 BC) includes laws
regulating the practice of medicine and surgery by physicians. In
Egypt medicine and healing were connected to the gods. Tomb paintings
and several papyrus documents describe the developing state of
Egyptian medicine, pharmacy, and surgery.
Greek
physicians admired and sought to learn the skills of the Egyptians.
However, the early Greek doctor Hippocrates (460–370 BC),
called the “Father of Medicine,” is credited with being
the first physician to reject the belief that supernatural or divine
forces cause illness. He argued that disease is the result of
environmental factors, diet, and living habits, not a punishment
imposed by the gods.
It
is clear that the biblical world shared with the ancient Near East
the same types of maladies common to tropical or subtropical
climates. These include malaria, tropical fevers, dysentery, and
sunstroke. The tendency of the hot climate to produce frequent
droughts and famine certainly contributed to similar types of
diseases throughout the Fertile Crescent. Additionally, it must be
remembered that Palestine was a land bridge between the Mesopotamian
and Egyptian worlds. Migrations carry not only goods and products,
but also parasites, communicable disease, and epidemics.
Biblical
Concept of Disease
The
religious tradition of the Hebrews repudiated the magical or demonic
origin of disease. Hence, moral, ethical, and spiritual factors
regulated disease and illness. This was true for the individual as
well as the community. The Hebrews, like the Egyptians, also
recognized that much sickness arose from the individual’s
relationship to the physical environment. Great stress was placed on
hygiene and preventive medicine.
Pentateuchal
legislation offered seven covenantal principles designed to prevent
the possibility of disease and sickness: (1) Sabbath observance
for humans, animals, and the land, which enforced regular periods of
rest (Gen. 2:3); (2) dietary regulations, which divided food
into efficient categories of clean and unclean (Lev. 11);
(3) circumcision, which carried physical benefits as well as
religious and moral implications (Gen. 17:9; circumcision is the only
example of Hebrew surgery); (4) laws governing sexual
relationships and health, including a list of forbidden degrees of
marital relationships (Lev. 18–20); (5) provisions for
individual sexual hygiene (Lev. 15); (6) stipulations for
cleanliness and bodily purification (Lev. 14:2; 15:2); (7) sanitary
and hygienic regulations for camp life (Num. 31:19; Deut. 23:12).
In
NT times magical charms and incantations were used along with folk
remedies in an effort to cure disease. Jesus repudiated these means.
He also suggested that sickness and disease were not direct
punishments for sin (John 9:2). In the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.
5–7), Jesus confirmed that the ethical and religious standards
of the new covenant promoted the total health of the community and
the individual.
Circulatory
Diseases
Nabal
most likely suffered a cerebrovascular accident or stroke (1 Sam.
25:36–38). After a heavy bout of drinking, his heart “died”
(KJV; NIV: “failed”), and he became paralyzed, lapsed
into a coma, and died ten days later. Psalm 137:5–6 may contain
a clinical example of the symptoms of stroke. The psalmist wrote, “If
I forget you, Jerusalem, may my right hand forget its skill. May my
tongue cling to the roof of my mouth if I do not remember you.”
This description points to a paralysis of the right side of the body
(right hemiplegia) and the loss of speech (motor aphasia) that result
from a stroke on the left side of the brain. Basically, the exiled
psalmist is wishing upon himself the effects of a stroke if he held
anything other than Jerusalem as his highest priority. Some have
considered the collapse of Uzzah when he reached out to stabilize the
ark of the covenant (2 Sam. 6:6–7) to be the consequence
of an apoplectic seizure. But since no actual paralysis was described
and death occurred immediately, this seems unlikely. It is more
probable that God struck him down with an aortic aneurism or a
coronary thrombosis.
Paralysis
A
possible case of paralysis may be described in the shriveled
(atrophic) hand of Jeroboam I (1 Kings 13:4–6). In an
angry outburst Jeroboam ordered the arrest of a prophet who condemned
the altar at Bethel. When Jeroboam stretched out his hand, it
“shriveled up, so that he could not pull it back.”
Several complicated diagnoses have been offered to explain the
“withered” hand, but it is possibly an example of
cataplexy, a sudden loss of muscle power following a strong emotional
stimulus. After intercession by the man of God, and the subsiding of
the emotional outburst, the arm was restored.
The
threat against the faithless shepherd of God’s people (Zech.
11:17), which included a withered arm and blindness in the right eye,
may refer to a form of paralysis known as tabes dorsalis, or
locomotor ataxia. Knifelike pains in the extremities and blindness
characterize this disease.
Paralysis
is frequently mentioned in the NT (Matt. 8:6; 9:2, 6; 12:10; Mark
2:3–5, 9, 10; 3:1, 3, 5; Luke 5:18, 24; 6:6; John 5:3; Acts
9:33; Heb. 12:12). The exact diagnosis for each of these cases
remains uncertain.
The
physician Luke’s use of the Greek medical term paralelymenos
(Luke 5:18, 24) suggests that some of these cases were caused by
chronic organic disease. Others clearly were congenital (Acts 3:2;
cf. 14:8). It is not necessary to rationalize the origin of these
examples of paralysis as hysteria or pretense. The NT writers
regarded the healing of these individuals by Jesus and the apostles
as miraculous.
Mental
Illness and Brain Disorders
Cases
of mental disease are generally described in the Bible by noting the
symptoms produced by the disorder. The particular cause of a mental
illness in the NT is often blamed on an unknown evil spirit or
spirits (Luke 8:2). Such spirits, however, were subject to God’s
control and operated only within the boundaries allowed by him
(1 Sam. 16:14–16, 23; 18:10; 19:9). Accordingly, in the OT
“madness” and “confusion of mind” were
regarded as consequences of covenantal disobedience (Deut. 28:28,
34).
It
has been argued that King Saul displayed early indications of
personality disorder. Symptoms included pride, self-aggrandizement
(1 Sam. 11:6; 13:12; 15:9, 19), and ecstatic behavior
(10:11–12). A rapid deterioration in Saul’s character
transpired after David was anointed and became more popular (16:14;
18:10–11). Since Saul demonstrated fear, jealousy, a sense of
persecution, and homicidal tendencies, some scholars argue that he
suffered from paranoid schizophrenia.
Nebuchadnezzar
suffered a rare form of monomania in which he lived like a wild beast
in the field eating grass (Dan. 4:33). David, in order to save his
own life, feigned insanity or perhaps epilepsy before the Philistine
king Achish (1 Sam. 21:12–15).
In
the NT, individuals with mental disorders went about naked, mutilated
themselves, lived in tombs (Mark 5:2), and exhibited violent behavior
(Matt. 8:28). Such mental disorientation was often linked to demon
possession. Examples include the Syrophoenician’s child (Matt.
15:22; Mark 7:25), the demoniacs at Gerasa (Matt. 8:28; Mark 5:2;
Luke 8:27) and Capernaum (Mark 1:23; Luke 4:33), a blind and mute
demoniac (Matt. 12:22; Luke 11:14), and a fortune-telling slave girl
(Acts 16:16). While such behavior is clinically suggestive of
paranoid schizophrenia or other mental disorders, the
mind-controlling influence of some extraneous negative force cannot
be ruled out.
Epilepsy
(grand mal) causes the afflicted person to fall to the ground, foam
at the mouth, and clench or grind the teeth (Matt. 17:15; Mark
9:17–18; Luke 9:39). The description of Saul falling to the
ground in an ecstatic state (1 Sam. 19:23–24) and Balaam
falling with open eyes may be indicative of an epileptic seizure. In
the NT, Jesus healed many who suffered from epilepsy (Matt. 4:24;
17:14–18; Mark 9:17–18; Luke 9:38–42). Some
scholars have linked the light seen by Paul on the road to Damascus
with the aura that some epileptics experience prior to a seizure. His
subsequent blindness has also been attributed to the epileptic
disturbance of the circulation of the blood in the brain.
Childhood
Diseases
The
cause of the death of the widow’s son at Zarephath is unknown
(1 Kings 17:17–22). The death of the Shunammite woman’s
son has been attributed to sunstroke (2 Kings 4:18–37),
although a headache is the only symptom recorded (v. 19). In
both cases there is too little evidence to present an accurate
diagnosis.
In
the first case, the boy at Zarephath stopped breathing (1 Kings
17:17). This may leave the door open to argue that Elijah
resuscitated the child. However, in the second case, the text clearly
states that the Shunammite boy died (2 Kings 4:20), implying a
resurrection.
Infectious
and Communicable Diseases
Fever
and other calamities are listed among the punishments for covenantal
infidelity (Deut. 28:22). Three different types of fever may be
intentionally described here: “fever,” “inflammation,”
and “scorching heat” (ESV: “fiery heat”).
Fever is also mentioned frequently in the NT (Matt. 8:15; Mark
1:30–31; Luke 4:38–39; John 4:52; Acts 28:8). Both Jesus
and Paul healed individuals who had a fever. A number of these fevers
were likely caused by malaria, since the disease was known to be
endemic to the Jordan Valley and other marshy areas in Palestine.
Several
epidemics in which numerous people died of pestilence or plague are
mentioned in the OT (Exod. 11:1; 12:13; Num. 14:37; Zech. 14:12). The
fifth plague of Egypt (Exod. 9:3–6) has been attributed to
Jordan Rift Valley fever, which is spread by flies. Bubonic plague
has been blamed for the malady that struck the Philistines (1 Sam.
5–6). However, it may have been the result of a severe form of
tropical dysentery. Acute bacillary dysentery contracted in the
military camp may also have been responsible for the epidemic that
killed a large number of the Assyrian army (2 Kings 19:35).
Parasitic
Diseases
Some
scholars have repeatedly argued that the “fiery serpents”
(NIV: “venomous snakes”) encountered by Moses and the
children of Israel (Num. 21:6–9) were in reality an infestation
of the parasitic guinea worm (Dracunculus medinensis). Microscopic
fleas ingested in drinking water carry the larvae of this slender
nematode into the body. The larvae move from the digestive tract to
the skin. The adult worm, which may grow to a length of several feet,
discharges its eggs into an ulcer on the skin. Death of the host
occurs because of the resulting infection of the skin ulcers.
After
the conquest of Jericho, Joshua cursed the individual who would
endeavor to rebuild the city (Josh. 6:26). Later, Hiel of Bethel
attempted to rebuild the city and lost two of his sons as a result of
the curse (1 Kings 16:34). Elisha was then asked to purify the
bad water at Jericho in order to allow a new settlement (2 Kings
2:19). Elisha obliged by throwing salt into the spring and thereby
making the water potable (2:20–22). Recent archaeological study
has discovered the remains of certain snails in the mud-bricks used
to construct Jericho in the Bronze Age. These types of snails are now
known to serve as intermediate hosts for the flatworm parasite that
can cause schistosomiasis. The Schistosoma haematobium trematode
infects the urinary tract and the bladder. It is possible that this
type of parasite was responsible for the death of Hiel’s two
sons.
In
NT times, Herod Agrippa apparently died of the complications of a
parasitic disease, perhaps being infested by the larvae of flies
(myiasis) in the bowels. Luke mentions that he was “eaten by
worms” (skōlēkobrōtos [Acts 12:23]). The father
of Publius also suffered from dysentery (Acts 28:8).
Physical
Deformities and Abnormalities
Individuals
with deformities were disqualified from priestly service (Lev.
21:18–20). The list included lameness, limb damage, and
dwarfism. The deformities mentioned here might have been congenital
or acquired. Mephibosheth was dropped by his nurse (2 Sam. 4:4) and
perhaps suffered damage to the spinal cord. Jacob possibly sustained
injury to an intervertebral disk (Gen. 32:32) causing a deformity and
a limp. The woman who was “bent over” (Luke 13:10–17)
might have suffered from an abnormality of the spine similar to
scoliosis. It is difficult to ascertain the origin of the “shriveled
hand” of the unnamed individual healed by Jesus (Matt.
12:10–13; Mark 3:1–5; Luke 6:6–10). It could be
congenital in character or a paralysis caused by any number of
factors.
Diseases
and Disabilities of the Eyes and Ears
Physical
blindness is mentioned several times in the Bible. Blindness excluded
one from serving as a priest (Lev. 21:18, 20). Blindness and
deafness, however, were disabilities requiring special care from the
community (Lev. 19:14; Deut. 27:18). The “weak eyes” of
Leah may refer to an eye condition (Gen. 29:17).
Blindness
in the biblical world was caused by various factors. Leviticus 26:16
speaks of a fever that destroys the eyes. Flies probably were
responsible for much of the conjunctivitis found in children. John
9:1 mentions congenital blindness, which Jesus cured using mud made
from spittle and dirt (John 9:6). In Mark 8:22–26 Jesus healed
a blind man by spitting in his eye and laying hands on him (cf. Matt.
20:34 with Mark 10:52).
Congenital
deafness would also be associated with mutism and speech defects
because a child learning to speak depends on imitation and mimicry.
Jesus healed a man who was deaf and could barely talk (Mark 7:32–37).
The man’s inability to say much possibly pointed to a loss of
hearing early in life.
Skin
Conditions
Various
skin and hair abnormalities are described in the Bible. Some made the
individual unclean (Lev. 13:30; 14:54). The OT speaks of “the
boils of Egypt” (Deut. 28:27; cf. Exod. 9:9). Skin ailments
included tumors, festering sores, boils, infections, and the itch
(Deut. 28:27, 35; Isa. 3:7). Job complained of a litany of ailments:
broken and festering skin (7:5), multiple wounds (9:17), black
peeling skin and fever (30:30), gnawing bone pain (2:5; 19:20;
30:17), insomnia (7:3–4), and wasting away (33:21). These
symptoms have been diagnosed as indications of yaws or eczema. A
poultice made of figs cured Hezekiah’s boil (2 Kings
20:7).
Leprosy
was once thought to be a common problem in the biblical world.
Leprosy (Hansen’s disease) is a slow, progressive chronic
infectious disease caused by a bacterium. Symptoms include loss of
sensation and loss of parts of the body. Evidence for this type of
disease in Palestine is rare. Uzziah may have had a true case of
Hansen’s disease. He was quarantined until the day he died
(2 Chron. 26:21).
Scholars
now suggest that the symptoms of the disease described in the Bible
do not fit this pattern and thus do not signify leprosy (Hansen’s
disease) as it is known today. Instead, the word that English
versions translate as “leprosy” (Heb. root tsr’)
probably refers to different types of infectious skin disease, often
characterized by a long-standing, patchy skin condition associated
with peeling or flakiness and redness of skin. Evidence points more
toward psoriasis, fungal infections, or dermatitis.
This
disease could appear in humans (Lev. 14:2), on buildings (14:34), and
on clothing (14:55). It was not limited to the extremities but could
occur on the head (14:42–44). It could run its course quickly
(13:5–8). It made the individual ceremonially unclean, but it
was also curable (Lev. 14:3; 2 Kings 5:1–27). Individuals
with the disease were not necessarily shunned (2 Kings 7; Matt.
26:6 // Mark 14:3). Moses (Exod. 4:6), Miriam (Num. 12:10), and
Naaman experienced this type of skin disease (2 Kings 5:1–27).
Jesus healed many suffering from skin ailments (Matt. 8:2–3;
Mark 1:40–42; Luke 5:12–13), including the ten “men
who had leprosy” (Luke 17:12–14).
Ailments
of an Unknown Nature
Some
cases in the Bible present insufficient evidence for scholars to
render a clear diagnosis. King Asa suffered a disease in his feet
(2 Chron. 16:12). However, in the OT the Hebrew expression for
“feet” is sometimes used euphemistically for the sexual
organs (Judg. 3:24 KJV). Because of this, the exact nature of the
disease is ambiguous. Jehoram was afflicted with “an incurable
disease of the bowels” (2 Chron. 21:18–19). Other
unknown ailments factor in the deaths of the firstborn son of David
and Bathsheba (2 Sam. 12:15), of Jeroboam’s son in infancy
(1 Kings 14:17), of Elisha (2 Kings 13:14), and of
Ezekiel’s wife (Ezek. 24:16).
