The Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS) were first discovered in 1947 by a
Bedouin shepherd in a cave near Khirbet Qumran (see Qumran). Over the
next several years, ten other caves were found by Bedouins (Caves 4,
11) and archaeologists (Caves 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10). The
caves are numbered according to the order in which they were found:
Cave 1 was found first, Cave 11 last. The scrolls are
mostly written in Hebrew, but there are also a number in Aramaic and
a few in Greek. There are thousands of fragments of over nine hundred
scrolls. Some of the scrolls are virtually complete, while others are
in tiny fragments smaller than a postage stamp.
The
scrolls are our earliest manuscript witness to both the Hebrew OT and
the Greek OT. They give us a glimpse into the beliefs of a Jewish
sect thought to be composed of members of the Jewish party known as
the Essenes and help us to understand the development of the Hebrew
language.
The
Bible in the Dead Sea Scrolls
Approximately
20 percent of the DSS are biblical manuscripts dating from the
mid-third century BC to the mid-first century AD. This means that the
biblical manuscripts found at Qumran predate our previous manuscript
witnesses to the Hebrew OT by around one thousand years (though there
are some manuscripts from the intervening centuries; see below,
“Other Scrolls from the Judean Desert”). The Greek OT
fragments are the oldest Greek witnesses, but the Greek OT, in
contrast to the Hebrew, has a relatively continuous witness
throughout the centuries. The centuries-long gap between the extant
witnesses of the Hebrew text is explained by the Jewish practice of
ritually destroying biblical manuscripts when they are worn out.
About
one-third of the biblical manuscripts found at Qumran are very close
to those from a thousand years later, when the manuscript evidence
for the Hebrew OT picks up again. These manuscripts are called
“proto-Masoretic,” as they generally conform to the
Masoretic Text (MT), the Bible of the rabbis and the Bible from which
modern OT translations are generally made.
Among
the remaining biblical manuscripts, some seem to contain texts
similar to the Septuagint (LXX) and the Samaritan Pentateuch. Other
manuscripts have unique readings, and still others conform to the LXX
in one place and the MT in another place, and so forth. By the time
of the second-century evidence to the Hebrew text, there seems to be
a uniform text, as rabbis were choosing their received text and
suppressing variant readings. The Greek fragments found at Qumran
seem to reflect an editing of the text toward the Hebrew text; since
these revised Greek fragments date from the first century BC, we can
see that before the second century AD the rabbis had a standard
biblical text from which they worked.
The
biblical scrolls from Qumran include all the books in the Hebrew OT
except for Esther. Whether the absence of Esther at Qumran is due to
it not being seen as inspired or is an accident of history, we will
never know. Statistically, based on the number of scrolls found of
the various books of the Bible, the Qumran sectarians favored
Deuteronomy (over thirty scrolls), Isaiah (twenty-two), and Psalms
(approximately forty scrolls).
The
psalms at Qumran are especially interesting. Some of the scrolls
contain psalms not found in the Psalter as preserved in the rabbinic
Bible, and the ordering within some of the psalms scrolls is
different.
From
the sectarian scrolls (see the next section), we can understand the
contents of the biblical canon at Qumran. Some of the sectarian
literature at Qumran indicates that the Qumranites had a canon
similar to that of rabbinic Judaism. Most statements concerning canon
at Qumran refer to the law of Moses and to the prophets. Another
statement in the Ha-lakhic Letter divides the canon into four parts:
Torah, the Prophets, David, and the Chronicles. We cannot assume that
the Qumran sectarians considered all the scrolls in the caves to be
canonical Scripture.
Sectarian
Scrolls
Besides
biblical texts, the DSS contain documents by which the Qumran
sectarians organized their community, oriented themselves toward the
outside world, and stated their goals. This is a rather fluid
category; some of the literature that has not been included in this
category easily could be.
The
Rule of the Community.
This text is found in various revisions in a few of the caves, but
the main, virtually complete, copy is from Cave 1 (1QS). In
general, the community rule discusses the purpose of the Qumran
community, the requirements for entry, who can consume the pure food
and drink, and punishment for infractions. Much of the rule involves
when an initiate can be numbered among the community, “the
Many,” and the initiate’s duties toward leaders,
especially the “sons of Zadok.” There are certain
sections directed toward the Instructor, or the wise person, who
teaches to the rest of the community the sectarians’ dualistic
understanding of humanity as predestined to be either sons of light
or sons of darkness. The instructor is to teach and to examine the
community as to how they are progressing so that they may “walk
perfectly.” An interesting feature of the Rule of the Community
is that the sectarians were to keep their knowledge concealed from
the outside. They were a community separated from the broader society
and very much concerned about the purity, both moral and ritual, of
their members.
The
Damascus Document (Zadokite Fragments).
This text was found in Caves 4, 5, 6. A version of it was also
found in the Cairo Genizah in Egypt. The Damascus Document discusses
the larger sectarian community to which the Qumran community
apparently belonged. The first section of the document is known as
“the Admonition.” It discusses how Israel consistently
did not follow God, which eventually led to the destruction of the
first temple. The sectarians are the remnant of true Israel, a plant
that God caused to grow from Israel and Aaron (CD-A 1:5–7). The
Damascus Document is a source for the reconstruction of the
sectarians’ history. Included within the Admonition are
midrashlike scriptural interpretations in which the sectarians apply
the Bible to themselves and to their opponents. The second section,
known as “the Laws,” contains laws for members of the
sect covering everything from Sabbath observance to witnesses in
court. In other words, it presents a comprehensive view of community
life as envisioned by sectarian law, which is at times markedly
different from what we know about rabbinic law. There has been some
discussion concerning the role that Damascus plays in the document,
as the sectarians are said to be in exile in Damascus. Earlier
scholars interpreted this as an actual move to Damascus, but based on
newer research, “Damascus” is now taken to be a code word
for “Qumran.”
The
War Scroll.
There are seven copies of the War Scroll, one from Cave 1 (1QM),
and six from Cave 6. The War Scroll is addressed to the
Instructor and is essentially a battle manual for conducting the
future, final battle between the sons of light and the sons of
darkness. The sons of light defeat their enemies, and ultimately all
evil is defeated. The foes are often spoken of in symbolic language,
so it is difficult to identify them exactly. The outcome of the final
battle in which the sons of light defeat their enemies has been
preordained by God. The War Scroll uses ancient battle tactics to
describe the various battalions of troops in the army of the sons of
light. Numerous details are described concerning the deployment of
priests as well as the ritual purity of the soldiers, including the
avoidance of nakedness in the camps, because the angels are encamped
with them. The banners described in the War Scroll have slogans
written on them, such as “God’s offering,” rather
than images in order to avoid breaking the commandment against making
images. The latter half of this text is punctuated by war hymns that
are sung when returning to camp, songs that curse the sons of Belial,
and so forth.
The
Halakhic Letter.
The Halakhic Letter (4QMMT) is a letter composed by a leader of the
Qumran community to the priests in the Jerusalem temple. Some believe
that the writer of this letter was the Teacher of Righteousness
himself (an early leader, perhaps founder, of the Qumran sect, who
was considered an authoritative interpreter of Torah and the
Prophets), but there is insufficient evidence to determine exactly
who wrote it. The letter lists over twenty points of disagreement
concerning ritual behavior in temple service. Some differences
include whether pouring liquid from a clean container into an unclean
one pollutes the clean one, whether blind and/or deaf people can
participate in the temple service, and whether the priests involved
in the rites of purity with the red heifer and the sin offering
should be purified before sunset or wait until morning to be
purified. Invariably, the Qumranites had a stricter halakah (laws
governing sacrifice, ritual purity, Sabbath observance, etc.) than
did the priests at the Jerusalem temple. The Halakhic Letter gives us
a rare glimpse into the community before they condemn the Jerusalem
priests to complete reprobation. Although there are harsh warnings
given to the Jerusalem priests, reconciliation and redemption are
possible if they follow the halakah of the Qumranites. This letter
contrasts with much of the other sectarian literature found at
Qumran, in which the Qumranites’ enemies are the sons of
darkness and are condemned to destruction. Also, in some of the other
sectarian literature the Qumranites are to hate their enemies and
hide their knowledge from them.
Some
rabbinic scholars have compared the Halakhic Letter with the Mishnah.
There are similarities between the halakah of the Qumranites and that
of the Sadducees. This has led some scholars to conclude that there
was a Sadducean group at Qumran. This is plausible, and it cautions
against identifying the Qumranites with the Essenes completely and
uncritically.
Other
Literature
The
DSS contain various types of literature, too many to discuss here.
This section of the article will examine primarily exegetical
literature—the interpretation of Scripture—with a brief
mention also of the Copper Scroll.
Targumim
and rewritten Scripture.
The Targumim are Aramaic translations of books from the Hebrew Bible.
As well as being a translation, a Targum provides some explanatory
interpretation of the Hebrew Bible. There were fragments of a Targum
of Leviticus as well as fragments from two Targumim of Job found at
Qumran. The Qumran scrolls also contain two major reworkings of
Genesis: Jubilees and the Genesis Apocryphon. First Enoch and the
Book of the Giants are, in a way, huge expansions on Genesis.
Pesharim.
The Pesharim are a unique form of biblical commentary found at
Qumran. Scholars have named them after the literature’s use of
the Hebrew term pesher (“interpretation”) to introduce
interpretive material. The Pesher quotes a portion of Scripture,
includes a derivative of the word pesher, and then gives an
interpretation of the Scripture text. The scholarship concerning the
Pesherim and their exegetical technique is immense. The most fruitful
line of investigation involves examining similarities between the
Pesharim and Daniel’s interpretation of the writing on the wall
in Dan. 5:25–28. The term pesher and its earlier Hebrew cognate
pathar are used concerning Daniel’s and Joseph’s
interpretations of dreams (in Daniel and Genesis respectively).
Scholarship
has generally considered there to be two types of Pesharim at Qumran,
continuous and thematic. The continuous Pesharim interpret books of
the Bible, usually one of the prophets, verse by verse, whereas the
thematic Pesharim are organized around a theme. The Pesharim operate
on the understanding that the Qumran community is the remnant of
Israel at the end of days and that Scripture is being fulfilled in
relation to the community. The Scriptures speak about them, and the
Pesharim are inspired interpretation by which one learns the true
meaning of the Scripture text. The prophets spoke partially, and the
Teacher of Righteousness taught the Qumran community the true meaning
of the biblical text that the prophet did not understand (1QpHab
7:1–14).
The
Pesharim are useful in reconstructing the history of the Qumran sect
because they interpret the Scriptures in light of the community’s
own experience. The Pesharim speak a code language in which specific
people and groups are mostly given code names, so reconstructing the
history of the Qumran community from the Pesharim is educated
guesswork. Pesharim (indicated with “p”) are signified
according to the cave in which they were found and the biblical book
commented on. So, for example, “1QpHab” refers to the
Pesher on Habakkuk found in Qumran Cave 1.
The
Copper Scroll.
The Copper Scroll, so named for the material from which it is made,
is a list of treasures from the temple and their hidden locations
throughout Palestine. The purpose of this scroll is a mystery, but it
is valuable for the insights that it provides into the history of the
Hebrew language.
Theology
of the Qumran Sect as Illuminated by the Scrolls
As
illustrated by the sect’s literature, three main theological
points were foundational for the Qumranites: (1) ritual purity,
(2) deterministic dualism, and (3) the community as the
center of prophecy.
The
Qumranites were a priestly group deeply concerned about ritual
purity. Their strict way of life ensured that ritual purity would be
maintained. This was important for at least three reasons. First,
they were the true remnant of the Zadokite priesthood. They had to
remain suitable for service in the temple when God would restore them
to it. Second, angels were in their midst in worship. In order to
remain worthy of participating in worship with angels, they had to be
ritually pure. Third, the angels would also be with them in the final
battle. This battle would be religious in nature, and so ritual
purity was important in order to engage in it.
The
Qumranites held a dualistic outlook, seeing the world as divided
between two camps: the sons of light and the sons of darkness. These
two groups were predestined by God either to redemption and blessing
or to condemnation and destruction. God had preordained that these
two groups be in continual struggle until a final conflict in which
the sons of light would emerge victorious and a messianic age would
ensue in which Israel would be fully restored.
Connected
with their dualism and belief in predestination was the Qumranite
belief that their community was the center of prophetic literature.
Their community was at the heart of what was taking place in the end
of days.
History
of the Qumran Sect as Illuminated by the Scrolls
The
Qumran community was formed by a group of disaffected Zadokite
priests who lost power when the Hasmoneans assumed the high
priesthood; the Hasmoneans were not from a family that the Qumranites
considered legitimate and did not follow a strict enough halakah. The
group was relatively directionless for about twenty years, until a
charismatic leader emerged that galvanized the group and gave it
direction. At this initial stage, although relationships between the
Qumranites and the Jerusalem priesthood were strained, their
differences were not irreconcilable. During this time the Halakhic
Letter was written. Things took a turn for the worse when the “Wicked
Priest” confronted and possibly attacked the Teacher of
Righteousness at Qumran on the Day of Atonement (the Qumranites
followed a different calendar from that of their adversaries). Along
with the Wicked Priest, another of the Qumranites’ enemies was
the “Man of Lies,” who rejected the sect’s
understanding of the law. The Pesher on Habakkuk calls both of these
enemies traitors, so perhaps they were people from whom the
Qumranites expected support. From this point onward, the Qumranites
became more polarized from their Jerusalem rivals, and their goals
changed from reforming the Jerusalem temple to maintaining their own
cultic purity as they waited for the end of days, when God would help
them destroy their enemies and reestablish them as the head of a new
temple. Apparently, this development began to take longer than they
expected (1QpHab 7). The historical allusions in the Zadokite
Fragments and the Pesharim depict a group that was active in the
Hasmonean period and, like the Pharisees and the Sadducees, was
involved in the politics of the day.
The
Dead Sea Scrolls and the Earliest Christians
In
spite of earlier scholarship’s claim that NT fragments were
found at Qumran, this is not the case. What were thought to be NT
fragments proved to be LXX and First Enoch fragments. Despite claims
that the Teacher of Righteousness was Jesus, the texts on which such
a claim was based predate the Christian era. That being the case,
there are similarities between the group described in the DSS and the
early Christians. Both centered on a person who faced opposition, in
one case the Teacher of Righteousness, and in the other case Jesus of
Nazareth. Both saw its group as pivotal to the culmination of the
messianic age, either through the group itself, as in the case of
Qumran, or in the return of Jesus, for early Christianity. Both the
Qumran sectarians and the earliest Christians were messianic. The
Qumran sectarians believed in two messiahs, one Davidic and one
priestly, both to come in the future. The early Christians believed
in Jesus as the Messiah, who came and who would come again to judge
and restore all things.
Other
Scrolls from the Judean Desert
In
the wake of the discovery of the DSS, archaeologists scoured the
caves of the Judean Desert near the Dead Sea and did find more
scrolls. Archaeologists also excavated Masada in the 1960s and found
scrolls there. Besides Masada, the two most significant sites for the
discovery of scrolls were Wadi Murabba’at and Nahal Hever. The
biblical scrolls found at all three of these sites are significant
because they are Proto-Masoretic. These biblical scrolls date from
the late first century AD to the early second century AD and
represent a time in which rabbinic Judaism and the rabbinic Bible
became dominant, in contrast to the non-Proto-Masoretic scrolls found
at Qumran, which represent other textual strands of the Hebrew Bible.
All
the biblical scrolls found at Masada predate AD 73, when the site
fell to the Romans. Archaeologists found there the fragments of a
Deuteronomy scroll, two Leviticus scrolls, two Psalms scrolls, and an
Ezekiel scroll. At Wadi Murabba’at archaeologists found a
relatively intact scroll of the Minor Prophets, as well as the
fragments of a Torah scroll and Isaiah. At Nahal Hever fragments of a
Psalms scroll and fragments of Genesis and Numbers were discovered. A
Greek Minor Prophets scroll was found at Nahal Hever as well. This is
significant because the Greek scroll is very similar to the rabbinic
Bible. Although the Jews came to reject the LXX, an ancient Greek
translation of the Hebrew Bible that the Christians adopted, they
still found a Greek translation necessary. The scrolls at Nahal Hever
and Wadi Murabba’at predate AD 132–135, the time of the
Bar Kokhba Revolt.
Besides
having biblical scrolls, Nahal Hever was rich in material that gives
a glimpse into the social and political life of ancient Palestine. In
the Cave of Letters, archaeologists found the archive of a Jewish
woman, Babatha, which includes a marriage contract (ketubah), a
document that discusses how her son is to be cared for, and so forth.
The details of the material in the Babatha archive conform to what we
know was required by Jewish law in the early rabbinic literature.
Also found in the Cave of Letters were letters to and from Simon
Bar Kosiba (famously known as Simon Bar Kokhba), the leader
of the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome. From these letters, we know
that Bar Kosiba was a religious Jew who celebrated the Jewish
festivals even though there was a war going on; for example, he
discusses the provisions for celebrating the Feast of Booths.
The
finds at Masada and Nahal Hever give us a glimpse into the religious
motivation of much of the revolutionary activity, since the
revolutionaries hiding at these places brought biblical texts with
them.
