35 Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, preaching the good news of the kingdom and healing every disease and sickness. 36 When he saw the crowds, he had compassion on them, because they were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd. 37 Then he said to his disciples, "The harvest is plentiful but the workers are few. 38 Ask the Lord of the harvest, therefore, to send out workers into his harvest field."
by Lori Wagner
Prop: Shofar
I grew up on nursery rhymes. How many of you did too? Today, I want to talk about this one. Say it with me:
“Little Boy Blue,
Come blow your horn,
The sheep's in the meadow,
The cow's in the corn;
But where is the boy
Who looks after the sheep?
He's under a haystack,
He's fast asleep.”
It’s said that in early times, shepherds often carried either horns or wooden flutes that they used to call in their sheep. The “voice” of the shepherd could be his actual physical voice, or it could be the voice of his horn or shofar. Either way, that “voice” would be unique to that shepherd.
Many times a number of shepherds would graze their sheep on the hills of Bethlehem, but when it was time to come in, each shepherd would call the sheep in his own “voice.”
When the horn would sound, the sheep would immediately follow their own shepherd.
Sometimes though a sheep could get distracted and if one went astray, others could follow. Sheep are natural followers. So it was very important to have a shepherd who was paying attention. And not sleeping on the job, as the nursery rhyme suggests little boy blue was.
The shofar is a Jewish instrument. I’ve got one here today. [Blow it if you can and dare.] It is one of the prominent metaphors in our scriptures for the sound of God’s voice. And in fact scripture tells us too that God is the shepherd of all of us.
The shofar was used to call people to worship, to remind people of God’s presence on high holy days. And to sound the alarm if need be. It was the “voice” used to call God’s flock to receive the 10 commandments on Mt. Sinai in the Exodus story (19).
The shofar is made from a ram’s horn. Some relate this ram’s horn to the sacrifice of Isaac –or rather God’s saving Isaac from sacrifice by sacrificing a ram instead. Whichever way you look at it, the shofar is a holy instrument, signifying God’s presence, grace, protection, and salvation. It also signifies the call to God’s holy feast.
The shofar was used (and still is today) to sound the celebration of Shavuot –otherwise known as Pentecost—the Feast of the Wheat Harvest. The sounding meant, it was time for people to celebrate the joy of God’s harvest, but also to repent and return to God if you have wandered astray.
When Jesus talks to his disciples about the harvest, he’s saying that the time had come for God’s judgment and salvation. Shavuot would soon be followed by the ingathering at Sukkot.
Harvest was a joyful time. The wheat harvest was the last of the grain offerings. It was a harvest of blessing and feasting, when the harvest was good. It was a time to take notice of all of God’s abundant blessings. But for those who had turned away from God, it was also a time to perk up and shape up, because the threshing floor was near. And the wheat would be soon separated from the chaff. Those who were “dressed” for the wedding, would be taken in to God’s table. Those who thwarted the Master of the Feast would be swept away and burnt with the chaff. It was a time to remain awake, to be ready to receive God’s redemption.
Shavuot is a time of making sure you are keeping your side of the covenant. Harvest time is oath reminder time. And –it’s the time when the Bridegroom (God and in this case the Messiah) comes for his Bride (God’s bethrothed flock).
The Harvest is a fulfillment celebration. The seeds were long planted. They were nurtured, and the waiting began. The wheat is the last grain to mature. Now the waiting is over, and the wheat is harvested. It’s a time for joy, and dancing, and singing, and praise. But it’s also a time of culmination.
A covenant is a two-sided agreement. When God promises the people of Israel that they will come into the promised land, their combined story begins with their Exodus from Egypt. But it is culminated in the giving of the Torah (the ten commandments) at Mt. Sinai before entering the promised land. This is the time when God swears a covenant with the people. And the time when the people agree to serve and worship God and live by God’s commandments.
Shavuot is the culmination of the Passover Feast 50 days before. At Passover, the exodus from Egypt is remembered. It is the beginning of God’s salvation plan. But Shavuot is the fulfillment of it.
For Jesus, Shavuot is also a time when God’s messianic plan comes to fruition. Jesus warned that God’s kingdom had come near. Soon, those who have waited long will see God’s salvation fulfilled. Passover was the betrothal (the time of the planting of God’s seed). And the betrothal has been long. But now it is time for the harvest, the union between God and people.
Shavuot in a sense is a marriage ceremony –a marriage between God (shepherd) and flock. And so the shofar blows, signaling the time of fulfillment.
God’s voice has spoken. All who honor God must come to the Feast. All who love God will know God’s voice. They will know Messiah’s voice too.
As Jesus announces the time for God’s “harvest” in our scripture today, it is no doubt time for Shavuot. Shavuot was one of the three times in Jesus’ day when all Jewish people had to make the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. So people would have come from everywhere throughout Judea, Samaria, and Galilee, and beyond to celebrate the harvest festival, bringing their gifts of grain and fruits of the field.
Jesus knew that the “shepherds” of Israel (the sadducees, priests, many of the Pharisees) were not steering the people into the arms of God, but leading them astray in all kinds of ways. He saw them as lost….wandering….needing to be led.
I can imagine him looking out over the crowds, many of them following him, many not knowing what to believe or whom to follow. Jesus, the Good Shepherd, must call them home to God. And he will need many helpers to do it.
“Pray,” he said to his disciples. “Pray to the Lord to send workers into the harvest fields.” “The harvest is plentiful but the workers are few.” It’s time. “Go.”
Has anyone here ever worked on a farm? [Allow people to answer.]
My grandparents had a farm. You did? Yours too?
Well, what I can tell you is that you can’t run an entire farm all on your own. One person can’t do it. It’s simply too hard. It takes a number of people to make a harvest truly successful.
Jesus, having grown up in one of the most agricultural regions of Israel –in Galilee—knew too that it would take many to do what needed to be done. There were many who were ripe for knowledge, ready to learn, needful of God’s blessings, and wanting to do the things God wanted them to do. But they were without a proper shepherd. Even Jesus was only one person. And as Luke tells us, he needed his disciples to go ahead of him to town after town to proclaim his message, and to ready the people to hear him, to teach them, and to warn them.
In a sense, Jesus’ disciples became his shofars, carrying his “voice” to all of the flocks they could. Their voices would precede his, even as they echoed his. And those who truly belonged to God, would stop, turn, and listen.
When the disciples preached in Jesus’ name, it was Jesus’ voice they heard. The “call” of the Shepherd is inherent in the voice of His followers.
Just as Jesus calls followers, he also was calling shepherds, those who would help his voice carry through the towns –and through the ages.
In the Himalayas, a Sherpa is something like a shepherd, except instead of guiding sheep, they guide people through the rough terrain of the Himalayan mountains. In 1996, a team of men led by several seasoned Sherpas attempted to climb Mt. Everest. As the recent movie reveals, only a few of the many survived the treacherous climb and the succeeding storm. Sherpas are those who live in the mountainous regions of Nepal and the Himalayas. Many of them act as guides for climbing the legendary Everest. Because they are used to the thinner air and terrain of the mountains, and because they know them like the back of their hands, they let the climbers know when and where it is safe to climb, and where and when not to. Often, they lead them up the slopes, guiding them to safety, and rescuing those who fall. They teach them how to climb, and the best places to stop and rest. Many die doing this life-long duty for others. But it is the pride of their people to care for those who venture into their beloved mountains.
When God called His people together from the mountain of Sinai those many years ago, God too gave his flock instructions on how to live a life in God’s different kind of kingdom. And God established shepherds along the way to make sure to keep His people on track, to rescue those who wandered away, and to call to those who got lost.
Many of those shepherds failed along the way. Jesus would need new shepherds, who knew the way as He did. He knew the time was ripe. It was time for people to meet God face to face. Time for them to be led to the marriage table. But he would need help to guide as many as possible into the “Gates” of God’s Sheepfold.
Those who would shepherd need to have learned from Jesus the ways of the kingdom. They would need to be patient, loving, and kind, in order to gather the flocks from every place and time. They would need to be trustworthy. They would need to be ready. They would need to be determined. They would need to put their own lives on the line in order to be the “voice” of Jesus that calls others home.
Jesus is still calling today for workers in the fields. There are so many of God’s flock scattered out there in the world, lonely and lost. So many that have forgotten who they are. Have forgotten God’s voice.
You, and you, and you, and you, all of you are called, as followers of Jesus, to go and bring back God’s beloved people to his heavenly feast.
If some reject you, so be it. If some won’t listen. That’s ok. But for every flock you encounter, some always will. And to God, every one that listens, matters.
We are the voice of Jesus in the world today. We His followers have been called to “go” –into the harvest fields to find those who are looking for God, those who have lost their way.
You are the Sherpas. You are the shepherds. You are the harvesters of God’s kingdom people.
YOU are Jesus’ voice to God’s people.
You are His Shofar.
When you leave this place today, know that Jesus is depending you. He cannot do it alone. But He is depending upon you to help bring God’s people home.
Let’s sing now together as we gather to go out into the world: “Lord of the Harvest, Send Forth Your Reapers.”
[Note: You can also use songs such as “Lord of the Harvest,” or “Come Ye Thankful People Come,” or “Sing to the Lord of Harvest,” or “Harvest Home.”]
[If you can, have trumpets accompany the hymn.]
*The photo for this sermon is taken from IBISWorld Report 2013.
Based on the Story Lectionary
Major Text
Matthew’s Witness to Jesus’ Instruction on the Coming Harvest (9:35-38)
Luke’s Witness to Jesus’ Instruction on the Coming Harvest and Sending into the Field (10:1-24)
Minor Text
The Story of God’s Gift of the Torah on Mt. Sinai (Exodus 19 and 34)
The Lord’s Command to Celebrate the Feast of Weeks (Deuteronomy 16 and Exodus 23:14-19 and Leviticus 23)
Leave Some Grain in the Field for Foreigners and Others (Deuteronomy 24:19-22)
David and the Threshing Floor and the Judgment of the Lord (2 Samuel 24)
The Crossing of the Jordan with the Ark on Dry Ground During God’s Harvest (Joshua 3)
Psalm 23: The Shepherd of Salvation
Psalm 67: The Lord’s Salvation Harvest
Psalm 107: Let the Redeemed of the Lord Tell Their Story
Psalm 126: The Joy of the Lord’s Harvest
The Song of Songs
The Story of Ruth and the Lord’s Saving Harvest
Repent for the Lord’s Harvest is Appointed (Hosea 6)
The Time to Harvest Unrepentant Babylon is Coming Soon (Jeremiah 51)
The Harvest is Ripe and All Will be Judged (Joel 3)
The Song of God’s Vineyard (Isaiah 5)
The Pruning Before the Harvest (Isaiah 18)
The Lord Will Be Israel’s Shepherd (Ezekiel 34:1-16)
Matthew’s Witness to Jesus’ Parable of Wheat and Tares (13:24-30)
The Lord Will Enlarge the Harvest of Your Righteousness and You Will Rejoice (2 Corinthians 9)
Matthew’s Witness to Jesus’ Instruction on the Coming Harvest
Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, proclaiming the good news of the kingdom and healing every disease and sickness. When he saw the crowds, he had compassion on them, because they were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd. Then he said to his disciples, “The harvest is plentiful but the workers are few. Ask the Lord of the harvest, therefore, to send out workers into his harvest field.”
Luke’s Witness to Jesus’ Instruction on the Coming Harvest and Sending into the Field
After this the Lord appointed seventy-two others and sent them two by two ahead of him to every town and place where he was about to go. He told them, “The harvest is plentiful, but the workers are few. Ask the Lord of the harvest, therefore, to send out workers into his harvest field. Go! I am sending you out like lambs among wolves. Do not take a purse or bag or sandals; and do not greet anyone on the road. “When you enter a house, first say, ‘Peace to this house.’ If someone who promotes peace is there, your peace will rest on them; if not, it will return to you. Stay there, eating and drinking whatever they give you, for the worker deserves his wages. Do not move around from house to house. “When you enter a town and are welcomed, eat what is offered to you. Heal the sick who are there and tell them, ‘The kingdom of God has come near to you.’ But when you enter a town and are not welcomed, go into its streets and say, ‘Even the dust of your town we wipe from our feet as a warning to you. Yet be sure of this: The kingdom of God has come near.’ I tell you, it will be more bearable on that day for Sodom than for that town. “Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! For if the miracles that were performed in you had been performed in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago, sitting in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more bearable for Tyre and Sidon at the judgment than for you. And you, Capernaum, will you be lifted to the heavens? No, you will go down to Hades. “Whoever listens to you listens to me; whoever rejects you rejects me; but whoever rejects me rejects him who sent me.” The seventy-two returned with joy and said, “Lord, even the demons submit to us in your name.” He replied, “I saw Satan fall like lightning from heaven. I have given you authority to trample on snakes and scorpions and to overcome all the power of the enemy; nothing will harm you. However, do not rejoice that the spirits submit to you, but rejoice that your names are written in heaven.” At that time Jesus, full of joy through the Holy Spirit, said, “I praise you, Father, Lord of heaven and earth, because you have hidden these things from the wise and learned, and revealed them to little children. Yes, Father, for this is what you were pleased to do. “All things have been committed to me by my Father. No one knows who the Son is except the Father, and no one knows who the Father is except the Son and those to whom the Son chooses to reveal him.” Then he turned to his disciples and said privately, “Blessed are the eyes that see what you see. For I tell you that many prophets and kings wanted to see what you see but did not see it, and to hear what you hear but did not hear it.”
Image Exegesis: The Power of Prayer / Lord of the Harvest
Don’t you have a saying, ‘It’s still four months until harvest’? I tell you, open your eyes and look at the fields! They are ripe for harvest. Even now the one who reaps draws a wage and harvests a crop for eternal life, so that the sower and the reaper may be glad together. (John 4:35-36)
So neither the one who plants nor the one who waters is anything, but only God, who makes things grow. The one who plants and the one who waters have one purpose, and they will each be rewarded according to their own labor. For we are co-workers in God’s service; you are God’s field, God’s building. (1 Corinthians 3:7-9)
Talk about mixed metaphors. Jesus does it all the time. Shofar and voice. Shepherd and sheep. Harvester and wheat.
First Jesus says, the crowds are harassed and helpless like sheep without a shepherd, so that he needs his disciples to be shepherds with him. Then he says, “Go! I am sending you out like lambs among wolves!”
How can you be both lamb and shepherd? Easy in Jesus-speak. All of us are. We are both followers of Jesus, innocent and obedient. And we can also be shepherds, who take Jesus’ voice into the world to guide other sheep back into the fold.
We can be the wheat. And we can help in the harvesting.
We can need to hear Jesus’ voice. And we can help to “be” Jesus’ voice.
This is the essence of the scripture. We are both/and. That’s why anything we do in Jesus’ name, must actually be done by Jesus/God. “Pray” Jesus says. “Pray for God to send workers into the harvest field.” For God must empower those in the field to do the work that needs to be done in the way that God intends.
Otherwise, shepherds can easily lead sheep astray. Another sheep can lead other sheep astray.
We must be both/and.
And we must be many.
God needs many hands in order to do the work “at hand.”
The harvest is a time of blessing or judgment. Like the metaphor of the threshing floor –the harvest is when people are brought before God, so that they can be judged. On the threshing floor, God will separate the wheat from the chaff.
Or the wheat from the weeds!
In one of Jesus’ parables in fact, he speaks of weeds that grow along with the wheat. They can’t be separated until the harvest. Initially, you can’t tell the difference between wheat stalks and stalks of the weed darnel. They look identical in the beginning,.
But when they begin to bear “fruit”…when their head appears… the wheat looks radically different.
Only in the fruit bearing, can you tell the difference. There are Jews who looked and spoke like Jews. But only in their fruit could you tell who was truly a man of God and who wasn’t. There are also Christians who go to church, who talk like Christians and look like Christians. But when it comes down to the fruit they bear….it’s easy to tell the difference.
At Harvest time, you can tell exactly who is wheat and who is weed.
Imagine those waves of grain on the hillsides of Bethlehem. The crowds must have looked like that to Jesus when they came to celebrate the Harvest festival in Jerusalem –shavuot.
Jesus seems to have a sense of urgency about needing workers in the field. God’s kingdom time was coming. And there was much to be done.
Would they become part of the bread of life? Or would they be the kind of weeds that would poison the food? (Darnel is in fact poisonous to human consumption).
Are you wheat or are you tare? That was the question. And Jesus would need help to guide those lost in the midst of the darnel into the arms of God.
It was the “season” of the giving of the Law. And for Jesus, it was now the “season” of God’s messianic fulfillment.
Just as in the book of Ruth (read at the time of Shavuot) Boaz becomes the redeemer of Ruth when they meet on the threshing floor, so now will Jesus redeem God’s people when they are met for blessing or judgment on the threshing floor of the kingdom.
Just as David rescued sheep from the mouth of lion and bear, Jesus’ shepherds too would need to go out among the wolves, in order to rescue those who are wandering and need to be guided homeward.
It is the time of God’s redemption.
Jesus’ noting that people were sheep without a shepherd is not new to scripture. It’s found many times in scripture (Num 27:16-17, 1 Kings 22:17, 2 Chronicles 18:16, Jeremiah 50:6, Zecharaiah 11:15, among others). Each time, it was an indictment of Israel’s leaders. Here too, Jesus is making a statement about the leaders in Jerusalem.
When the shofar is sounded for Shavuot, not only will God’s sheep be blessed, but those who have strayed will need to be guided back home. And those who have defied God will be judged.
Harvest is not joyful for those who have rejected God. It is however the greatest time of joy for those who haven’t.
The Shavuot ceremony is liked in the Hebrew scriptures to a marriage ceremony. In fact, where the Song of Songs is read at Passover (betrothal), the story of Ruth is read at Shavuot (culmination or fulfillment).
Harvest is a key time for many stories of scripture (note Gen 30:14, Joshua 3:15, Judges 15:1, 1 Samuel 6:13, 2 Samuel 21:9).
It is a festival of oath, as well as a festival of abundance. What was planted has now come to fruition. That goes for the messianic promise, as well as God’s redemption plan.
The time of harvest is time to stay awake ready to receive God’s redemption. It’s a time for harvesters to go into the field and to bring in the grain. It’s time for all to listen to the call of God’s voice. It’s time to celebrate.
Jesus continues his ministry of teaching, preaching, and healing (see 4:23–25). He is motivated by “compassion” for the crowds because they were “harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd” (9:36). This last phrase—“sheep without a shepherd”—may reflect Ezekiel’s indictment of the leaders of his ti…
35 Jesus went through all the towns and villages, teaching in their synagogues, preaching the good news of the kingdom and healing every disease and sickness. 36 When he saw the crowds, he had compassion on them, because they were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd. 37 Then he said to his disciples, "The harvest is plentiful but the workers are few. 38 Ask the Lord of the harvest, therefore, to send out workers into his harvest field."
Matthew concludes this section on Jesus’s messianic teaching (chaps. 5–7) and kingdom enactment (Matthew 8–9) by summarizing Jesus’s ministry to Israel in teaching, preaching, and healing (9:35; almost verbatim to 4:23). Upon seeing the crowds who have heard his teachings and brought their sick to him, Jesus is filled with compassion for the people of Israel, whom he likens to sheep without a shepherd. This response serves to indict Israel’s leaders for not shepherding the people (cf. Ezekiel 34 for similar imagery in Ezekiel’s critique of leaders in his day) and transitions between Jesus’s ministry to Israel and his instructions to his disciples regarding their part in this ministry. The disciples are to be the answer to their own prayer for workers to join Jesus in kingdom mission (9:37–38).
Mission Discourse: The Twelve to Follow Jesus’ Lead (9:35--10:23)
Big Idea: In the second major Matthean discourse Jesus calls the Twelve to lead in mission to Israel, following his model as an authentic shepherd of God’s people despite persecution.
Understanding the Text
The brief narrative transition between chapters 8–9 (9:35–38) and Jesus’ second teaching section in chapter 10 highlight Jesus’ Galilean ministry to a people who are without true shepherds (leaders) and Jesus’ call to pray for “harvest workers.” These themes of shepherding and mission dominate chapter 10 (especially its first half [e.g., 10:6]), often referred to as the Mission Discourse. The authority that Jesus bequeaths to his twelve disciples is for the empowerment of their mission, which is to parallel his own (10:1, 5–8). While their mission at this early stage is limited to Israel, a mission to “all nations” opens up after his resurrection (28:19). The themes of standing firm without worry in the face of persecution and opposition concludes the first half of the Mission Discourse (10:19, 22; see also 24:13).
Interpretive Insights
9:35 Jesus went through all the towns . . . healing every disease and sickness. This verse repeats almost verbatim the introductory summary at 4:23, indicating that Matthew is bookending chapters 5–9 to show it as a discrete section. These chapters have highlighted Jesus as teacher (chaps. 5–7) and enactor of the kingdom (chaps. 8–9). His kingdom actions focus on healing the sick, since seven of the ten miracles in 8:1–9:34 are healings.
9:36 sheep without a shepherd. In the brief summary in 9:35–38 Matthew introduces the topic that will characterize chapter 10: Jesus’ call to his disciples to be “workers [in the] harvest field” (9:38), looking after the sheep of Israel. The motif of sheep is introduced in 9:36 and recurs in 10:6, 16: “lost sheep of Israel” and “like sheep among wolves.”
10:1 Jesus called his twelve disciples. The people of Israel came from twelve tribes from the lineage of Jacob and continued to be identified by tribe throughout their history (e.g., Phil. 3:5). Thus, choosing twelve disciples would have been a symbolic act communicating that Jesus was restoring and reconstituting Israel around himself and his ministry.
gave them authority to drive out impure spirits and to heal every disease and sickness. The pattern of and power for the ministry enacted by Jesus in 4:23–9:34 is given to the twelve disciples here. Specifically, Jesus empowers his disciples to heal and cast out demons. The disciples, however, will not live up to what they have been given as the narrative progresses. A key example occurs at 17:14–20, where the disciples are unable to cast out a demon and heal a young boy. Jesus will attribute their inability to their “little faith” (17:20).
10:2–4 These are the names of the twelve apostles. Jesus’ twelve disciples are called “apostles” only here in Matthew. While the term apostolos can be used generally to refer to someone who is sent (a “messenger”), in much of the New Testament it has a more technical sense and refers to “a group of leaders within the early church who fulfilled a role vested with some authority.”1 Matthew uses apostoloi to refer to the Twelve in such a technical sense. The twelve disciples are named, with some being identified by two names (e.g., “Judas Iscariot”). This was a common practice that provided a way of specifying a particular person who had a popular name. Two disciples are described by an activity: “Matthew the tax collector” and “Simon the Zealot [Kananaios]” (Kananaios reflects the Aramaic for “zealot”; cf. NRSV: “Simon the Cananaean”). The latter category indicated someone who was committed to freedom for Israel from its Roman oppressors. Several zealot movements occurred at various times during this period of Roman occupation (see, e.g., Josephus, Ant.17:273–77; Acts 21:38).
10:5–6 Do not go among the Gentiles . . . Go rather to the lost sheep of Israel. Matthew has indicated narratively that Jesus’ ministry has been focused on Israel (4:12–16). Now he explicitly indicates the scope of the disciples’ ministry to be limited to Israel. Gentiles (ethne) and Samaritans are not the focus of their itinerant mission. This resonates with Jesus’ words at 15:24, where he says that he “was sent only to the lost sheep of Israel.” In Matthew, the universal scope of God’s mission in Jesus will emerge only after his resurrection. In the closing words of the Gospel, “Go and make disciples of all nations [ethne]” is the clear directive for Jesus’ followers (28:19).
10:7 proclaim this message: “The kingdom of heaven has come near.” The twelve disciples are given the same kingdom-centered message to proclaim that has characterized the preaching of both John the Baptist and Jesus (3:2; 4:17). The call that follows to “heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse those who have leprosy, drive out demons” (10:8) reflects precisely what Jesus has been doing in chapters 8–9, with its various healing stories (including a leper [8:1–4]), exorcisms (8:28–34; 9:32–34), and a resuscitation (9:18–26). The disciples’ call to kingdom ministry derives from the kingdom ministry of Jesus himself. Scholars have noted that the one activity characteristic of Jesus’ Galilean ministry that is not reflected in chapter 10 is teaching. In addition to preaching about or proclaiming the kingdom (4:17), Jesus has been teaching about the kingdom (4:23; 5:2; 9:35) and will continue to do so throughout the narrative (e.g., chaps. 13, 18, 24–25). The disciples, although called to proclaim the kingdom here (10:7), are not called to teach until the final commissioning scene of Matthew (29:18–20), where they will be called to teach the nations “to obey everything” that Jesus has commanded them. For Matthew, it is not until Jesus, as consummate teacher, has finished teaching his disciples that they are ready to teach others.
10:11 Whatever town or village you enter, search there for some worthy person. The import of 10:9–15 is to guide the Twelve in their mission to rely upon the hospitality of people within the various towns they visit. This explains the prohibition against bringing money and extra supplies (10:9–10). The reception in these towns of the disciples and their kingdom message determines whether they “let [their] peace rest” on a home or whether they “shake the dust off [their] feet” (10:13–14).
10:14 shake the dust off your feet. This phrase reflects the action of Jews shaking the dust from foreign soil off their feet when returning to their own land.2It functions here as a sign of judgment (cf. 10:15).
10:15 Sodom and Gomorrah. The story of the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah because of their great wickedness (Gen. 18:16–19:29) provides the backdrop to this reference within Jesus’ discourse. These ancient cities that epitomize wickedness in the Old Testament (e.g., Deut. 32:32; Jer. 23:14) are compared favorably to any towns that reject the kingdom mission of the Twelve as they travel across the land.
10:17 handed over to the local councils and be flogged in the synagogues. After speaking about their reception by the towns they will visit (10:9–15), Jesus alerts the Twelve to the reception they will receive from leaders and authorities. He begins by warning them that they will come before various Jewish ruling groups, signaled by synedria (“local councils” [see 5:22]) and synagogai (“synagogues”).
10:18 brought before governors and kings as witnesses to them and to the Gentiles. The twelve disciples will be brought before Gentile authorities as well as Jewish ones; Matthew specifies governors and kings and then mentions the Gentiles more broadly.
10:20 the Spirit of your Father. This phrase is unique in Matthew and in Scripture generally. It echoes ideas from John 15:26, where the Spirit is said to be sent by the Father and to testify about Jesus. In Matthew the Spirit’s role in the life of the believer is promised at 3:11 (Jesus “will baptize you with the Holy Spirit”) and invoked in the trinitarian formula in 28:19.
10:23 you will not finish going through the towns of Israel before the Son of Man comes. These words of Jesus are often read as a reference to his second advent. Yet in the New Testament, parousia (not used here)is the term commonly used to refer to his second advent. In Matthew parousia occurs at 24:3, 27, 37, 39, with these instances clearly referencing Jesus’ reappearing in the final day (see comments on 24:3). Here at 10:23 and elsewhere in Matthew the evangelist uses erchomai (a common Greek word for “come”) along with other phrases from Daniel 7:13–14 to evoke the picture of “one like a son of man, coming [LXX: erchomai] on the clouds of heaven” (cf. Matt. 10:23; 16:28; 24:30; esp. 26:64). Alluding to the Daniel passage allows Matthew to picture Jesus as enthroned in God’s heavenly presence and therefore vindicated by God. It becomes clear that, for Matthew, Jesus’ vindication is tied both to his resurrection and to his prophetic announcement of the temple’s destruction (see comments on 24:30). If this allusion and its meaning are correct, then in 10:23 Matthew’s Jesus indicates that the mission to Israel will still be happening at the time of the temple’s destruction.
Teaching the Text
1. Disciples of Jesus follow in his footsteps for their mission and ministry. While it is important to keep in mind that not all the instructions that Jesus provides for the twelve apostles are applicable to Matthew’s audience, including contemporary readers (e.g., mission to Israel only, no extra clothing [see comments on 10:32]), it seems clear that Matthew wants followers of Jesus to understand that their ministry is to be patterned in particular ways on Jesus’ own mission. First, the picture of Jesus as a shepherd to Israel (2:6; 9:36) connects with his call to the Twelve to go to the “lost sheep of Israel” (10:6). The shepherd picture is one of care, protection, and rescue. This is how Matthew has been portraying Jesus in chapters 8–9, and this is how disciples of Jesus should think of their own leadership roles. Second, the centerpiece of Jesus’ ministry is also the center for the preaching of the Twelve: “The kingdom of heaven has come near” (10:7; likewise 4:17). While a post-Easter message will rightly include and emphasize Jesus as rightful king and his life, death, and resurrection as the inauguration of God’s reign in this world, it is important that the Christian message continue to be centered on the kingdom. God in Christ has come to reclaim and put back in right order all that belongs to God. The Christian message is not, as some have criticized, just pie in the sky—a message about how we can escape from this world and go to heaven. The gospel of Jesus Christ is written on a much bigger canvas than this. The Christian message is about God’s work in this world, drawn from God’s covenant with Israel, established inexorably in the coming of Jesus the Messiah and culminating at the final day when heaven and earth will be renewed and all who have trusted in and followed Jesus will experience resurrection from the dead.
2. Followers of Jesus can live with boldness in spite of opposition because “the Spirit of [their] Father” will be with them. Jesus speaks to the twelve apostles about the inevitability of opposition and persecution in their kingdom mission and will continue to do so throughout chapter 10 (see 10:24–25, 34–36). Especially as the chapter progresses, it becomes clear that Matthew understands Jesus’ words to apply to a wider audience than the Twelve. When opposition comes because of the message of the kingdom, all of Jesus’ followers are assured that they will not be alone. God’s Spirit will be with them, providing words for them in their defense. Later in the chapter Jesus provides a word of comfort for disciples: they need not fear those who oppose them, since God cares for them deeply and personally (10:29–31).
Illustrating the Text
Disciples of Jesus follow in his footsteps for their mission and ministry.
Human Metaphors: Various leadership books draw attention to Jesus as a leader using various metaphors of CEO, life coach, mentor, entrepreneur, and even the corporate turnaround expert. Yet we would do well to highlight Matthew’s (and other evangelists’) identification of Jesus as shepherd, who cares for and leads his sheep. To explore this image more thoroughly, you might draw upon Ezekiel 34 or John 10.
Quote: In his book ‘In the Name of Jesus’, Henri Nouwen comments on Christian leadership:
[Future leaders] will think of themselves as enablers, facilitators, role models, father or mother figures, big brothers or big sisters, and so on, and thus join the countless men and women who make a living by trying to help their fellow human beings to cope with the stresses and strains of everyday living. . . . But that has little to do with Christian leadership because the Christian leader thinks, speaks, and acts in the name of Jesus, who came to free humanity from the power of death and open the way to eternal life. . . . The task of future Christian leaders is not to make a little contribution to the solution of the pains and tribulations of their time, but to identify and announce the ways in which Jesus is leading God’s people out of slavery, through the desert to a new land of freedom.3
Followers of Jesus can live with boldness in spite of opposition because “the Spirit of [their] Father” will be with them.
Quote: In her memoir The Hiding Place, Corrie ten Boom tells of her sister’s final days when they were prisoners together in Ravensbrück in northern Germany during World War II. Betsie, who had cared for other women in Jesus’ name throughout their imprisonment (for harboring Jews in their home), was still preoccupied with mission even as her body was wasting away. As she was being brought to the hospital with barely any life left in her, she whispered to Corrie, “[We] must tell people what we have learned here. We must tell them that there is no pit so deep that He is not deeper still. They will listen to us, Corrie, because we have been here.”4
Mission Discourse: Call to Allegiance to Jesus (10:24--11:1)
Big Idea: Jesus calls his disciples to be loyal to God above all, to the God who protects and cares.
Understanding the Text
In the second half of the Mission Discourse, Jesus instructs the disciples how to respond to the persecution that will attend their mission. Matthew also records Jesus speaking to the crucial issue of loyalty among his followers. His paradoxical teachings about finding life by losing it (10:38–39) will resurface later (16:24–26). The theme of caring for “little ones” (10:42) will also prove thematic in Matthew in later discourses (18:6, 10; cf. 25:40, 45). The narrative conclusion to the Mission Discourse (11:1) echoes the virtually identical conclusions of the other four major sections of Jesus’ teaching in Matthew (7:28–29; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1) and leads into a narrative section (chaps. 11–12) focusing on the reception of Jesus and his message in Galilee among the Jewish leaders and people.
Interpretive Insights
10:24 servant above his master. A number of Jesus’ proverbial sayings occur in this discourse (e.g., 10:34), including this one about slaves and masters. Jesus uses a commonplace picture, given the ubiquitous nature of slavery in the ancient world. For example, about a third of the inhabitants of Italy were slaves in the time of the Roman emperor Augustus.1The point of the saying is that since Jesus himself is being reviled, so too will his disciples be mistreated. Such is the pattern of slaves and masters, students and teachers.
10:26 do not be afraid. Three times in this part of the discourse Jesus exhorts his disciples to be unafraid (10:26, 28, 31). Given the betrayal, persecution, and mistreatment that Jesus has been predicting, this admonition is necessary. Disciples can be unafraid because God will make known every hidden thing. They can be confident to speak their message boldly and in the open (10:26–27). They can be unafraid because those who persecute them can kill only the body, not the soul (10:28). They can be unafraid because they are supremely valued by God their Father (10:29–31).
10:28 be afraid of the One who can destroy. Instead of fearing those standing against Jesus and against their own mission, disciples should have an appropriate fear or reverence for God, who has ultimate power over their future. This one with ultimate authority is also the one who cares for them to such an extent that even the hairs on their heads are numbered (10:30).
10:29 Father’s care. The theme of God’s attentiveness and care is reminiscent of the Sermon on the Mount, where God is portrayed as a loving Father who avoids favoritism (5:45–46), anticipates what people need before they even ask (6:8, 32), and is the perfect parent who gives good gifts to all those who ask (7:9–11). Jesus’ disciples can trust that their God, the God of Israel, cares deeply for them.
10:32 Whoever acknowledges me. From this point on in the Mission Discourse the audience address changes from second-person (the “you” presumably aimed at the Twelve) to third-person generics: “whoever” (10:32, 38, 39, 41) and “anyone” (10:37, 40, 42). The effect of this change is a broadening of the scope of the discourse’s audience to include more explicitly Matthew’s readers. Reviewing the entire Mission Discourse, Jesus’ quite specific instructions in 10:5–15 (e.g., do not go to the Gentiles; take no bag for the journey) keep the Twelve more keenly in mind as the recipients of these words. However, even the second-person pronouns (which are plurals throughout) begin to draw the reader into Jesus’ teachings, especially as the chapter proceeds without narrative interruption (e.g., 10:19–20). As Jesus’ teachings become more broadly applicable and begin including the third-person generic references, readers are encouraged to hear Jesus’ words as intended more directly for themselves.2
10:35 a man against his father . . . his own household. Micah 7:6 is used here to illustrate and specify Jesus’ proverbial saying “I did not come to bring peace, but a sword” (10:34). In terms of their genre, proverbs are generalities that prove true in most situations. Interestingly, Matthew will use another proverb about swords later in his Gospel. Jesus will reprimand one of his followers for using a sword to defend him during his arrest: “For all who draw the sword will die by the sword” (26:52). Understanding the proverbial (i.e., general) nature of these two sayings helps to avoid accusing Jesus (and Matthew) of incoherence; it also helps to clarify the meaning of these statements. In this case, Jesus specifies what this proverb means by reference to Micah: family discord will be a normal part of some accepting and some rejecting Jesus, who is messenger and enactor of the kingdom. Micah 7 rehearses the prophet’s dismay with the covenantal disloyalty all around him. The oracle (7:1–7) ends with his affirmation to trust and hope in God alone (7:7). In analogous fashion, Jesus speaks of family loyalties that will undergo great strain when some family members acknowledge Jesus and others do not (see also 10:21–22).
10:38 take up their cross and follow me. This section of the discourse (10:32–39) focuses on allegiance to Jesus. Disciples are to count Jesus and the kingdom as their highest priority, even ahead of family and their own life. These sentiments were quite countercultural in Jewish society, where family obligations and loyalties were foremost in importance.
On the story level focused on Jesus teaching the twelve, the metaphor of a cross would pose a vision of discipleship as a path to death, since carrying one’s cross was what Rome forced criminals to do on the way to execution. Matthew is also foreshadowing for his readers Jesus’ own death by crucifixion. While it is possible to romanticize the cross today, the analogy of cross to discipleship would have been stark and sobering for Jesus’ hearers.3
Matthew 16:24–26 will repeat and elaborate on the ideas of following Jesus, carrying one’s cross, and losing one’s life.
10:40 Anyone who welcomes you welcomes me. The idea of welcome for the mission of the disciples has already been introduced in 10:9–15. Here Jesus intensifies his point by identifying with his disciples to such an extent that to welcome them is to welcome both Jesus and Yahweh, who has sent him (see a similar saying in regard to children at 18:5). The three groups mentioned—prophet, righteous person, little one (10:41–42)—seem to refer to the twelve apostles and others like them who participate in Jesus’ mission. God will reward anyone who welcomes and receives these missionaries and their message.
10:42 little ones. The final group from the saying about extending welcome is “little ones” (mikroi). In one sense, this group does not seem to fit well with the prophets and righteous ones of this saying. Unlike the first two groups, “little ones” does not signal a group naturally esteemed in the believing community, as prophets and the righteous are. In fact, “little ones” seems to refer to those with little status and value. This reading is clarified in Matthew’s subsequent narrative. In chapter 18 the mikroi are those of lower status and those most vulnerable who are to be cared for by the church (18:6–14). The word elachistos, the superlative form of mikros, is used in the parable of the sheep and the goats to identify those with whom Jesus closely aligns himself: “the least of these” (25:40, 45).4
11:1 After Jesus had finished instructing his twelve disciples. The formulaic “After Jesus had finished [+ verb]” occurs at the conclusion of each of the five major discourses in Matthew and signals a transition to the narrative that follows (7:28; 11:1; 13:53; 19:1; 26:1; see comments on 7:28). The transition from chapter 10 to 11:2–16:20 involves a refocusing on Jesus’ Galilean ministry (as in 4:17–9:35), with clearer indications of the rejection that accompanies his kingdom preaching and work (foreshadowed in 10:24–25). Although the disciples have been given instructions for their mission to Israel, Matthew does not narrate their actually going out in mission (cf. Mark 6:12–13; Luke 9:6). Instead, he returns his attention to Jesus’ ministry and its reception. Some have suggested that to include the mission of the Twelve in the story at this point, and specifically their return, might imply that the mission to Israel expressed in 10:23 had been accomplished.5 Instead, Matthew highlights the universal mission of the disciples in the closing scene of his Gospel. At 28:19 he makes it clear that the disciples are now to go out in mission to all nations (including Israel). In addition, by delaying the narration of the Twelve going out, Matthew may want to draw his readers more clearly into the commissioning at 28:18–20.6
Theological Insights: A Singular Allegiance
A significant refrain across Scripture is the call to a singular allegiance. In the Torah Yahweh commands Israel, “You shall have no other gods before me” (Exod. 20:3 [cf. Exod. 19:5]). And Isaiah declares Yahweh as the only God, who deserves complete allegiance (e.g., Isa. 45:18–25). Matthew affirms here that same necessary allegiance and places Jesus at the center of human response to God and God’s work (10:32–39). We hear similar refrains throughout the New Testament. For example, Paul writes to Roman citizens in the Roman colony of Philippi to reorient their perspective toward a kingdom “citizenship” (politeuma [Phil. 3:20; in 1:27 the verb politeuesthe, “conduct yourselves,” is related to this word for “citizenship”]). And in Revelation, where the stakes for human loyalty are particularly pronounced, we hear a warning that some have “forsaken the love you had at first” (2:4).
Teaching the Text
1. In the face of opposition, Jesus gives the counterintuitive exhortation “Do not be afraid.” A natural response to opposition and persecution is to fear those who have power to oppose and harm. Jesus encourages a different response in 10:26–31. His three exhortations to not be afraid draw from a right theological understanding. Disciples need not fear others who might harm them, since God will disclose all things in the end, including any injustice enacted toward Jesus’ followers (10:26). They need not fear, for it is God, not others, who holds the power over ultimate destiny (10:28). And they need not fear, because God cares deeply and personally for each disciple, so much so that “even the very hairs of your head are all numbered” (10:29–30). As we have seen at other points in Matthew, deep theological currents run under and through Jesus’ teaching. A right view of God is rooted in a covenantal, relational vision of Israel’s God (see comments on 6:32).
2. Jesus’ followers are called to acknowledge and love Jesus as their first priority. Jesus calls his disciples to a new set of allegiances. In a cultural context that emphasizes honoring and sacrificing for one’s family, Jesus speaks difficult words. He speaks of the division that may come to families if some family members follow Jesus and some do not (10:34–35). This kind of division in families occurs in our own contexts today. If family loyalty requires denying or turning away from Jesus as Lord, Christians must be ready to love Jesus more than family by remaining true to him and to his ways.
After humanity’s fall (Gen. 3), idolatry—at root an issue of competing allegiance—becomes the bane of human existence. Just as Israel was called to untainted loyalty to Yahweh, Jesus calls his followers to be fully loyal to him (10:37). Following Jesus involves a path of service and devotion to him, even to the point of losing one’s life (10:38–39). While not all disciples of Jesus will be pressed to that extreme, it is instructive to note that, according to church tradition, quite a number of the twelve apostles (the specific story audience of chap. 10) died as martyrs because of their allegiance to Jesus.
3. Welcoming Jesus’ followers who go out in mission is like welcoming Jesus himself. This idea will be reiterated later in Matthew, especially in relation to those most on the margins of the believing community, whether because of their lack of status or their meager resources (18:5; 25:40, 45). The category of “little ones” begins that idea here, since this is a status term (see comments on 18:6). Caring for those disciples least likely to be valued will bring great reward from God. In our teaching on this passage and on this theme in Matthew, we would do well to consider who in our own faith communities has little status and so potentially little value from a human perspective. According to Jesus in Matthew, we are to value and provide care for precisely these “little ones.”
Illustrating the Text
In the face of opposition, Jesus gives the counterintuitive exhortation “Do not be afraid.”
Mission: Elisabeth Elliot, in Through the Gates of Splendor, chronicles the story of five missionaries, including her husband, Jim, who were martyred in their attempt to bring the gospel to the Huaorani tribe in eastern Ecuador. Before leaving on their mission, the five missionaries (Pete Fleming, Ed McCully, Nate Saint, Roger Youderian, and Jim Elliot) sang the hymn “We Rest on Thee.” The lyric of this great hymn, by Edith Cherry, exhibits the courage that we can have when we fear the Lord alone. The first stanza reads,
We rest on Thee, our Shield and our Defender!
We go not forth alone against the foe;
Strong in Thy strength, safe in Thy keeping tender,
We rest on Thee, and in Thy Name we go.
Strong in Thy strength, safe in Thy keeping tender
Hymn: “His Eye Is on the Sparrow,” by Civilla D. Martin. The author of this hymn shared the story behind her famous chorus. One spring, while she and her husband were on holiday, they met another couple, Mr. and Mrs. Doolittle. This godly couple had experienced their share of hardship. Mrs. Doolittle had been confined to her bed for nearly twenty years. Mr. Doolittle was in a wheelchair. Through it all, however, they had maintained an abiding joy. When asked their secret, Mrs. Doolittle shared, “His eye is on the sparrow, and I know he watches me.” The promise of God’s care and presence can sustain us through the most difficult trials.7
Jesus’ followers are called to acknowledge and love Jesus as their first priority.
Church History: Early church writings contain various accounts of how the early apostles died. Some of the accounts evidence embellishment, but some of them carry marks of historical witness. All of them underline the point that these apostles considered acknowledging Jesus as more important than their own lives.8
- James the brother of John – Killed by sword (see Acts 12)
- Peter – Sentenced to death by crucifixion. Requested to be hung upside down, feeling unworthy to face death in the same manner as his Master
- Andrew – Crucified
- Thomas – Killed by spear
- Matthew – Killed by sword
- James the Lesser – Thrown down from the temple
- Simon the Zealot – Crucified
- Judas Thaddeus – Beaten to death
- Matthias (replaced Judas) – Stoned and beheaded
- John – Not martyred but reportedly scarred by boiling oil
- Paul – Beheaded
Direct Matches
Love for those who suffer. The OT often refers to God’s compassion, especially toward those who, because of their sinfulness, deserve the opposite treatment. In Exod. 33:19 Yahweh takes pity on the Israelites after they have rebelled, making an idol for themselves and praising it for their deliverance. He renews his covenant with them, but he reminds them of his sovereignty in doing so: “I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion” (cf. Rom. 9:15).
The NT points to God’s compassion at significant junctures in the Gospels and the Epistles. Jesus himself has compassion for the crowds who “were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36). He takes pity on the crowds, healing their sick and feeding them miraculously (14:14 21; cf. 15:32). The same connection between compassion and healing occurs in Matt. 20:34; Mark 1:41, this time on an individual level. The apostle Paul underscores this attribute of God, raising it to a title of sorts. The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ is “the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort” (2 Cor. 1:3). James says that the Lord is “full of compassion and mercy” (5:11), and John depicts God as one who will wipe away every tear caused by persecution and trial (Rev. 7:17; 21:4). Because God is always dealing with broken sinners, his compassion for them coincides with his love (see Ps. 145:8); and this rescuing of the guilty sets an example for his people. They must go and do likewise, loving the unlovely, unwise, and even unrighteous.
The English word “gospel” translates the Greek word euangelion, which is very important in the NT, being used seventy-six times. The word euangelion (eu = “good,” angelion = “announcement”), in its contemporary use in the Hellenistic world, was not the title of a book but rather a declaration of good news. Euangelion was used in the Roman Empire with reference to significant events in the life of the emperor, who was thought of as a savior with divine status. These events included declarations at the time of his birth, his coming of age, and his accession to the throne. The NT usage of the term can also be traced to the OT (e.g., Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1), which looked forward to the coming of the Messiah, who would bring a time of salvation. This good news, which is declared in the NT, is that Jesus has fulfilled God’s promises to Israel, and now the way of salvation is open to all.
The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar of Israel’s agrarian society (Lev. 25:11; Judg. 15:1; Ruth 1:22; 2 Sam. 21:9 10). Life was dependent on the harvest. As a result, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help the Israelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and every fiftieth year, the people were to give the land a rest (Exod. 23:10; Lev. 25:20–22). The people were to rest on the Sabbath, even during the harvesttime (Exod. 34:21). Some portions of crops were to be left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:21). The people were to acknowledge God as the source of the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lev. 23:10). Celebrating the harvest was commanded (Exod. 23:16; Deut. 16:15; Isa. 9:3). Planning for the harvest was a mark of wisdom (Prov. 6:8; 10:5; 20:4). Even as a good harvest was the blessing of God (Ps. 67:6; Isa. 62:9), so a bad harvest was a curse from God and the plight of a fool (1 Sam. 12:17; Job 5:5; Prov. 26:1; Isa. 18:4–5; Jer. 8:13, 20; Joel 3:12; Mic. 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for the harvest was a sin (Jer. 5:24).
The harvest is often used in Scripture as an analogy. The prophets talk about the negative harvest of idolatry (Isa. 17:11). Israel is called the firstfruits of God’s harvest (Jer. 2:3). Hosea uses the idea of harvest to indicate that God’s people have a future (Hos. 6:11). In the Gospels, the harvest is used as an analogy for those needing to hear the good news (Matt. 9:37–38), for the end times (Matt. 13:24–30; Rev. 14:15), and for a lesson about unfaithful leadership (Matt. 21:33–46; 25:24). In the remainder of the NT, the harvest analogy usually refers to Christian growth and salvation (Rom. 1:13; 1 Cor. 9:10–11; 2 Cor. 9:10; Gal. 6:9; Heb. 12:11; James 3:18).
A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2 Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.
A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan. 3).
God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14 20). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1 Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1 Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2 Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).
In the OT there is no language or understanding comparable to modern ways of talking about prayer as conversational or dialogical. Prayer does not involve mutuality. Prayer is something that humans offer to God, and the situation is never reversed; God does not pray to humans. Understanding this preserves the proper distinction between the sovereign God and the praying subject. Therefore, prayers in the OT are reverential. Some OT prayers have extended introductions, such as that found in Neh. 1:5, that seem to pile up names for God. These should be seen as instances not of stiltedness or ostentation, but rather as setting up a kind of “buffer zone” in recognition of the distance between the Creator and the creature. In the NT, compare the same phenomenon in Eph. 1:17.
A presupposition of prayer in the OT is that God hears prayer and may indeed answer and effect the change being requested. Prayer is not primarily about changing the psychological state or the heart of the one praying, but rather about God changing the circumstances of the one praying.
The depiction of prayer in the NT is largely consistent with that of the OT, but there are important developments.
Jesus tells his disciples to address God as “Father” (Matt. 6:9; cf. Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). Prayer to God is now to be made in the name of Jesus (Matt. 18:19 20; John 14:13; 15:16; 16:23–26).
Prayer can also be made to Jesus (John 14:14), and such devotion to him in the early church is evidence of his being regarded as deity. Unlike anything prior in the OT, Jesus tells his followers to pray for their enemies (Matt. 5:44). Jesus and his followers serve as examples (Luke 23:34; Acts 7:60).
The Holy Spirit plays a vital role in prayers. It is by him that we are able to call out, “Abba, Father” (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6). The Spirit himself intercedes for us (Rom. 8:26). Our praying is to be done in the Spirit (Eph. 6:18; Jude 20; possibly 1 Cor. 14:15).
Jesus encourages fervent and even continual or repeated prayer (Luke 18:1–8), but not showy or repetitive prayer (Matt. 6:5–8).
Jesus becomes the model of prayer. He prays before important decisions (Luke 6:12–13) and in connection with significant crisis points (Matt. 14:23; 26:36–44; Luke 3:21; 9:29; John 12:27). He offers prayers that are not answered (Luke 22:41–44) and prayers that are (Heb. 5:7). Even as he tells his disciples to always pray and not give up (Luke 18:1 [which is also the meaning of the sometimes overly literalized “pray without ceasing” in 1 Thess. 5:17 NRSV]), so he himself wrestles in prayer (Luke 22:41–44; Heb. 5:7). He has prayed for his disciples (John 17; Luke 22:32), and even now, in heaven, he still intercedes for us (Heb. 7:25). Indeed, our intercession before God’s throne is valid because his is (Heb. 4:14–16).
Shepherds were pastoralists who herded sheep and goats for meat, milk, clothing, and sacrifices. Shepherding was an integral part of life and a potent symbol in Israelite culture, reflected in biblical portrayals of Abel (Gen. 4:2), Moses (Exod. 3:1), David (1 Sam. 16:11), and Jesus (Luke 2:8 20; John 10:11, 14).
A shepherd could herd his or her own flock (Gen. 30:37–43). Sons (Gen. 37:2), daughters (Gen. 29:6, 9), or hirelings (Gen. 13:7; 1 Sam. 25:7; Luke 17:7) could assume the task. As agriculture developed and crops were cultivated, shepherds became marginalized (note that it was the youngest son of Jesse, David, who tended the sheep [1 Sam. 16:11–13]) and even despised (Gen. 46:34). Shepherds could live in villages, daily herding their flock to and from nearby arable land (Gen. 29:7–14). Once all the grazing land had been consumed, shepherds led the flock to pastureland far enough from town to prohibit daily returns. They would then live a seminomadic existence, wandering when new grazing land and water were needed (Gen. 37:12; cf. Isa. 13:20). Shepherds constructed makeshift enclosures out of available materials (stones, brush) or used a cave and remained with the flock throughout the night (Gen. 31:40; Song 1:8; Luke 2:8)
The vital role of shepherding in ancient Near Eastern culture naturally led to the metaphorical use of the term to refer to both civil authorities (Num. 27:17; 1 Kings 22:17; Isa. 44:28; Ezek. 34:1–19) and deity (Gen. 48:15; 49:24; Pss. 23:1; 78:52), both in Israel and among its neighbors. Both the exodus (Exod. 15:13, 17; Ps. 78:52–55, 71–72) and the return from Babylonian exile (Ps. 44:11–23; Jer. 23:1–8; 31:8–14) are portrayed in pastoral terms as Yahweh shepherding his people to safe pasture. In the NT, Jesus called himself the “good shepherd” (John 10:1–16), and the metaphor is extended to church leaders who are to imitate the good shepherd in their provision and protection of God’s people (Acts 20:28; 1 Pet. 5:1–3).
Direct Matches
Love for those who suffer. If we love others by denying ourselves for their sake, so that they might please God and live abundantly, we show them compassion by doing this when they are in pain. We respond with friendship, healing, and encouragement just when others might keep their distance. The compassionate person also turns sin-sick people away from evil, longing to see Christ formed in their character and life. Accordingly, compassion, like love in general, is an active force. It does not merely “feel someone’s pain”; it gets involved whenever and wherever possible.
Compassion Shown by God
The OT often refers to God’s compassion, especially toward those who, because of their sinfulness, deserve the opposite treatment. In Exod. 33:19 Yahweh takes pity on the Israelites after they have rebelled, making an idol for themselves and praising it for their deliverance. He renews his covenant with them, but he reminds them of his sovereignty in doing so: “I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion” (cf. Rom. 9:15). No one deserves God’s mercy, yet the people often receive it, even when suffering from deserved harm. In the book of Judges, Israel’s history cycles from sin and wrath to compassion and deliverance, thus emphasizing Yahweh’s patience and love. The people “wouldn’t listen to their judges; they prostituted themselves to other gods—worshiped them!” but God later “was moved to compassion when he heard their groaning because of those who afflicted and beat them” (2:17–18 MSG). David’s plea for mercy in Ps. 51 relies on Yahweh’s compassion for the self-destructive sinner: “Have mercy on me, O God, according to your unfailing love; according to your great compassion blot out my transgressions” (v. 1). In fact, God’s tendency to show mercy appalls Jonah, who complains, “Isn’t this what I said, Lord, when I was still at home? . . . I knew that you are a gracious and compassionate God, slow to anger and abounding in love, a God who relents from sending calamity” (Jon. 4:2). Isaiah 40–66 dwells frequently on this aspect of God’s nature (e.g., 49:10–15; 54:7–10; 63:7, 15).
The NT points to God’s compassion at significant junctures in the Gospels and the Epistles. Jesus himself has compassion for the crowds who “were harassed and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36). He takes pity on the crowds, healing their sick and feeding them miraculously (14:14–21; cf. 15:32). The same connection between compassion and healing occurs in Matt. 20:34; Mark 1:41, this time on an individual level. The apostle Paul underscores this attribute of God, raising it to a title of sorts. The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ is “the Father of compassion and the God of all comfort” (2 Cor. 1:3). James says that the Lord is “full of compassion and mercy” (5:11), and John depicts God as one who will wipe away every tear caused by persecution and trial (Rev. 7:17; 21:4). Because God is always dealing with broken sinners, his compassion for them coincides with his love (see Ps. 145:8); and this rescuing of the guilty sets an example for his people. They must go and do likewise, loving the unlovely, unwise, and even unrighteous.
Compassion Required by God
Because God loves the suffering person, even those with self-inflicted wounds, he calls upon his people to show similar compassion. Parents ought to show compassion toward their own children, as 1 Kings 3:26; Ps. 103:13 imply (cf. Ezek. 16:5). No one must keep a debtor’s garment in pledge, Yahweh says, “because that cloak is the only covering your neighbor has. What else can they sleep in? When they cry out to me, I will hear, for I am compassionate” (Exod. 22:27). According to Hos. 6:6, a familiar verse quoted by Jesus, God requires compassion: “For I desire mercy, not sacrifice, and acknowledgment of God rather than burnt offerings” (cf. Matt. 12:7). Micah 6:8 draws the same contrast between outward formalism and genuine righteousness, including displays of compassion: “He has shown you, O mortal, what is good. And what does the Lord require of you? To act justly and to love mercy and to walk humbly with your God.” Given the OT emphasis on the compassion of God, we might have expected it to become Israel’s duty as well, though it is sometimes withheld in judgment (see Deut. 7:5–6; 13:8; 19:13; Ps. 109:12).
The NT also portrays mercy or compassion as a duty. Matthew 5:7 is a familiar example: “Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy.” Of course if Jesus demonstrates compassion toward those who suffer, we ought to do so as well. In 2 Cor. 1 the “Father of compassion” comforts us (v. 3) “so that we can comfort those in any trouble with the comfort we ourselves receive from God” (v. 4). Ephesians 4:32 is a direct command that associates compassion with mercy toward sinners: “Be kind and compassionate to one another, forgiving each other, just as in Christ God forgave you.” The comfort given to us by Christ sets the tone for each believer in Phil. 2: if there is any “tenderness and compassion” in him (v. 1), we must follow his example. Similarly, we must “clothe [ourselves] with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience” (Col. 3:12). Peter makes the same connection between humility and compassion: “Finally, all of you, be like-minded, be sympathetic, love one another, be compassionate and humble” (1 Pet. 3:8).
The Bible connects compassion and mercy with humility for understandable reasons, given the common association of distress and dishonor. We want always to keep up appearances, since others might be affected by our own troubles and the troubled company we keep. Suffering people are burdensome and sometimes unlovely. Their sins may provide a ready excuse to keep one’s distance, but just as God the Savior has shown us compassion, we must love others when they hurt.
The harvest was a major event on the yearly calendar of Israel’s agrarian society (Lev. 25:11; Judg. 15:1; Ruth 1:22; 2 Sam. 21:9–10). Life was dependent on the harvest. As a result, God set certain rules with respect to the harvest to help the Israelites keep proper priorities. Every seven years and every fiftieth year, the people were to give the land a rest (Exod. 23:10; Lev. 25:20–22). The people were to rest on the Sabbath, even during the harvesttime (Exod. 34:21). Some portions of crops were to be left in the field so that the poor might have food (Lev. 19:9; 23:22; Deut. 24:21). The people were to acknowledge God as the source of the harvest by offering the first of the produce (Lev. 23:10). Celebrating the harvest was commanded (Exod. 23:16; Deut. 16:15; Isa. 9:3). Planning for the harvest was a mark of wisdom (Prov. 6:8; 10:5; 20:4). Even as a good harvest was the blessing of God (Ps. 67:6; Isa. 62:9), so a bad harvest was a curse from God and the plight of a fool (1 Sam. 12:17; Job 5:5; Prov. 26:1; Isa. 18:4–5; Jer. 8:13, 20; Joel 3:12; Mic. 6:15). Failure to acknowledge God for the harvest was a sin (Jer. 5:24).
The harvest is often used in Scripture as an analogy. The prophets talk about the negative harvest of idolatry (Isa. 17:11). Israel is called the firstfruits of God’s harvest (Jer. 2:3). Hosea uses the idea of harvest to indicate that God’s people have a future (Hos. 6:11). In the Gospels, the harvest is used as an analogy for those needing to hear the good news (Matt. 9:37–38), for the end times (Matt. 13:24–30; Rev. 14:15), and for a lesson about unfaithful leadership (Matt. 21:33–46; 25:24). In the remainder of the NT, the harvest analogy usually refers to Christian growth and salvation (Rom. 1:13; 1 Cor. 9:10–11; 2 Cor. 9:10; Gal. 6:9; Heb. 12:11; James 3:18).
Old Testament
The Hebrew word for “Lord,” yhwh (usually pronounced “Yahweh”), occurs more than 6,800 times in the OT and is in every book except Ecclesiastes and Esther. “Yahweh” is God’s personal name and is revealed as such in Exod. 3:13–14. God tells Moses to declare to the Israelites in Egypt, “I am has sent me to you” (3:14). The Hebrew behind “I am” connotes active being; the Lord is the one who is there for his people and, in the book of Exodus, does so through miraculous events (14:13–14). This demonstrates the close association between one’s name and one’s character in the ancient world. Yahweh is one who is with his people (Exod. 3:12; 6:2, 4; Isa. 26:4). Although the divine name is used before the exodus (Gen. 12:1; 15:1), it is not until the time of Moses that God reveals its redemptive significance. Nonetheless, the divine name is used in Genesis in contexts where the immanence of God is evident. In Gen. 3:8 “the Lord God . . . was walking in the garden in the cool of the day.” Further, the Lord makes a covenant with Abraham (Gen. 12; 15; 17), and the Lord will remain faithful to his covenants for a thousand generations (Deut. 7:9). Later in Israel’s history, Micah, in the face of those who worship other gods, reassures the people of Israel that Yahweh is distinct from all others, and that they will walk in his name because he will one day act to effect justice for all (Mic. 4:3–5).
The divine name also occurs as a form of address in various prayers throughout the OT (Gen. 15:2, 8; Exod. 5:22; 2 Sam. 7:18; 2 Kings 6:17), most notably in the psalms, where it occurs over two hundred times. In the psalms an abbreviated form of the name is often seen in an exclamation of praise, hallelu yah, “praise Yah[weh]” (e.g., Pss. 149:1; 150:1).
It is interesting to note the origin of the pronunciation of yhwh as “Jehovah.” To avoid breaking the third commandment, against misusing the name of God, pious Jews did not pronounce the divine name yhwh, substituting the word ’adonay (“my master”) in its place. In medieval times Jewish scholars added vowels to the consonantal text of the Hebrew Bible to aid in correct pronunciation. For yhwh, they used the vowels of ’adonay, which, when pronounced, creates a name unknown to the biblical authors, “Jehovah.”
In the postexilic period the appellation “Yahweh” occurs far less frequently, being replaced by adonay (Hebrew) or kyrios (Greek). The latter is used for Yahweh over six thousand times in the LXX. In Hellenistic literature kyrios is used to describe various gods and goddesses. The Roman emperors were also called kyrios, often with implications of deity. Some argue that the early Christians employed the title polemically to refer to Christ, the true kyrios. A clear example is found in Phil. 2:11, where it is said that every tongue will confess that “Jesus Christ is Lord” (cf. 1 Cor. 8:5–8). Kyrios was also used nonreligiously to refer to a “master” of a slave and as a term of respect to address someone of superior status (“sir”). Peter addresses Jesus as “lord” when he washes Peter’s feet (John 13:6).
New Testament
In the NT, the majority of occurrences of “Lord” (kyrios) appear in Luke-Acts and the writings of Paul, perhaps due to the predominantly Hellenistic audiences of these texts, who would know well its Greco-Roman connotations. As for Paul, the use of “Lord” by Luke may point to the deity of Jesus. In the Lukan birth narrative, Elizabeth wonders why “the mother of my Lord should come to me?” (Luke 1:43; cf. 7:19; 10:1). In Acts 1:21 the name “Jesus” is preceded by the definite form of “Lord,” reflecting an oft-repeated confessional title in Acts and Paul (Acts 15:11; 20:35; 2 Cor. 1:2). According to some, if Matthew intends a divine connotation by his use of the term “Lord,” it is more oblique. For instance, in Matt. 4:7 Jesus quotes Deut. 6:16, where “the Lord” is Yahweh and not Jesus (cf. Matt. 9:38). There are occasions in Mark where “lord,” although appearing to function in a nonreligious sense, does seem to point to Yahweh. In Mark 2:28 Jesus claims that “the Son of Man is lord even of the sabbath” (NRSV). Since the Sabbath belongs to Yahweh and falls under his sovereign authority (Exod. 20:8–11), it is quite probable that Mark’s readers would now ascribe that dominion to the Son of Man. This is not unlike his authority to forgive sins (Mark 2:10), which, as the scribes rightfully point out, is something that only Yahweh can do. In light of these usages, one cannot help but think that the use of the term in Mark 11:3, at the triumphal entry, also carries divine significance. In John, there are examples of both the nonreligious use of “lord,” as a reverent form of address (5:7; 9:36), and the religious, divine sense, particularly after the resurrection (20:28; 21:7).
It is quite likely that Jewish Christians, even before Paul, regarded Jesus as one who shares in Yahweh’s divinity. In his letter to the Corinthians, a Greek-speaking congregation, Paul uses the expression marana tha (1 Cor. 16:22), a Greek transliteration of an Aramaic phrase that means “Our Lord, come!” This term likely was a part of an early Jewish Christian liturgy. Further, there are places where Paul refers to Jesus simply as “the Lord,” suggesting a common understanding of the appellation among the early Christians (Rom. 14:6; 1 Cor. 3:5). In addition to Phil. 2:11, Paul expresses the divinity of Jesus by alluding to Deut. 6:4, the Shema, in 1 Cor. 8:6: “Yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live.” In the book of Revelation divine status is ascribed to Jesus. While in the vision of God in Rev. 4 the title is used of God (4:8, 11), at the conclusion of the book appears the invocation “Come, Lord Jesus” (22:20; cf. 22:21).
For Paul, a particularly important component of the lordship of Jesus is his resurrection, through which he becomes “the Lord of both the dead and the living” (Rom. 14:9; cf. 1:4), and his return marks the “day of the Lord,” which in the OT was the day of Yahweh (1 Thess. 5:2; cf. 5:23). Exactly how Jewish Christians could attribute such a status to Jesus and yet maintain a strict monotheism remains a matter of considerable debate. Is Christ included in the identity of the Godhead, or is he an intermediary figure (of which Second Temple Judaism had many), possessing a quasi-divine status? If Jesus is an intermediary figure, then his authority to do that which only Yahweh can (such as forgiving sins and fulfilling roles originally referring to God) suggests a very close identification between Yahweh and Jesus himself. See also Names of God; YHWH.
A cultically clean, domesticated animal representing the wealth and livelihood of many in biblical times. Mentioned more than any other animal in the Bible, sheep were critical to ancient Israel’s rural economy, with both the animal itself and the wool it produced serving as one of the measurements of a person’s prosperity (1 Sam. 25:2; Ezek. 27:18). Sheep were useful throughout Israel’s history, especially during the patriarchal period (Gen. 46:32), providing milk to drink (Deut. 32:14), wool and hide for clothing (Job 31:20; Heb. 11:37) and tent coverings (Exod. 26:14), and meat to eat (Deut. 14:4). Usually, male lambs from eight days old (Lev. 22:27) and year-old sheep served as various sacrifice offerings to God: the Passover celebration (Exod. 12:5), burnt offerings (Lev. 1:10), sin offerings (Lev. 5:6), guilt offerings (Lev. 5:15), and fellowship offerings (Lev. 3:6), though the firstborn of the flock belonged to God (Exod. 13:12). Their fat tails were the prized portion of the sheep offered as burnt offerings (Lev. 3:9).
Naturally gentle and submissive (Jer. 11:19), sheep are predisposed to becoming easily lost or led astray (Isa. 53:6; Matt. 9:36). Because sheep are social animals that gather in clusters, a shepherd can easily lead a large flock. The animal’s defenselessness against those who would steal its coat or demand its life is pictured in Isa. 53:7. In order to protect sheep against predators, a shepherd provided a protective area, or fold, which might be a cave or an enclosure of rough stones. A unique relationship existed between shepherd and sheep: the shepherd knew each animal by name, and the sheep could recognize the shepherd’s voice (John 10:1–11). Sheep therefore serve as a fitting metaphor for God’s people (Ps. 100:3), suggesting that God’s people are naive and utterly dependent on their shepherd for divine guidance and protection (Matt. 12:11; Luke 15:4). Jesus promises that not a single one of his sheep can be snatched from his Father’s hand (John 10:29). Even though God’s sheep wander, “the Shepherd and Overseer of your souls” restores (1 Pet. 2:25).
In a charade, false prophets are described as donning “sheep’s clothing,” a symbol of innocence, and appearing to be members of God’s flock (Matt. 7:15). By contrast, the true disciples who are to go to the sheep—the lost people of Israel (9:36; 10:6)—are now sent out as sheep among wolves (10:16–19), but they are aptly protected.
Jesus is represented as the Lamb of God (John 1:29; Rev. 5:6; cf. Isa. 53:7), provided by God for the sins of the world, the ultimate fulfillment of the yearly Passover lamb (Exod. 12; 1 Cor. 5:7). Jesus is the good shepherd of all sheep, and he most profoundly demonstrates his commitment and love for the sheep: “The good shepherd lays down his life for the sheep” (John 10:11).
A transliteration of the Greek word synagōgē, meaning “gathering, assembly, meeting.” In English, the word “synagogue” refers either to a Jewish congregation or to the place where that congregation meets. Synagogues of the biblical era functioned as both religious and civic centers for the Jewish community.
Origins
The origin of synagogues is uncertain. The earliest archaeological evidence is from Egypt in the third century BC, consisting of inscriptions and a papyrus letter. The oldest architectural find is from the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea, although whether this was constructed as a synagogue or redesigned into one is unknown, as is whether it was Jewish or Samaritan. The oldest structures yet found in Israel consist of two rooms at Qumran and the synagogue at Gamla, which date from the late first century BC. In Capernaum, the basalt synagogue was built by a Gentile centurion for the community in the first century AD (Luke 7:1–5).
By that time, synagogues were well attested in Israel, elsewhere in the Roman Empire, and in Egypt (Matt. 4:23; Luke 4:44; Acts 9:2; 17:10, 16–17; 18:8, 19). Synagogues were found wherever there were communities of Jews, in cities and rural areas alike. Especially in Diaspora settings or remote locations, they were the heart of Jewish life. Several hypotheses have been suggested to account for their apparently sudden appearance.
Some believe that synagogues were developed during the Babylonian captivity as the response of the exile community to the destruction of their temple and sacrificial system. Despite these enormous losses, the Jews still had the Torah, and from that point forward worship and prayer based on the reading and studying of the Scriptures, which could be done locally, began to gain ascendancy. Critics of this idea, however, point out that while it makes sense, there is no direct evidence to support it.
Others think that the spread of Hellenism in the second century BC precipitated a crisis of identity among Jews. For example, 1 Maccabees reports with distress that some Jews had abandoned the covenant and teamed with the Hellenists, even going so far as to build a Greek-style gymnasium in Jerusalem (1:11–15). Thus, the thought is that synagogues were a form of resistance to the overwhelming and perversely appealing cultural changes of the day.
More recently, it has been suggested that synagogues were the gradual successors to functions that had previously taken place at city gates. First-century synagogues served a wide range of functions for the community. Throughout Israel’s prior history, however, these same activities—assembly, legal, social, educational, and religious—had taken place at the city gate (Deut. 12:15; 2 Sam. 15:2; 2 Kings 23:8; Neh. 8:1–8). The Gamla synagogue sits against the east city wall next to a probable gate, and its location could be evidence of the slow development of the synagogue as city gates changed from multipurpose facilities to portals of ingress and egress.
First-Century Synagogues
First-century synagogues served as integrated centers supporting Jewish life. Regular communal reading and exposition of Scripture, including teaching and discussion of the law and transmission of its complex associated traditions (Luke 4:16; Acts 13:14–15), occurred there. Although formal liturgical rites evolved after the destruction of the temple in AD 70, synagogues were places of prayer in the first century (Matt. 6:5). Synagogues also served as courtrooms and places where crimes were punished (Acts 22:19), as well as locations for common meals and festivals (see Acts 6:2).
Synagogues were administered by local community leaders, including a president and a board (Acts 13:15). Synagogue leaders named in the NT include Jairus (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41), Crispus (Acts 18:8), and Sosthenes (Acts 18:17). The role of the leader was to preside over services, to rule as the judge in court cases, to represent the community, and often to act as a patron. The board served in an advisory role and assisted with teaching. A scribe maintained community records and taught.
Congregations included Pharisees, who advocated strict adherence to the law, although they were chided by Jesus for their false piety (Luke 11:42–44). Women participated in the synagogue along with the men, and in some cases they were financial donors (cf. Luke 8:3). God-fearing Gentiles were welcomed (Acts 17:17). In Jerusalem, synagogues included both Hebrews and Jews from the Diaspora (Acts 6:1, 9).
A synagogue could be a designated room in a house or a discrete building. Most of the better archaeological evidence is later than the first century and reveals more clearly religious intentionality in design than may have been characteristic earlier. This evidence includes the door facing Jerusalem, artistic temple motifs, a niche for the Torah scrolls, and perimeter bench seating around an open central hall.
The Synagogue in the Bible
Since synagogues were institutions with a documented history no earlier than the third century BC, they are not mentioned in the OT. The Greek word from which the English one is derived does appear frequently in the LXX, but always with a general reference to a gathering, assembly, or meeting.
Rabbinic history (but not Scripture) makes reference to the “Great Synagogue,” meaning a group of men who transmitted traditions from the prophets to the earliest named rabbinic teachers. It is loosely based on Neh. 8–10, which describes the prayers and actions of the Jewish leaders who had returned from exile.
Synagogues frequently were locations of the teaching and healing ministry of Jesus. He began preaching the kingdom of God, teaching, and performing healing miracles in Galilean synagogues (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; 12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21–29, 39; 3:1; 6:2; Luke 4:15–38, 44; 6:6–11; 13:10–17; John 6:59; 18:20). Later, the apostle Paul customarily initiated his mission work in the local synagogue at each of his destinations (Acts 9:19–20; 13:5, 14–15; 14:1; 17:1, 10, 17; 18:1–8; 19:8).
The last (and, from a twenty-first-century perspective, most controversial) use of the word “synagogue” in Scripture is the difficult phrase “synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9; 3:9), which must be read in its context. This was written in response to the significant persecution in Asia Minor of the churches at Smyrna and Philadelphia by Jews who were in collusion with the Roman authorities. They were falsely accusing Jewish and Gentile Christian believers, creating unspeakable suffering for them. This phrase, intended to encourage Christian perseverance, implies that the churches in view represented true Israel, while their accusers were false Jews. Similar language was used by the covenant-keeping community in Qumran when, in the DSS, it referred to apostate Jews as a “congregation of Belial” and an “assembly of hypocrites” (1QHa 10:22; 15:34).
Secondary Matches
Evangelism is the proclamation of the “evangel” (Gk. euangelion), the good news, of Jesus Christ. The content of the evangel includes Jesus’ birth, which was announced as good news to Zechariah by the angel Gabriel (Luke 1:19) and by the angels to the shepherds (Luke 2:10). The good news speaks of the reality of Jesus’ resurrection (Acts 17:18), is described as a message of grace (Acts 20:24) and reconciliation to God through the sacrificed body of Christ (Col. 1:22–23), and includes the expectation of a day of divine judgment (Rom. 2:16). Paul preached the gospel (from Old English gōdspel, “good news”) message, which he claimed had its origin with God, not humans (Gal. 1:11–12). He summarizes this message in 1 Cor. 15:3b–5: “that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures, and that he appeared to Cephas, and then to the Twelve.” The introduction to the Gospel of Mark (1:1) may indicate that this written gospel could serve evangelistic purposes.
Evangelistic efforts in the New Testament. Numerous figures throughout the NT participated in evangelistic endeavors. John the Baptist’s preaching about the coming Messiah is described as evangelism (Luke 3:18). Evangelism was a characteristic activity of Jesus’ own ministry (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14; Luke 20:1), which focused on proclaiming the advent of the kingdom of God (Luke 4:43; 8:1) and at times was targeted toward the poor (Matt. 11:5; Luke 4:18; 7:22). Jesus commanded those who follow him to engage in evangelism. He sent out the twelve apostles for evangelistic purposes (Luke 9:2), and he issued the Great Commission to this end (Matt. 28:18–20).
The missionary enterprise recorded in Acts demonstrates the efforts of the earliest Christians to spread the gospel. The apostles in Jerusalem (Acts 5:42) proclaimed the gospel in spite of great opposition and persecution, and believers who were scattered outside Jerusalem because of persecution spread the gospel in new locales (8:4). Philip evangelized Samaritans and an Ethiopian (8:12, 35). The ministry of Paul and Barnabas is characterized as preaching the good news (14:7, 15, 21; 15:35; 16:10; 17:18). Philip, one of the seven chosen to distribute food (6:5), was given the name “the Evangelist” (21:8). Timothy, additionally, is said to be Paul’s fellow worker in evangelism (1 Thess. 3:2; cf. 2 Tim. 4:5).
Evangelism was a central part of Paul’s ministry (Rom. 1:9; 1 Cor. 1:17; 15:1–2; Eph. 6:19; 1 Thess. 2:2, 9). He indicated an explicit interest in sharing the gospel with Gentiles (Rom. 15:16; Gal. 1:16; 2:7; Eph. 3:8) and with those who had never heard it (Rom. 15:20; 2 Cor. 10:16), and he expressed a desire to preach the gospel at Rome (Rom. 1:15). Paul wrote of the necessity of evangelism in order for people to be saved (Rom. 10:15), and he preached the gospel message free of charge (1 Cor. 9:16, 18; 2 Cor. 11:7). He listed the role of the evangelist in the church along with apostles, prophets, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11).
Goal and methods of evangelism. Evangelism’s goal is to spread the gospel across ethnic and religious boundaries until it reaches all nations (Mark 13:10; Col. 1:23). To this end, Acts details an intentional effort by the earliest Christians to share the gospel with those who came from both Jewish and non-Jewish backgrounds. Acts 8:25 records Peter and John’s evangelistic efforts in Samaritan villages, and Acts 15:7 identifies Peter as an evangelist to Gentiles. An outreach specifically to Gentiles is chronicled in Acts 11:20, and Paul’s intentional program of traveling from city to city further contributes to this goal (Rom. 15:19).
The evangelists recorded in the NT demonstrate a range of methods and approaches to sharing the good news. They often began with a point of contact from the religious worldview of their audience. For instance, Philip used Scripture as a starting point in speaking with an individual who was familiar with some portion of it (Acts 8:35). Similarly, when addressing Jews, Paul preached Jesus as the fulfillment of various OT Scriptures (Acts 13:32–41), but when preaching the gospel to the Greeks in Athens, he acknowledged their religiosity and their previous worship of one called “an unknown God” (17:22–23). Evangelists sought opportunities to gain an audience, and Paul even took advantage of an illness to stay with the Galatians and share the gospel with them (Gal. 4:13). Finally, much of the evangelistic work in the early church was coupled with miraculous signs and wonders, which served to authenticate the message being proclaimed (Rom. 15:19; 1 Thess. 1:5).
Behind the English translation “mercy” lie diverse biblical words in Hebrew (khesed, khanan, rakham) and in Greek (charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon). These words are also translated as “love,” “compassion,” “grace,” “favor,” “kindness,” “loving-kindness,” and so on, depending on context. Hence, a conceptual approach to the meaning of “mercy” is best.
God’s Mercy
Mercy as part of God’s character. Mercy is a distinguishing characteristic of the nature of God. God is called “the Father of mercies” (2 Cor. 1:3 NRSV [NIV: “Father of compassion”]). God is “rich in mercy” (Eph. 2:4; cf. 2 Sam. 24:14; Dan. 9:9). God’s mercy was demonstrated in his covenantal faithfulness to his people (1 Kings 8:23–24; Mic. 7:18–20). God redeemed the oppressed Israelites from slavery under Pharaoh because of his mercy, which was stirred when he heard their groaning and cry for help. Here, the rekindling of God’s mercy toward the Israelites was depicted in terms of remembering his covenant with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob (Exod. 2:23–25). Mercy is a manifestation of God’s faithfulness to his covenant. Hence, God’s mercy to his covenant people never ceases (Pss. 119:132; 103:17).
God has absolute sovereignty in electing the people to whom he wills to show mercy. A classic expression appears in Exod. 33:19: “I will have mercy on whom I will have mercy, and I will have compassion on whom I will have compassion.” Paul quoted this to explain God’s sovereignty in electing Jacob as the recipient of God’s mercy (Rom. 9:13–15). God’s mercy cannot be acquired by human effort or desire (Rom. 9:16). God even ordered the Israelites to show no mercy to the Canaanites because of their corruption and idolatry (Deut. 7:2).
Diverse images are used to describe God’s mercy. God is compared to a loving father who has compassion on his children (Jer. 31:20; Mal. 3:17). “As a father has compassion on his children, so the Lord has compassion on those who fear him; for he knows how we are formed, he remembers that we are dust” (Ps. 103:13–14). God’s compassion is also compared to that of a nursing mother who feeds her baby at her breast (Isa. 49:15). The images of the loving father and the loving mother reflect closely the heart of God’s mercy toward his chosen people. God is especially merciful to the needy, the weak, the afflicted, and the oppressed (Exod. 2:23–24; Ps. 123:2–3; Isa. 49:13; Heb. 4:16). God is called “a father to the fatherless” and “a defender of widows” (Ps. 68:5). Sinners appeal for God’s mercy when they request forgiveness (Ps. 51:1). “Have mercy on me” is a common form of expression when the psalmist entreats God for his forgiveness (Pss. 41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is also shown in his act of salvation and blessing (Exod. 15:13; Deut. 13:17–18; Judg. 2:18; Eph. 2:4–5).
God’s mercy in redemptive history. Redemptive history is a successive demonstration of God’s mercy toward his chosen people. It was because of God’s mercy that he took the initiative to save fallen human beings (Gen. 3:15). Death was the due penalty for Adam and Eve (Gen. 2:17), but God preached the good news of mercy that the descendant of the woman would someday crush the head of the serpent. In Rev. 20:2 that ancient serpent in the garden of Eden is identified as “the devil, or Satan,” whose head was crushed by Jesus Christ on the cross and is bound by the coming Messiah “for a thousand years” and will be “thrown into the lake of burning sulfur” (Rev. 20:2, 10). In spite of God’s judgment on Cain, the first murderer, God showed mercy by putting a mark on him so that no one would kill him (Gen. 4:15). As the psalmist later confesses, God proves himself as the merciful God who “does not treat us as our sins deserve or repay us according to our iniquities” (Ps. 103:10).
Noah and his family were saved from the judgment of the flood because of God’s special mercy toward them (Gen. 6:8). Immediately after God confused the languages of human beings because of their challenge to him (Gen. 11:1–9), God showed mercy on Abram, “a wandering Aramean” (Deut. 26:5), and designated him to be the father of his chosen people (Gen. 12:1–3). Jacob’s election originated solely from God’s mercy, as Paul pointed out by quoting Scripture: “Jacob I loved, but Esau I hated” (Rom. 9:13). The exodus is also the clearest evidence of God’s demonstration of mercy toward his chosen people (Exod. 2:23–25). They were saved not by their own righteousness but rather by God’s mercy on the covenant people, who suffered under the bondage of Pharaoh’s slavery. God’s mercy reached its climax when he sent his only Son, Jesus Christ, to save sinners (Rom. 5:8). It is because of God’s mercy that we are saved, not because of our righteousness (Titus 3:5).
Christ’s Mercy
Jesus Christ lived a life full of mercy. He is, in a sense, the bodily manifestation of God’s mercy. Jesus expressed deep mercy whenever he saw the sick and the lost. The writers of the Gospels describe Jesus’ demonstrations of mercy when he healed the blind, the lame, the deaf, the leprous, the demon-possessed, and the dead (Matt. 9:36; 14:14; 20:34; Mark 1:41; 5:19; 6:34; 8:2; Luke 7:13; John 11:33). Jesus especially had compassion on the crowds, who did not have a spiritual leader, and he compared them to “sheep without a shepherd” (Matt. 9:36).
Jesus’ ministry of healing and evangelism was motivated by his deep mercy and compassion toward people in physical and spiritual need (Luke 4:16–21; cf. Isa. 61:1–2). Whenever the sick appealed to his mercy, Jesus never refused to dispense it to them (Matt. 15:22; 17:14–18). For example, he healed the two blind men who entreated his mercy (Matt. 20:30–34). When a leper, kneeling before him, entreated his mercy, Jesus touched him (risking his own uncleanness according to the law) and healed him (Matt. 8:2–3). When a centurion asked for Jesus’ mercy on his sick servant, he was willing to go and heal the sick man (Matt. 8:5–13). Jesus’ mercy was aroused especially when he saw people crying for the dead, and even he shed tears (John 11:33–35). When Jesus saw a widow crying for her dead son during a funeral procession, he comforted and had compassion on her and made her son alive (Luke 7:12–15).
According to Heb. 2:17–18, Jesus became “a merciful and faithful high priest” to make atonement for the sins of his people. He is also compared to the high priest who is able to sympathize with our weaknesses because he “has been tempted in every way, just as we are” (Heb. 4:15). His high priestly work on earth was highlighted in terms of his ministry of mercy toward his people. Like God’s mercy, Jesus’ mercy was shown in his actions of salvation (Luke 19:10; Eph. 5:2; 1 Tim. 1:14–16; Titus 3:4–7), of blessing (Mark 10:13–16), and of forgiveness (Mark 2:10; Luke 23:34). Paul’s personal experience led him to confess, “He saved us, not because of righteous things we had done, but because of his mercy” (Titus 3:5). Jesus’ character of mercy was most vividly manifested on the cross when he prayed for the forgiveness of the crucifying soldiers and the cursing crowds (Luke 23:33–37).
Human Response to God’s Mercy
What is the proper response to God’s mercy and compassion? God expects believers to show the same kind of mercy toward other people. One of the best examples is the parable of the unmerciful servant (Matt. 18:23–35). The central focus of this parable is on the unmerciful servant, to whom a tremendous mercy is shown by the king, but who refuses to show a little mercy to his fellow servant. The parable concludes with the king’s statement that no mercy will be shown to those who do not show mercy and forgiveness to others. Hence, a forgiving attitude is a must for believers, who have received immeasurable mercy from God when he forgave their sins at the time of repentance. The Lord’s Prayer also includes the believer’s forgiveness of others as being inseparably linked to the request for forgiveness from God (Matt. 6:12). Jesus affirms this idea in a subsequent statement: “For if you forgive other people when they sin against you, your heavenly Father will also forgive you. But if you do not forgive others their sins, your Father will not forgive your sins” (6:14–15).
Mercy is one of the eight blessings in the Beatitudes: “Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy” (Matt. 5:7). Jesus’ response to the critical Pharisees reveals that our merciful life should precede our religious life (9:13). According to the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25–37), the true neighbor is the one who shows mercy to the afflicted. Its conclusion, “Go and do likewise” (10:37), requires believers to show mercy to their suffering neighbors. At the last judgment the righteous are characterized by their lives of showing mercy to the hungry, the thirsty, the stranger, the unclothed, the sick, and the imprisoned (Matt. 25:37–40). In Luke 6:36, Jesus summarizes the law of mercy: “Be merciful, just as your Father is merciful.” According to James, “judgment without mercy will be shown to anyone who has not been merciful”; however, “mercy triumphs over judgment” (James 2:12–13). And according to the prophets, a merciless life is characteristic of godless people (Isa. 13:18; Jer. 6:23; 21:7; 50:42; Amos 1:11–12).
It is by God’s mercy that believers can persevere during the time of suffering (2 Cor. 4:1). Their prayer is the channel through which they draw God’s mercy. Hence, the writer of Hebrews exhorts believers to “approach God’s throne of grace with confidence, so that we may receive mercy” (Heb. 4:16).
In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2 Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1 Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1 Tim. 3:1–13).
The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1 Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1 Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1 Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).
Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2 Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.
All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1 Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1 Tim. 1:12; 1 Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1 Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.
It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2 Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1 Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1 Thess. 2:19–20).
In the NT the most common word used for “minister” is diakonos (e.g., 2 Cor. 3:6), and for “ministry,” diakonia (e.g., 1 Cor. 16:15 [NIV: “service”]). These words function as umbrella terms for NT writers to describe the whole range of ministries performed by the church. They can describe either a special ministry performed by an official functionary (1 Cor. 3:5) or one performed by any believer (Rev. 2:19). In the early church, ministry was based not on institutional hierarchies but on services performed (1 Tim. 3:1–13).
The ministry of Jesus. The church’s mind-set flows out of the way in which Jesus understood his ministry. He described his ministry pattern as that of serving (Matt. 20:28; Mark 10:45; John 13:4–17). Thus, he called his disciples to follow a model of leadership in the new community that did not elevate them above others (Matt. 20:20–28; 23:8–12; cf. 1 Pet. 5:3).
Jesus’ ministry provides the paradigm for the ministry of the church. The NT writers describe the threefold ministry of Jesus as preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; Mark 1:14, 21–22, 39; Acts 10:36–38). The disciples carried on the earthly ministry of Jesus by the power of the Spirit. They too engaged in preaching, teaching, and healing (Matt. 10:7–8; 28:19–20).
The ministry of the church. The church, because it is the body of Christ, continues these ministry responsibilities. In 1 Pet. 4:10–11 is a summary of the overarching ministries of the church, which include speaking the words of God and serving. As a priesthood of believers (Exod. 19:4–6; 1 Pet. 2:5, 9; Rev. 1:5–6), individual members took responsibility for fulfilling the various tasks of service. Thus, all Christians are called to minister (Rom. 15:27; Philem. 13; 1 Pet. 2:16). Even when a member strayed, it was another believer’s responsibility to confront that wayward person and, if necessary, involve others in the body to help (Matt. 18:15–20).
Although ministry was the responsibility of all believers, there were those with special expertise whom Christ and the church set apart for particular leadership roles (Eph. 4:11–12). Christ set apart Apollos and Paul for special ministries (1 Cor. 3:5; Eph. 3:7). The church called on special functionaries to carry out specific ministries. For example, the early church appointed seven individuals to serve tables (Acts 6:2). They appointed certain ones to carry the relief fund collected for the Jerusalem Christians (2 Cor. 8:19, 23). As special functionaries, Paul, Apollos, Timothy, Titus, the elders, as well as others accepted the responsibility of teaching and preaching and healing for the whole church.
All the ministries of the church, whether performed by believers in general or by some specially appointed functionary, were based on gifts received from God (Rom. 12:1–8; 1 Cor. 12:4–26). God gave individuals the abilities necessary to perform works of service (Acts 20:24; Eph. 4:11; Col. 4:17; 1 Tim. 1:12; 1 Pet. 4:11). The NT, however, makes it clear that when it comes to one’s relationship and spiritual status before God, all Christians are equal. Yet in equality there is diversity of gifts and talents. Paul identifies some gifts given to individuals for special positions: apostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers (Eph. 4:11). The description here is of special ministry roles that Christ calls certain individuals to fulfill based on the gifts given to them. The ones fulfilling these roles did not do all the ministry of the church but rather equipped the rest of the body to do ministry (Eph. 4:12–13). No one can boast in the gifts given to him or her because those gifts were given for ministry to others (1 Cor. 4:7). Thus, gifts lead to service, and in turn service results in leadership.
It becomes the responsibility of those who lead to equip others for ministry. When others are equipped for ministry, they in turn minister and edify the whole body (Eph. 4:15–16; 2 Tim. 2:1–2). The goal of all ministry, according to Paul, is to build up a community of believers until all reach maturity in Christ (Rom. 15:15–17; 1 Cor. 3:5–4:5; Eph. 4:12–16; 1 Thess. 2:19–20).
A transliteration of the Greek word synagōgē, meaning “gathering, assembly, meeting.” In English, the word “synagogue” refers either to a Jewish congregation or to the place where that congregation meets. Synagogues of the biblical era functioned as both religious and civic centers for the Jewish community.
Origins
The origin of synagogues is uncertain. The earliest archaeological evidence is from Egypt in the third century BC, consisting of inscriptions and a papyrus letter. The oldest architectural find is from the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea, although whether this was constructed as a synagogue or redesigned into one is unknown, as is whether it was Jewish or Samaritan. The oldest structures yet found in Israel consist of two rooms at Qumran and the synagogue at Gamla, which date from the late first century BC. In Capernaum, the basalt synagogue was built by a Gentile centurion for the community in the first century AD (Luke 7:1–5).
By that time, synagogues were well attested in Israel, elsewhere in the Roman Empire, and in Egypt (Matt. 4:23; Luke 4:44; Acts 9:2; 17:10, 16–17; 18:8, 19). Synagogues were found wherever there were communities of Jews, in cities and rural areas alike. Especially in Diaspora settings or remote locations, they were the heart of Jewish life. Several hypotheses have been suggested to account for their apparently sudden appearance.
Some believe that synagogues were developed during the Babylonian captivity as the response of the exile community to the destruction of their temple and sacrificial system. Despite these enormous losses, the Jews still had the Torah, and from that point forward worship and prayer based on the reading and studying of the Scriptures, which could be done locally, began to gain ascendancy. Critics of this idea, however, point out that while it makes sense, there is no direct evidence to support it.
Others think that the spread of Hellenism in the second century BC precipitated a crisis of identity among Jews. For example, 1 Maccabees reports with distress that some Jews had abandoned the covenant and teamed with the Hellenists, even going so far as to build a Greek-style gymnasium in Jerusalem (1:11–15). Thus, the thought is that synagogues were a form of resistance to the overwhelming and perversely appealing cultural changes of the day.
More recently, it has been suggested that synagogues were the gradual successors to functions that had previously taken place at city gates. First-century synagogues served a wide range of functions for the community. Throughout Israel’s prior history, however, these same activities—assembly, legal, social, educational, and religious—had taken place at the city gate (Deut. 12:15; 2 Sam. 15:2; 2 Kings 23:8; Neh. 8:1–8). The Gamla synagogue sits against the east city wall next to a probable gate, and its location could be evidence of the slow development of the synagogue as city gates changed from multipurpose facilities to portals of ingress and egress.
First-Century Synagogues
First-century synagogues served as integrated centers supporting Jewish life. Regular communal reading and exposition of Scripture, including teaching and discussion of the law and transmission of its complex associated traditions (Luke 4:16; Acts 13:14–15), occurred there. Although formal liturgical rites evolved after the destruction of the temple in AD 70, synagogues were places of prayer in the first century (Matt. 6:5). Synagogues also served as courtrooms and places where crimes were punished (Acts 22:19), as well as locations for common meals and festivals (see Acts 6:2).
Synagogues were administered by local community leaders, including a president and a board (Acts 13:15). Synagogue leaders named in the NT include Jairus (Mark 5:22; Luke 8:41), Crispus (Acts 18:8), and Sosthenes (Acts 18:17). The role of the leader was to preside over services, to rule as the judge in court cases, to represent the community, and often to act as a patron. The board served in an advisory role and assisted with teaching. A scribe maintained community records and taught.
Congregations included Pharisees, who advocated strict adherence to the law, although they were chided by Jesus for their false piety (Luke 11:42–44). Women participated in the synagogue along with the men, and in some cases they were financial donors (cf. Luke 8:3). God-fearing Gentiles were welcomed (Acts 17:17). In Jerusalem, synagogues included both Hebrews and Jews from the Diaspora (Acts 6:1, 9).
A synagogue could be a designated room in a house or a discrete building. Most of the better archaeological evidence is later than the first century and reveals more clearly religious intentionality in design than may have been characteristic earlier. This evidence includes the door facing Jerusalem, artistic temple motifs, a niche for the Torah scrolls, and perimeter bench seating around an open central hall.
The Synagogue in the Bible
Since synagogues were institutions with a documented history no earlier than the third century BC, they are not mentioned in the OT. The Greek word from which the English one is derived does appear frequently in the LXX, but always with a general reference to a gathering, assembly, or meeting.
Rabbinic history (but not Scripture) makes reference to the “Great Synagogue,” meaning a group of men who transmitted traditions from the prophets to the earliest named rabbinic teachers. It is loosely based on Neh. 8–10, which describes the prayers and actions of the Jewish leaders who had returned from exile.
Synagogues frequently were locations of the teaching and healing ministry of Jesus. He began preaching the kingdom of God, teaching, and performing healing miracles in Galilean synagogues (Matt. 4:23; 9:35; 12:9; 13:54; Mark 1:21–29, 39; 3:1; 6:2; Luke 4:15–38, 44; 6:6–11; 13:10–17; John 6:59; 18:20). Later, the apostle Paul customarily initiated his mission work in the local synagogue at each of his destinations (Acts 9:19–20; 13:5, 14–15; 14:1; 17:1, 10, 17; 18:1–8; 19:8).
The last (and, from a twenty-first-century perspective, most controversial) use of the word “synagogue” in Scripture is the difficult phrase “synagogue of Satan” (Rev. 2:9; 3:9), which must be read in its context. This was written in response to the significant persecution in Asia Minor of the churches at Smyrna and Philadelphia by Jews who were in collusion with the Roman authorities. They were falsely accusing Jewish and Gentile Christian believers, creating unspeakable suffering for them. This phrase, intended to encourage Christian perseverance, implies that the churches in view represented true Israel, while their accusers were false Jews. Similar language was used by the covenant-keeping community in Qumran when, in the DSS, it referred to apostate Jews as a “congregation of Belial” and an “assembly of hypocrites” (1QHa 10:22; 15:34).
A “type” (from Gk. typos) can be defined as a biblical event, person, or institution that serves as an example or pattern for events, persons, or institutions in the later OT or in the NT. Typology is based on the assumption that there is a pattern in God’s work in the OT and in the NT that forms a promise-fulfillment relationship. In the OT there are shadows of things that will be more fully revealed in the NT. Thus, the OT flows into the NT as part of a continuous story of salvation history. What is promised in the OT is fulfilled in the NT. This can be accomplished through prophetic word or through prophetic action/event. The use of prophetic action/event to predict or foreshadow future actions/events involves typology. Typology is part of the promise-fulfillment scheme that connects the two Testaments.
A number of biblical interpreters note that three primary characteristics of types can be identified. First, there must be some notable point of resemblance or analogy between the type and its antitype. Second, there must be evidence that the type was appointed by God to represent the thing typified. Here one must avoid the two extremes of, on the one hand, saying that a type is a type only when the Scripture explicitly calls it such, and, on the other hand, of finding a type “behind every tree.” Third, a type should prefigure something in the future. Thus, antitypes in the NT must present truth more fully realized than in the OT.
Typological interpretation of the OT is different from allegorizing a text. The former restricts itself to the meaning intended by the original author, whereas the latter reads things into the OT passage (usually in connection with messianic prophecy) not initially intended. On the other hand, it should be noted that the OT authors may not always have fully comprehended the long-range fulfillment of their prophecies. Thus, for example, Ps. 22 reveals King David’s trials and tribulations that are later viewed by NT authors as applicable to the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., the quotation of Ps. 22:18 in John 19:24 regarding the soldiers casting lots for Jesus’ clothes). David probably did not envision his situation as predictive of the sufferings of the coming Christ. But the Holy Spirit did, and he allowed the Gospel authors to make the connection. Thus, typology is a special form of biblical prophecy, which Jesus seemed to use extensively. Hence, the type is found in the OT, and its antitype occurs in the NT.
More particularly, Jesus seemed to perceive himself as the antitype to all three of the aforementioned possible types. First, Jesus fulfilled in himself persons in the OT who were types. Thus, Jesus is the ultimate David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, the heavenly Son of Man of Dan. 7, and the Suffering Servant of Isa. 52:13–53:12. Second, with regard to famous OT events, Jesus reenacted the new exodus and passed the test in the new wilderness wanderings (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.), and then he proclaimed a new law from the mountain, as did Moses (Matt. 5–7). Third, Jesus revised or replaced OT institutions such as the sacrificial system and the feasts of Yahweh (most notably Passover) at his death, and at his resurrection he became the new temple of God.
The NT continues Jesus’ typological interpretation of the OT, seeing in him the supreme antitype of OT symbolism. Thus, for example, Paul sees Christ as the second Adam (Rom. 5:12–21), whose church is the new Israel, the eschatological people of God (1 Cor. 10:1–13). Matthew perceives Jesus to be the new Moses (Matt. 1–10). Note the following comparisons:
Moses, the Old Testament Type vs. Jesus, Matthew’s Antitype to Moses:
Moses was born to deliver his people. Jesus was born to save his people.
Pharoah tried to kill the infant Moses. Herod tried to kill the infant Jesus.
Moses was “baptized” in the exodus. Jesus was baptized in the new “exodus.”
Moses was tempted in the wilderness. Jesus was tempted in the wildnerness.
Moses performed ten plagues. Jesus performed ten miracles.
Moses received the law on the mount. Jesus gave a new law on the mount.
Luke understands Jesus to be the new David (Luke 1:32). Hebrews asserts that Jesus has inaugurated the new covenant (chap. 8), the true priesthood (chaps. 7–8; 10), whose death is the fulfillment and replacement of the sacrificial system of the OT (chaps. 9–10). But perhaps the most extensive usage of typology in the NT occurs in Rev. 21–22 (cf. Rev. 19), where the new creation is the antitype of the old creation of Gen. 1–3 (see table 10).
Table 10. New Creation Typology in Revelation 21–22
Sinful people are scattered (Gen. 1-3). God’s people unite to sing his praises (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:6-7).
The “marriage” of Adam and Eve takes place in the garden (Gen. 1-3). The marriage of the second Adam and his bride, the church has come (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7, 21:2, 9).
God is abandoned by sinful people (Gen. 1-3). God’s people (new Jerusalem, bride of Christ) are made ready for God; marriage of the Lamb. (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7-8, 21:2, 9-21).
Exclusion from bounty of Eden (Gen. 1-3). Invitation to marriage supper of Lamb (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:9).
Satan introduces sin into world (Gen. 1-3). Satan and sin are judged (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:11-21, 20:7-10).
The serpent deceives humankind (Gen. 1-3). The ancient serpent is bound “to keep him from deceiving the nations (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:2-3).
God gives humans dominion over the earth (Gen. 1-3). God’s people will reign with him forever (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4, 6, 22:5).
People rebel against the true God, resulting in physical and spiritual death (Gen. 1-3). God’s people risk death to worship the true God and thus experience life (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4-6).
Sinful people are sent away from life (Gen. 1-3). God’s people have their names written in the book of life (Rev. 20:4-6, 15; 21:6, 27).
Death enters the world (Gen. 1-3). Death is put to death (Rev. 20:14; 21:4).
God creates the first heaven and earth, eventually cursed by sin (Gen. 1-3). God creates a new heaven and earth, where sin is nowhere to be found (Rev. 21:1)/
Water symbolizes chaos (Gen. 1-3). There is no longer any sea (Rev. 21:1).
Sin brings pain and tears (Gen. 1-3). God comforts his people and removes crying and pain (Rev. 21:4).
Sinful humanity is cursed with wandering (exile) (Gen. 1-3). God’s people are given a permanent home (Rev. 21:3).
Community is forfeited (Gen. 1-3). Genuine community is experienced (Rev. 21-22; cf. 21:3, 7).
Sinful people are banished from the presence of God (Gen. 1-3). God lives among his people (Rev. 21:3, 7, 22; 22:4).
Creation begins to grow old and die (Gen. 1-3). All things are made new (Rev. 21:5).
Water is used to destroy wicked humanity (Gen. 1-3). God quenches thirst with water from the spring of life (Rev. 21:6; 22:1).
“In the beginning, God…” (Gen. 1-3). “I am the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end.” (Rev. 21:6).
Sinful humanity suffers a wandering exile in the land (Gen. 1-3). God gives his children an inheritance (Rev. 21:7).
Sin enters the world (Gen. 1-3). Sin is banished from God’s city (Rev. 21:8, 27; 22:15).
Sinful humanity is separated from the presence of the holy God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people experience God’s holiness (cubed city = holy of holies) (Rev. 21:15-21).
God creates light and separates it from darkness (Gen. 1-3). No more night or natural light; God himself is the source of light (Rev. 21:23; 22:5)
Languages of sinful humanity are confused (Gen. 1-3). God’s people is a multicultural people (Rev. 21:24, 26; 22:2).
Sinful people are sent away from the garden (Gen. 1-3). The new heaven/earth includes a garden (Rev. 22:2).
Sinful people are forbidden to eat from the tree of life (Gen. 1-3). God’s people may eat freely from the tree of life (Rev. 22:2, 14).
Sin results in spiritual sickness (Gen. 1-3). God heals the nations (Rev. 22:2).
Sinful people are cursed (Gen. 1-3). The curse is removed from redeemed humanity, and people become a blessing (Rev. 22:3).
Sinful people refuse to serve/obey God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people serve him (Rev. 22:3).
Sinful people are ashamed in God’s presence (Gen. 1-3). God’s people will “see his face” (Rev. 22:4).
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