The words “sacrifice” and “offering”
often are used interchangeably, but “offering” refers to
a gift more generally, while “sacrifice” indicates a gift
consecrated for a divine being. In biblical Hebrew “sacrifice”
is more narrowly equated with the peace offering. All other
“sacrifices” are referred to as gifts. Sacrifices were
offered to honor God, thanking him for his goodness. More important,
they enabled persons to be made right with God by atoning for their
sins. Whereas sin upset the fellowship God desired to have with
people and kindled his wrath, sacrifice restored the relationship.
Old
Testament
OT
offerings included cereals (whether the grain was whole, ground into
flour, or mixed with other elements), liquids (wine, oil, or water),
and animals (or parts thereof, such as the blood and fat). Although
the Bible acknowledges that other ancient Near Eastern people had
their own sacrificial rites, it rejects them as unworthy of the God
of Israel. The people of God therefore were instructed how to
sacrifice properly while at Sinai. Even so, offerings and sacrifices
are recorded as taking place before the law was given.
Prior
to the law.
Cain and Abel brought the earliest offerings. Contrary to a common
interpretation, Cain’s offering was not rejected because it did
not include blood; the Hebrew word for the brothers’ gifts,
minkhah,
usually denotes grain offerings. A better conclusion is that Cain
only brought some of his produce (no mention of firstfruits), while
Abel brought the best of the best (the fat portions from the
firstborn of the flock).
Immediately
after the flood, Noah built an altar and presented the first burnt
offering mentioned in the Bible (Gen. 8:20). That this (and other
sacrifices) was received as a “pleasing aroma” indicates
that God approved of and accepted it. It is significant that
immediately after the offering, God made a covenant with Noah, his
descendants, and every living creature. Sacrifices are closely
related to covenant relationships, as can be seen in the story of
Abraham enacting a covenant ceremony in Gen. 15 and in Israel
receiving many instructions about sacrifice while at Sinai (cf. Gen.
31:43–54).
Sacrificial
laws in Leviticus.
Sacrificial laws are found throughout the Pentateuch, the most being
in Lev. 1–7. As Leviticus makes clear, Israel understood
sacrifice to have a number of different purposes. It was a means to
bring a gift to God, to express communion with him and others in the
community, to consecrate something or someone for God’s use,
and to deal with personal uncleanness or sin. These ideas are
developed in the descriptions of the different sacrifices that Israel
was required to bring to God. In general, the sacrifices were made of
clean animals raised by the one making the offering or of grain or
wine produced by the person. In some cases, the offering was
connected with the person’s economic ability, a poorer person
being allowed to present doves or even cereal if a lamb or goat was
unaffordable for a sin offering (Lev. 5:6–13). In all cases,
only the best—what was “without defect”—was
to be offered.
Priest
as mediator.
Three parties were involved in the sacrifices: the worshiper, the
priest, and God. The worshiper—the person who had sinned or
become unclean in some way—brought an animal to God, laid a
hand upon it, and then killed it. Whether the animal’s death
represents the death that the worshiper deserves due to sin or
whether the sin is transferred to the animal that bears it instead is
unclear. The priest served as a mediator who offered the blood of the
sacrifice to God and, in many instances, burned all or part of the
offering. In response to the offering, God, who had graciously given
the sacrificial system so that those who had sinned could be restored
to fellowship with him, forgave the person. Uniquely in the ancient
world, Israelite sacrifices were not considered magical acts that
could manipulate God to act on behalf of the worshiper. Presenting an
improper sacrifice while exhibiting an improper attitude or motive
resulted in rejection.
Types
of sacrifices.
Leviticus introduced five main sacrifices: the ’olah (1:1–17;
6:8–18), the minkhah (2:1–16; 6:14–23), the
shelamim (3:1–17; 7:11–36), the khatta’t
(4:1–5:13), and the ’asham (5:14–6:7). Most of
these focused on uncleanness or sin. The worshiper who brought such
an offering was not allowed to eat any of it, as it was wholly given
to God. Even when priests were allowed to eat part of a sacrifice,
their portion was “waved” before God, indicating that it
belonged to him.
1.
The ’olah, or burnt offering, is the basic OT sacrifice
connected with atonement for sin (Lev. 1:4). When rightly offered, it
was accepted as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.” The
worshiper brought a male animal (young bull, sheep, goat, dove, or
young pigeon) without blemish, laid a hand upon it, and then killed
it. After the priest sprinkled some of the blood on the altar, the
rest was burned up.
2.
The minkhah is simply a gift or offering. The Hebrew word is often
used for a present given to another person or tribute to a ruler.
When used of sacrifice, it is usually rendered as “grain
offering” or “meal offering.” A minkhah can, on
occasion, include flesh or fat (Gen. 4:4; Judg. 6:18–21).
Considered “an aroma pleasing to the Lord,” it consisted
of unground grain or fine flour mixed with oil and incense and was
presented either cooked or uncooked. Part of the offering was burned
as a “memorial portion,” the rest being given to the
priests (Lev. 2:1–3). It usually was accompanied by a drink
offering—wine poured out on the altar. Grain offerings
frequently complemented burnt offerings or fellowship offerings. The
showbread may have been considered a grain offering.
3.
The shelamim (NIV: “fellowship offering”) has
traditionally been called the “peace offering,” as the
term is related to shalom. This offering most likely indicated that
the worshiper was at peace with God and others; all the worshiper’s
relationships were whole. Classified into three types, it could be
used to express thanksgiving, to signify the fulfillment of a vow, or
simply to denote one’s desire to bring an offering to God out
of free will. Only those who made a vow were required to offer a
shelamim; the other forms were wholly optional. The worshiper brought
a male or female animal (ox, sheep, or goat) without blemish, laid a
hand on its head, and slaughtered it. The priest sprinkled its blood
on the sides of the altar and burned the fat surrounding the major
organs. It is described as “an aroma pleasing to the Lord.”
This
offering significantly recognized the covenant relationship existing
between those who shared in it. God received the fatty portions, the
officiating priest received the right thigh, the other priests the
breast, and the remainder was shared among members of a family, clan,
tribe, or some other group. According to Leviticus, a thanksgiving
offering was to be eaten on the day it was offered, and a vow or
freewill offering could be eaten within two days. Anything not eaten
in the prescribed time period was to be burned.
4.
The khatta’t, or sin offering, atoned for the sin of an
individual or of the nation and cleansed the sacred items in the
tabernacle that had been corrupted by sin. Since a sin offering could
purify ceremonial as well as moral uncleanness, people who were
unclean due to childbirth, skin diseases, bodily discharges, and so
forth also brought them (Lev. 12–15).
The
kind of animal sacrificed and the sacrificial ritual varied with the
offender and the offense. If a priest or the entire congregation
sinned, a bull was sacrificed and its blood was sprinkled before the
veil of the tabernacle and on the incense altar in the holy place.
The rest was burned, leaving nothing to be eaten. Leaders who sinned
sacrificed a male goat. Its blood was sprinkled on the bronze altar,
and the remainder was given to the priest. A commoner brought and
slaughtered a she-goat or lamb, the priest sprinkled its blood on the
horns of the altar, and the fat was burned for God and the rest given
to the priests. A poor person could bring two doves or pigeons, and
the very poor could bring a grain offering. This differentiation
apparently indicated that the sins of some members of the community
had more serious consequences than others. Those in closest contact
with the tabernacle contaminated it at a deeper level, requiring a
more costly sacrifice. The poor were not required to bring more than
they could afford.
5.
The ’asham, or guilt offering, provided compensation for sins.
A ram without blemish was sacrificed, its blood was sprinkled on the
altar, and its fatty portions, kidneys, and liver were burned. The
rest was given to the priest. In addition, the value of what was
misappropriated plus one-fifth of its value was given to the person
wronged or to the priests.
Altars.
According to Leviticus, only the Aa-ron-ic priests could handle the
blood or other parts of a sacrifice brought to the altar at the
tabernacle. Even so, throughout Israel’s history other
sacrificial altars were built. While some of these were illicitly
used for syncretistic practices, others were constructed at God’s
instruction (Josh. 8:30–35; Judg. 6:25–26). Some of these
were used by priests making rounds so that people from different
areas could sacrifice to God (1 Sam. 7:17). Others were used by
individuals who were not priests yet desired to call upon the name of
the Lord or sacrifice for communal meals. The solitary altars were
mainly used for burnt offerings and peace offerings, although grain
and drink offerings also were known. Sin and guilt offerings were
offered only at the tabernacle or temple.
Times
and purposes.
The OT regulates a number of different occasions upon which regular
sacrifices were to be made. Burnt offerings were presented every
morning and evening (Exod. 29:38–41; Num. 28:1–8).
Additional offerings were sacrificed on the Sabbath and the new moon
(Num. 28:9–15). Special sacrifices were brought to celebrate
the major festivals of the year (Num. 28:16–29:39),
particularly the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Sacrifices might also
accompany requests for safety or deliverance or in response to God’s
deliverance. Thus, burnt and fellowship offerings could be brought
along with prayers that God would put an end to a plague (2 Sam.
24:18–25). King David brought burnt offerings and fellowship
offerings when the ark of the covenant was returned after having been
captured by the Philistines (2 Sam. 6:1–19).
Sacrifices
could also be made to consecrate people or things for a special task.
When the tabernacle was consecrated, special offerings were brought
for twelve continuous days (Num. 7). Later, fellowship, burnt, and
grain offerings were sacrificed when the temple was dedicated
(1 Kings 8:62–64). Sin offerings were presented when a
priest was ordained (Lev. 8–9). Those who completed a vow
dedicating themselves as Naz-i-rites brought sacrifices to God so
that they could again become a normal member of the congregation
(Num. 6:9–21). Fellowship offerings often accompanied the
announcement of or installation of a king (1 Sam. 11:14–15;
1 Kings 1:9, 25).
Although
the sacrificial system was intended to bring the Israelites back into
fellowship with God, at times their misuse of it separated them from
him. When his people showed more interest in sacrificial ritual than
in obeying God’s instructions, they were chastened (1 Sam.
15:13–22; Jer. 7:21–28). When the people of Israel were
guilty of confusing the worship of Yahweh with Canaanite fertility
cults, God sent prophets to warn them (Isa. 1:11–16; Amos
4:4–5). Prophetic statements denouncing sacrificial rites were
aimed at the misuse of sacrifices rather than their existence.
Jeremiah and Ezekiel were so positive about sacrificial worship that
they looked forward to a time when it would be reestablished in its
pure form (Jer. 17:26; Ezek. 43:18–27; 46:1–24).
New
Testament
The
NT indicates that the OT sacrificial system was still in place in the
early first century AD. Following directions given in Leviticus, Mary
brought a sacrifice to the temple in Jerusalem so that she could be
purified after giving birth to Jesus (Luke 2:21–24; cf. Lev.
12:3, 8). Mary and Joseph would have sacrificed and eaten a Passover
lamb during their annual pilgrimage to Jerusalem to celebrate the
Feast of Passover. It is not recorded whether Jesus always went with
them, but he did join them at the Passover celebration when he was
twelve years old. It is safe to assume that at this time and after he
grew up, Jesus took part in the sacrifices when he visited Jerusalem
to celebrate the feasts.
Jesus’
disciples attend several feasts with him. In addition, after his
resurrection they frequently went to the temple to pray at the time
when sacrifices were made. Encouraged by the Jerusalem church
leaders, Paul went to the temple to join in and pay for the
purification rites of some men who had taken a vow, perhaps to serve
as Nazirites (Acts 21:23–26). He later testified before Felix
that he had returned to Jerusalem in order to bring gifts to the poor
and present offerings in the temple (24:17). Although Gentile
believers were exempt from these practices (15:1–29), early
Jewish believers clearly saw no contradiction between believing the
gospel of Jesus Christ and engaging in sacrificial rituals. They
likely followed Jewish piety until the destruction of the temple in
AD 70, when all sacrifices at the temple ceased.
Even
so, Christians quickly came to understand Christ’s death as the
final sacrifice that completed the OT system. Various NT authors
consider the nature of Christ’s death and metaphorically relate
it to OT sacrifices, but the writer of Hebrews develops this in the
most detail. According to Hebrews, the sacrificial system was merely
the shadow that pointed to Jesus. Although the blood of animals could
not adequately deal with sins, Jesus’ sacrifice could (Heb.
10:1–10). Jesus is regularly identified as the sacrificial lamb
whose blood purifies humanity from sin (John 1:29, 36; Rom. 8:3;
1 Cor. 5:7; Eph. 5:2; 1 Pet. 1:19; 1 John 1:7; Rev.
5:6, 12; 7:14; 12:11; 13:8). His sacrifice is considered a
propitiation that turns away God’s wrath (Rom. 3:25; 1 John
2:2).
The
end of the OT sacrificial system does not mean that those who come to
God through Jesus Christ no longer bring sacrifices. Instead of
animal and grain offerings, spiritual sacrifices are to be made
(1 Pet. 2:5). Emulating their Savior, Christ’s followers
should offer themselves as living sacrifices, devoted to God (Rom.
12:1). This implies that everything done in this life could be
considered a sacrifice. Simply believing the gospel makes one an
acceptable offering to God (Rom. 15:16). Labor for the sake of the
gospel, or perhaps martyrdom, can be viewed as a drink offering
(Phil. 2:17). The author of Hebrews identifies three types of
sacrifices that believers should offer: praise, good deeds, and
sharing with those in need (13:15–16). In line with the last of
these points, Paul counts the gift sent by the Philippian church as a
fragrant offering that pleases God (Phil. 4:18).
