Sermon and Worship Resources

1 Chronicles 26:20-32 · The Treasures and Other Officials

20 Their fellow Levites were in charge of the treasuries of the house of God and the treasuries for the dedicated things.

21 The descendants of Ladan, who were Gershonites through Ladan and who were heads of families belonging to Ladan the Gershonite, were Jehieli, 22 the sons of Jehieli, Zetham and his brother Joel. They were in charge of the treasuries of the temple of the Lord .

23 From the Amramites, the Izharites, the Hebronites and the Uzzielites:

24 Shubael, a descendant of Gershom son of Moses, was the officer in charge of the treasuries. 25 His relatives through Eliezer: Rehabiah his son, Jeshaiah his son, Joram his son, Zicri his son and Shelomith his son. 26 Shelomith and his relatives were in charge of all the treasuries for the things dedicated by King David, by the heads of families who were the commanders of thousands and commanders of hundreds, and by the other army commanders. 27 Some of the plunder taken in battle they dedicated for the repair of the temple of the Lord . 28 And everything dedicated by Samuel the seer and by Saul son of Kish, Abner son of Ner and Joab son of Zeruiah, and all the other dedicated things were in the care of Shelomith and his relatives.

29 From the Izharites: Kenaniah and his sons were assigned duties away from the temple, as officials and judges over Israel.

30 From the Hebronites: Hashabiah and his relatives-seventeen hundred able men-were responsible in Israel west of the Jordan for all the work of the Lord and for the king's service. 31 As for the Hebronites, Jeriah was their chief according to the genealogical records of their families. In the fortieth year of David's reign a search was made in the records, and capable men among the Hebronites were found at Jazer in Gilead. 32 Jeriah had twenty-seven hundred relatives, who were able men and heads of families, and King David put them in charge of the Reubenites, the Gadites and the half-tribe of Manasseh for every matter pertaining to God and for the affairs of the king.

The Treasures and Other Officials

1 Chronicles 26:20-32

One Volume
by Gary M. Burge

Following the list of gatekeepers the Chronicler provides the list of Levitical treasurers in 26:20–28. The two Levitical groups responsible for the treasuries hailed from the line of Gershon (26:21–22) and Kohath (26:23–28). Two types of treasuries are defined here (26:20), the first relating to the house of God, and the other to dedicated gift…

Baker Publishing Group, The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary, by Gary M. Burge

Overview and Insights · The Reign of David (11–29)

Chapter 11 begins the story of David’s reign, skipping over his struggle with Saul as well as David’s colorful rise to power, but still stressing God’s blessing and providence in his reign. The account of David’s capturing Jerusalem is included (11:4–9), in keeping with the focus on the temple. The comments and lists in this section highlight the point that all Israel supported David as the king.

In 1 Chronicles 13–16 David brings the ark to Jerusalem and organizes the nation for worshiping and praising God. As in 2 Samuel 6:1–7, a man named Uzzah is killed for touching the ark in an attempt to steady it (1 Chron. 13:9–10). Here, however, the story explains that this was because David was not transporting the ark correctly. In 15:11–15 the Levites inform David of the corre…

The Baker Bible Handbook by Hays and Duvall, Baker Publishing Group, 2016

1 Chronicles 26:20-32 · The Treasures and Other Officials

20 Their fellow Levites were in charge of the treasuries of the house of God and the treasuries for the dedicated things.

23 From the Amramites, the Izharites, the Hebronites and the Uzzielites:

29 From the Izharites: Kenaniah and his sons were assigned duties away from the temple, as officials and judges over Israel.

Commentary · The Treasures and Other Officials

The Baker Illustrated Bible Commentary by Gary M. Burge, Baker Publishing Group, 2016

Dictionary

Direct Matches

Abner

Son of King Saul’s uncle, Ner (1 Sam. 14:50 51). Abner was Saul’s military commander. He maintained loyalty to the house of Saul during Saul’s struggle with David. Upon Saul’s death, Abner made Saul’s son Ish-Bosheth king over the northern kingdom. In battle with David’s forces, Abner killed Asahel, the brother of David’s military commander, Joab (2 Sam. 2:17–23). Abner rallied support for David’s kingship after Ish-Bosheth accused Abner of sleeping with Saul’s concubine (2 Sam. 3:7–13). Joab later murdered Abner to avenge his brother Asahel’s death (3:22–27).

Ahijah

The prophet from Shiloh who superintended the division of Solomon’s united kingdom (928 BC). He predicted to Jeroboam that he would tear away ten tribes from the Davidic house (1 Kings 11:29 39). This prediction was fulfilled after Solomon’s death (1 Kings 12:15; 2 Chron. 10:15). Certain events in Solomon’s reign were written up in “the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite” (2 Chron. 9:29). Later, Jeroboam’s wife went in disguise to Ahijah to inquire about her sick son. Ahijah predicted the death of the child and the destruction of Jeroboam’s entire house as a punishment for idolatry (1 Kings 14:1–16). Both predictions came true (1 Kings 14:17–18; 15:29).

Army

The army of Israel was primarily a volunteer military force directed by God and his word. Deuteronomy 20 establishes the guidelines for warfare, Num. 1 describes organization, and Num. 2:17 highlights God’s strategic position as commander in the sacred event of war. Israelite warriors were men twenty years and older from the nation’s tribes, clans, and families. The Levites were appointed tabernacle caretakers and not counted in the census for military duties. The priest was responsible for addressing the nation prior to a battle and then leading the battle procession in connection with the ark of the covenant.

The Israelite army structure is not overly developed in the biblical material. Under God as commander in chief was the king, who then worked in connection with his commanders and officers to execute God’s will by means of a tribal confederation. Prior to the monarchy, God worked through Moses and Joshua to rally the men for battle. Samuel warned the nation that the king would abuse the volunteerism of the army and take their sons and make them render military service with his chariots and horses (1 Sam. 8:11 12). This warning was realized under the leadership of Solomon and Rehoboam. Army divisions included a list of family heads, commanders of thousands, commanders of hundreds, and their officers. In addition, a period of their service was noted (1 Chron. 27).

Army size was not a matter of importance for success in battle. God as divine warrior led the nation in battle and determined the outcome in keeping with his sovereign purposes. Only a few Israelites were necessary to defeat thousands (Lev. 26:8; Deut. 32:8). The defeat of Pharaoh and his army in the exodus and the conquest provides the most dramatic premonarchy illustrations of God’s defiance of the numbers. During the monarchy, God orchestrated the defeat of the vast Aramean army with a smaller Israelite army (1 Kings 20:27). On the other hand, when the Israelites were disobedient to the covenant, they would be put to flight (Josh. 7).

David

The second king of Israel (r. 1010 970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1 Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).

Eventually Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1 Sam. 31–2 Sam. 1).

Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2 Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2 Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (2 Sam. 5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6).

The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2 Sam. 7; 1 Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).

David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2 Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.

David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2 Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2 Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2 Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.

Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1 Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1 Kings 2:10–12).

David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2 Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.

Eli

The chief priest of Israel at the tabernacle at Shiloh toward the end of the period of judges (1 Sam. 1:1 4:22). He is described as both physically and spiritually flabby. He is not evil, just spiritually undiscerning. Also, he fails to discipline his two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, who are wicked. He ends badly when his sons, who are leading the army against the Philistines, are defeated and killed. When he gets the news, Eli falls off a log and breaks his neck. Even so, his descendants continue as priests until the time of David. At that time, though, the prophetic announcement comes to fulfillment, and the priesthood passes from his descendant Abiathar and goes to Zadok (1 Kings 2:27, 35).

Eliezer

A servant of Abram from Damascus (Gen. 15:2). He probably was Abram’s adopted son and potential heir of his household (15:4 5).

Family

People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.

Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.

The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.

Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:6 17). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.

Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).

Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.

Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60 percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.

Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.

Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).

The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.

Gershom

The elder son of Moses and Zipporah, born in Midian (Exod. 2:22; 18:3; 1 Chron. 23:15). His name, given by Moses, means “sojourner there,” reflecting Moses’ status as an alien in Midian. This Gershom is named as an ancestor of Jonathan, the priest of Micah and subsequently of the Danites (Judg. 17:7 18:30), as well as an ancestor to Shubael, called both chief and officer over the treasuries (1 Chron. 23:16; 26:24). See also Gershon.

Gershonites

The descendants of Gershon (also spelled “Gershom”) son of Levi (Gen. 46:11) were Libni (also known as Ladan) and Shimei and their descendants (Num. 3:18, 21; 1 Chron. 6:17, 43; 23:7 11). During the wilderness period they were responsible for all activities concerning the tabernacle coverings, screens, and hangings (Num. 3:25–26; 4:21–28; 7:6–7). They also carried the ark of the covenant (Num. 10:17; 1 Chron. 15:7, 11–15). See also Gershon.

Gilead

The southern section of the Trans-jordan, with the Jordan River to the west, Bashan to the north, Ammon to the east, and Moab to the south. The Jabbok River ran across it from east to west, and “Gilead” could be used either more widely to describe the whole area or more narrowly to describe the land either south or north of the Jabbok. It was a high, fertile region, famed for its healing balm and spices (Gen. 37:25; Jer. 8:22; 46:11) as well as its pastures and livestock (Num. 32:1; 1 Chron. 5:9; Song 4:1; 6:5).

Joab

A nephew of King David through his sister Zeruiah (1 Chron. 2:16 17). His brothers were Abishai and Asahel, and his cousin was Amasa, all of whom were important military commanders. Joab himself was the most famous military leader of them all. He became the leader of David’s army after he was the first to take up David’s challenge to defeat the Jebusite city of Jerusalem (1 Chron. 11:4–9).

Joab won many impressive battles for David (2 Sam. 2:12–32; 10:1–19). He often served the interests of David, even trying to persuade David not to take a census that he knew would provoke God’s anger (2 Sam. 24:1–9; 1 Chron. 21:1–6). On some occasions he gave David bad advice—for instance, counseling him to take Absalom back into the court (2 Sam. 14:1–33). However, he sometimes acted in his own interests, and not those of his king, country, or God. He killed Abner, the commander of the northern army, in revenge (2 Sam. 3:22–39) and even murdered his own cousin Amasa (2 Sam. 20:7–13).

Joab met his end when he supported Adonijah’s attempt to succeed David. When David’s choice, Solomon, became king, he sent Benaiah to kill Adonijah. When news of Adonijah’s death reached Joab, he fled to the tabernacle and took hold of the horns of the altar (1 Kings 1:50). Solomon ordered Benaiah to kill Joab, and he did so in the tabernacle because Joab refused to come out (1 Kings 2:29–31, 34).

Joel

Joel is the second of the twelve Minor Prophets. The book is best known for its frightening depiction of God’s judgment in the form of a locust plague and the stirring description of that future day when God will pour his Spirit out on all people (2:28 32).

Joel is a collection of prophetic oracles. Like most prophetic books, the book has both judgment and salvation oracles, although there are more salvation oracles than usual. The first chapter describes an actual locust plague that Joel understands to be a judgment on the people of God. The second chapter also speaks of a locust plague, but this time the locusts are a metaphor for future devastation by a human army. On this basis, Joel calls for the people’s repentance and also places before the people a picture of God’s future salvation, which includes judgment on the other nations.

Joel uses a recent locust plague to paint a picture of the devastation of a coming day of judgment, referred to here and elsewhere in the prophets as the “day of the Lord” (2:1; see also Amos 5:18–20). This vivid and horrifying teaching on judgment is intended not simply to frighten readers but also to encourage their repentance. As frightening as Joel’s language about judgment seems, his language of future salvation is encouraging to an even greater degree.

Joram

King of Israel (r. 851 842 BC), Ahab and Jezebel’s son (2 Kings 3:1–3). His reign was troubled by the rebellion of Moab and Syria, two of his father’s vassal states. He was killed, along with Ahaziah king of Judah (r. 843–842 BC), in Jehu’s purge of the Omride dynasty (2 Kings 9:14–29).

Judges

Judges covers the period between the death of Joshua and the rise of the monarchy in Israel. It was a turbulent period, as the people did not seem to have any center in God. The bulk of the book narrates the stories of judges, mostly military leaders, whom God sent to Israel on those occasions when they turned to him for help (Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah, Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson). The book also includes brief mentions of judges who are not associated with violent actions against the enemy (Tola, Jair, Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon [10:1 5; 12:8–15]), as well as the story of an abortive attempt to establish kingship during this time (Abimelek [chap. 9]).

Indeed, the stories of the judges who were deliverers tend to follow a relatively set pattern. They begin with the sin of the people, which leads to their oppression by a foreign power. The suffering of the people shocks them into realizing that they need God, and they turn to him for help. In such instances, God responds by giving the people a judge, really a military leader, who then delivers them from the power of their oppressors. However, after a period of peace, the people sin again, and another oppressor takes control.

The two stories in the appendix of the book of Judges simply add emphasis to the dark picture painted in the body of the book. These are two accounts of family sins that expand into national tragedies. Individuals from the tribe of Levi, the priestly tribe dedicated to special service to God, play a particularly negative role in the appendix.

This phrase “in those days Israel had no king” (17:6; 18:1; 19:1; 21:25) is repeated throughout the appendix of the book and alerts the reader to one of the major themes of the book. Who will be the human leader of the people of God? The imperfect judges and the fragmentary condition of the tribes as well as their sad spiritual state cause the reader to yearn for something better: the rise of divinely appointed kingship in Israel. The books of Samuel and Kings, which follow, narrate the promise and ultimate failure of kingship, which itself will lead to the expectation of something even more, the Messiah.

King

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2 Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world.

A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan. 3).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14 20). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1 Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1 Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2 Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

Kish

(1) A Benjamite from Gibeah, the son of Abiel and the father of Saul (1 Sam. 9:1 2). According to 1 Chron. 8:33; 9:39, however, Ner was the father of Kish. Some suggest that Kish was the son of Ner and a grandson of Abiel. (2) A Benjamite ancestor of Mordecai (Esther 2:5), likely the same person as the Kish of 1 Sam. 9:1–2.

Levites

One of the twelve tribes of Israel, descended from Jacob’s third son, Levi. The smallest of the tribes during the wilderness wanderings, the Levites provided Israel with the priests who offered sacrifices to God and other ministers who cared for the tabernacle and its sacred furnishings. The term “Levite” is somewhat fluid in meaning, sometimes referring solely to the nonpriestly descendants of Levi and other times including the Aaronic priests. When used in the first manner, the Levites are almost always portrayed as assisting the priests in the service of the tabernacle or temple.

Manasseh

(1) A son of Joseph and grandson of Jacob. He was Joseph’s firstborn, but Jacob blessed Ephraim his brother over Manasseh (Gen. 48:13 20). Joseph received a double portion over his brothers because the two tribes of Israel traced their ancestry back to him through his two sons. In keeping with Jacob’s blessing, the tribe of Ephraim overshadowed the tribe of Manasseh (see Manasseh, Tribe of).

(2) The fourteenth king of Judah (698–642 BC), his rule was so wicked that it secured the doom of his kingdom (2 Kings 20:21–21:18; 2 Chron. 32:33–33:20).

The account of his rule in 2 Kings focuses exclusively on the perversity of his leadership and the negative consequences that flowed from his reign. Many kings promoted or tolerated the worship of pagan deities, but only Manasseh is associated with the practice of child sacrifice, offering up his own son (2 Kings 21:6). He “also shed so much innocent blood that he filled Jerusalem from end to end” (2 Kings 21:16). Such sin elicited a strong reaction from God, who announced that he would “wipe out Jerusalem as one wipes a dish, wiping it and turning it upside down” (2 Kings 21:13).

Interestingly, 2 Chronicles, a postexilic historical work, expands our knowledge about this king to include the account of his end-of-life conversion. This story is absent from 2 Kings because that book tells the history of God’s people in order to explain why they were in exile. Manasseh’s change of life happened when his Assyrian overlords, angry over an unspecified offense, dragged him to their capital with a hook in his nose. Because of Manasseh’s change of heart, God blessed the remainder of his reign, although God did not reverse the judgment of destruction that his sins evoked against Judah (Jer. 15:4).

Moses

Moses played a leadership role in the founding of Israel as a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation” (Exod. 19:6). Indeed, the narrative of Exodus through Deuteronomy is the story of God using Moses to found the nation of Israel. It begins with an account of his birth (Exod. 2) and ends with an account of his death (Deut. 34). Moses’ influence and importance extend well beyond his lifetime, as later Scripture demonstrates.

Moses was born in a dangerous time, and according to Pharaoh’s decree, he should not have survived long after his birth. He was born to Amram and Jochebed (Exod. 6:20). Circumventing Pharaoh’s decree, Jochebed placed the infant Moses in a reed basket and floated him down the river. God guided the basket down the river and into the presence of none other than Pharaoh’s daughter (Exod. 2:5 6), who, at the urging of Moses’ sister, hired Jochebed to take care of the child.

The next major episode in the life of Moses concerns his defense of an Israelite worker who was being beaten by an Egyptian (Exod. 2:11–25). In the process of rescuing the Israelite, Moses killed the Egyptian. When it became clear that he was known to be the killer, he fled Egypt and ended up in Midian, where he became a member of the family of a Midianite priest-chief, Jethro, by marrying his daughter Zipporah.

Although Moses was not looking for a way back into Egypt, God had different plans. One day, while Moses was tending his sheep, God appeared to him in the form of a burning bush and commissioned him to go back to Egypt and lead his people to freedom. Moses expressed reluctance, and so God grudgingly enlisted his older brother, Aaron, to accompany him as his spokesperson.

Upon Moses’ return to Egypt, Pharaoh stubbornly refused to allow the Israelites to leave Egypt. God directed Moses to announce a series of plagues that ultimately induced Pharaoh to allow the Israelites to depart. After they left, Pharaoh had a change of mind and cornered them on the shores of the Red Sea (Sea of Reeds). It was at the Red Sea that God demonstrated his great power by splitting the sea and allowing the Israelites to escape before closing it again in judgment on the Egyptians. Moses signaled the presence of God by lifting his rod high in the air (Exod. 14:16). This event was long remembered as the defining moment when God released Israel from Egyptian slavery (Pss. 77; 114), and it even became the paradigm for future divine rescues (Isa. 40:3–5; Hos. 2:14–15).

After the crossing of the Red Sea, Moses led Israel back to Mount Sinai, the location of his divine commissioning. At this time, Moses went up the mountain as a prophetic mediator for the people (Deut. 18:16). He received the Ten Commandments, the rest of the law, and instructions to build the tabernacle (Exod. 19–24). All these were part of a new covenantal arrangement that today we refer to as the Mosaic or Sinaitic covenant.

However, as Moses came down the mountain with the law, he saw that the people, who had grown tired of waiting, were worshiping a false god that they had created in the form of a golden calf (Exod. 32). With the aid of the Levites, who that day assured their role as Israel’s priestly helpers, he brought God’s judgment against the offenders and also interceded in prayer with God to prevent the total destruction of Israel.

Thus began Israel’s long story of rebellion against God. God was particularly upset with the lack of confidence that the Israelites had shown when the spies from the twelve tribes gave their report (Num. 13). They did not believe that God could handle the fearsome warriors who lived in the land, and so God doomed them to forty years of wandering in the wilderness, enough time for the first generation to die. Not even Moses escaped this fate, since he had shown anger against God and attributed a miracle to his own power and not to God when he struck a rock in order to get water (Num. 20:1–13).

Thus, Moses was not permitted to enter the land of promise, though he had led the Israelites to the very brink of entry on the plains of Moab. There he gave his last sermon, which we know as the book of Deuteronomy. The purpose of his sermon was to tell the second generation of Israelites who were going to enter the land that they must obey God’s law or suffer the consequences. The form of the sermon was that of a covenant renewal, and so Israel on this occasion reaffirmed its loyalty to God.

After this, Moses went up on Mount Nebo, from which he could see the promised land, and died. Deuteronomy concludes with the following statements: “Since then, no prophet has risen in Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face. . . . For no one has ever shown the mighty power or performed the awesome deeds that Moses did in the sight of all Israel” (Deut. 34:10, 12).

The NT honors Moses as God’s servant but also makes the point that Jesus is one who far surpasses Moses as a mediator between God and people (Acts 3:17–26; Heb. 3).

The date of Moses is a matter of controversy because the biblical text does not name the pharaohs of the story. Many date him to the thirteenth century BC and associate him with Ramesses II, but others take 1 Kings 6:1 at face value and date him to the end of the fifteenth century BC, perhaps during the reign of Thutmose III.

Samuel

Samuel oversaw the transition from the period of judges to the time of the monarchy. He was the final judge (1 Sam. 7:6, 15 16; cf. 8:1 NIV mg.). He also was a priest (2:18) and functioned as a prophet (3:20).

Samuel was remembered as an important and faithful spiritual leader, compared favorably even to Moses (Jer. 15:1; Acts 13:20; Heb. 11:32). He is honored as a prophet whose words anticipated the coming of Jesus Christ (Acts 3:24).

Saul

(1) The first king of Israel (1 Sam. 9:1 2 Sam. 1:27; 1 Chron. 9:35–10:14). Out of fear of their enemy the Philistines as well as displeasure over Samuel’s wicked sons, the people of Israel asked Samuel for a king like all the other nations had (1 Sam. 8). Though God and Samuel both expressed displeasure with the people’s request, God directed Samuel to anoint Saul as king. Saul’s initial reluctance to make his role public and also his hesitation to immediately confront the Philistines are not a sign of humility, but rather are an early example of the kind of disobedience to God and his prophet Samuel that eventually would bring God’s great anger against him.

Saul’s first significant failure, however, occurred before a battle with the Philistines, while he and his army were camped at Gilgal (1 Sam. 13). Before initiating battle, it was necessary to offer sacrifices. Samuel the priest, however, was late in arriving. Saul grew nervous because his troops were deserting, so he sacrificed the animals. When Samuel arrived, he confronted Saul. After all, with God on one’s side, large numbers of troops were unnecessary. Saul thus displayed a lack of confidence in God by his actions. For this, Samuel announced that he would not found a dynasty of kings (13:13–14).

Soon thereafter, Saul showed his disobedience in another important aspect of war. Upon victory, the king should immediately offer all the plunder to God. In addition, if the enemy came from within the land, all the captives were to be put to death (see Holy War). However, after defeating the hated Amalekites (cf. Exod. 17:8–16; Deut. 25:17–19), Saul kept the sheep and did not personally execute King Agag, their leader (1 Sam. 15). For this, Samuel announced God’s decision to remove him from the kingship and anoint another king (15:26).

At this time, Samuel anointed David, but David did not immediately become king (1 Sam. 16:1–13). For a period of time, David entered into Saul’s service (16:14–23). It was never David’s intention to forcibly remove Saul from the throne (1 Sam. 24; 26), but Saul grew intensely jealous of this popular young man. Indeed, Saul was a man deeply plagued by mental problems, perhaps depression and paranoia, even before the conflict with David. His jealousy also brought him into conflict with his own brave son, Jonathan, who had a deep friendship with David. Saul ejected David from the court and then spent much of his energy trying to track him down and kill him. He was, however, unsuccessful.

Eventually, God abandoned Saul. He was defeated and killed by the Philistines in the battle of Mount Gilboa (1 Sam. 31), and David mourned his death and the death of his friend Jonathan (2 Sam. 1).

(2) Another name for the apostle Paul (see Paul).

Seer

A prophet is a messenger of God, a person to whom God entrusts his message to an individual or to a nation. Indeed, the last book in the OT is named “Malachi,” which means “my messenger.” Isaiah heard God ask, “Whom shall I send?” and he cried out, “Send me!” (Isa. 6:8). A good template for understanding the phenomenon is Moses and Aaron. Moses was to tell Aaron what to say, and Aaron would say it. “Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘See, I have made you like God to Pharaoh, and your brother Aaron will be your prophet’” (Exod. 7:1).

In the NT period there were a number of prophets. John the Baptist could point to Jesus and proclaim him to be the Lamb of God, who takes away the sins of the world (John 1:29). Agabus the prophet predicted a famine and, later, Paul’s arrest (Acts 11:28; 21:10 11).

Paul lists “gifts of the Spirit” (1 Cor. 12:4–11), including prophecy and various phenomena reminiscent of the OT prophets’ ecstatic state. Paul warns the Corinthians not to overdo this sort of thing and so to be mature (1 Cor. 14:19–20). Near the end of his life, in one of his last letters, he speaks of prophecy as normative in the church, particularly in establishing an authoritative body of elders to rule and especially to preach the gospel (1 Tim. 1:18; 4:14). Peter draws a connection between the ministry of the OT prophets and the proclamation of the gospel of Jesus Christ (1 Pet. 1:10–12). Evangelism seems to be the normative mode for prophecy today: forthtelling by calling people to turn from their sins to Jesus, and foretelling by speaking of his return and the final judgment.

Thus, all Christians hold the office of prophet, even if they never participate in the ecstatic state experienced by the Corinthians. The greatness of a prophet is in how clearly the prophet points to Jesus. John the Baptist was the greatest of the OT prophets by that measure, but any Christian on this side of the cross and resurrection can proclaim the gospel even more clearly. Thus, the prophetic ministry of any Christian is greater than John’s (Matt. 11:11).

Five prophetesses are mentioned in the OT: Miriam (Exod. 15:20), Deborah (Judg. 4–5), Huldah (2 Kings 22:14–20; 2 Chron. 34:22–28), Isaiah’s wife (Isa. 8:3), and Noadiah (Neh. 6:14).

Similarly in the NT, Peter recognizes God’s promise through Joel being fulfilled in the gift of prophetic speech to women as well as men at Pentecost (Acts 2:18); and Paul, acknowledging that women prophesy publicly in the congregation, is concerned only with the manner of their doing so (1 Cor. 11:5). The prophetess Anna proclaims the baby Jesus as the Messiah (Luke 2:36–38), Luke reports that the four unmarried daughters of Philip the evangelist also prophesy (Acts 21:8–9). The only false prophetess in the NT is the apocalyptic figure of Jezebel in Rev. 2:20.

Tribe of Manasseh

One of the twelve tribes of Israel. Along with Ephraim, it is traced to Joseph rather than Jacob. Manasseh and Ephraim were the two sons of Joseph, each of whom received a tribal portion (resulting in Joseph getting a double portion) along with the sons of Jacob (Gen. 48). At the same time, Manasseh, the older brother, lost his birthright to Ephraim when Jacob crossed his hands and put his right hand on Ephraim when giving the inheritance. This follows the tradition in Genesis of the younger son supplanting the older. The exact status of the tribe of Manasseh is a complex issue, but it is clear that Manasseh and Ephraim were rivals for status and power during the early northern kingdom monarchy. Based on the land descriptions in the book of Joshua, Manasseh would have had the largest tribal territory. It also uniquely had land on both sides of the Jordan River, which may have contributed to Manasseh being one of the least unified tribes in Israel. Many of the most important cities of the northern kingdom were located in Manasseh, including the capital cities of Shechem and Samaria and the major military cities of Megiddo and Jezreel.

Direct Matches

Ahijah

(1) The prophet from Shiloh who superintended the division of Solomon’s united kingdom (928 BC). He predicted to Jeroboam that he would tear away ten tribes from the Davidic house (1 Kings 11:29–39). This prediction was fulfilled after Solomon’s death (1 Kings 12:15; 2 Chron. 10:15). Certain events in Solomon’s reign were written up in “the prophecy of Ahijah the Shilonite” (2 Chron. 9:29). Later, Jeroboam’s wife went in disguise to Ahijah to inquire about her sick son. Ahijah predicted the death of the child and the destruction of Jeroboam’s entire house as a punishment for idolatry (1 Kings 14:1–16). Both predictions came true (1 Kings 14:17–18; 15:29). (2) An Elide priest in the service of Saul (1 Sam. 14:3, 18). (3) A secretary to King Solomon (1 Kings 4:3). (4) The father of Baasha, who conspired against Nadab, son of Jeroboam, and succeeded him as king of Israel (1 Kings 15:27, 33; 21:22; 2 Kings 9:9). (5) Son of Jerahmeel, the brother of Caleb, from the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:25). (6) A Benjamite in the ancestry of Saul (1 Chron. 8:7). (7) One of David’s thirty mighty men (1 Chron. 11:36). (8) A Levite who was in charge of the treasuries in the time of David (1 Chron. 26:20 NRSV [NIV mg.]).

Chenaniah

(1) A chief of the Levites during the reign of King David and the leader of the singers and musicians who participated in bringing the ark of the covenant from the house of Obed-Edom to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:22, 27). (2) A Levite of the Izharites appointed with his sons to the duties outside the temple as officers and judges (1 Chron. 26:29).

David

The second king of Israel (r. 1010–970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.

David’s importance can be measured by the vast space devoted to the account of his life (1 Sam. 16:1–1 Kings 2:12; 1 Chron. 11:1–29:30). The titles of many psalms identify him as their author. Although there are no contemporary extrabiblical references to David due to the rarity of inscriptions in Palestine at this time, the “house of David” (or Tel Dan) inscription, dated to the eighth century BC, provides an extraordinarily early reference to his dynasty.

David and Saul

At this point the biblical history turns its attention to David. God commands Samuel to go to Bethlehem, specifically to the household of Jesse, to anoint one of his sons as the next king (1 Sam. 16). In contrast to Saul, who is notable because of his tall, imposing physical stature (10:23), David is the youngest and smallest of all the children of Jesse, a simple shepherd. Nonetheless, he is the chosen one because God “looks at the heart” (16:7). However, David does not immediately assume the kingship. Indeed, his anointing is kept secret.

The first two accounts of David’s initial public appearance appear in 1 Sam. 16:14–17:58. Some doubt attends the question of whether these two stories are chronologically or thematically organized, but in either case they anticipate David’s later role as psalm singer and warrior. The narrative describes David’s work in Saul’s court as a harpist whose music soothes Saul’s tormented mind (16:14–23) and tells the heroic story of David’s courageous stand against Goliath, a gigantic Philistine mercenary (1 Sam. 17).

Although David never shows any signs of subversion or disloyalty, his growing popularity increases the paranoia of Saul. However, Saul cannot simply kill off such a popular figure, even though in a fit of madness he throws a spear at him (1 Sam. 18:10–11). Saul instead settles on a plan that would lead to David’s death on the battlefield. Saul offers his daughter to David in marriage. After an abortive first attempt involving his daughter Merab, Saul invites him to marry Michal, though as a bride-price he asks through his attendants for one hundred Philistine foreskins (1 Sam. 18:25). Saul assumes that David will surely die in the attempt to obtain them, but instead David kills two hundred Philistines and marries Michal. The alliance to the royal house strengthens his later bid for the throne, but for the moment it serves the purpose of making Saul even more suspicious.

While Saul’s hostility increases toward David, Saul’s son Jonathan develops an intense personal friendship with David (1 Sam. 18:1–4). Jonathan recognizes his father’s weaknesses and understands that he will not be the next king. He helps David escape his father’s wrath, and forever afterward David is kind to the descendants of Jonathan (1 Sam. 19–20).

Eventually, Saul’s murderous intentions toward David become so intense that he must leave the court and live in the hinterlands, moving from place to place, staying one step ahead of Saul and his men. He is not alone, however. With him is an army of six hundred men, a prophet (Gad), and the high priest (Abiathar). In essence, he functions as a kingdom in exile. He saves the Judean city of Keilah from the Philistines (1 Sam. 23:1–6) and protects the flocks of Judean landowners such as the aptly named Nabal (“fool”) (1 Sam. 25). The latter is not properly grateful for the help, and David is ready to avenge himself against him. Fortunately, Nabal’s wife, Abigail, wisely intercedes with David. Nabal dies of other causes, and David marries Abigail.

David is to be the next king, but he is no usurper. Two times during this period (1 Sam. 24; 26) David’s men are in a position to dispatch the king. It may even be possible to justify such a move because Saul is pursuing David to kill him. David knows, however, that it is wrong to harm the anointed of the Lord. He is not going to manipulate the situation and grasp the kingship; he will wait on the Lord’s own timing. David continues to keep out of Saul’s way, even seeking refuge with the Philistines for a period of time.

Eventually, however, Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1 Sam. 31–2 Sam. 1).

David’s Kingship

David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2 Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6).

David’s Legacy

The account in Chronicles emphasizes David’s role in the preparations for the building of the temple. He had wanted to build the structure, but God says that this task is not for the one who completes the conquest of Canaan (1 Chron. 22:8), but rather for his son Solomon, who will inherit a stable nation and whose very name means “peace.”

Dedicate

To dedicate something is to set it apart or to install it, usually for God and his service. According to the book of Leviticus, the Israelites could dedicate (KJV: “sanctify”; NRSV: “consecrate”) animals (27:9–13), houses (27:14–15), and fields (27:16–24), which could be redeemed in most cases; people could be dedicated as well (27:2–8). Additionally, individuals could dedicate themselves by making a Nazirite vow (Num. 6:2–21). Spoils of war could be dedicated to God (e.g., 2 Sam. 8:11–12; 1 Chron. 26:27). However, the kings of Judah dedicated (some versions: “gave”) horses to the sun (2 Kings 23:11).

The word khanukkah, translated “dedication,” and a related verb denote the ceremonial dedication of the tabernacle’s sacrificial altar (e.g., Num. 7:10), of the first and the second temple (e.g., 1 Kings 8:63; Ezra 6:16–17), of Nehemiah’s wall (Neh. 12:27), and of Nebuchadnezzar’s image (Dan. 3:2–3). The Jewish holiday Hanukkah, or the Feast of Dedication (John 10:22), commemorates the purification of the temple during the intertestamental period.

Dedication

Gershom

(1) The elder son of Moses and Zipporah, born in Midian (Exod. 2:22; 18:3; 1 Chron. 23:15). His name, given by Moses, means “sojourner there,” reflecting Moses’ status as an alien in Midian. This Gershom is named as an ancestor of Jonathan, the priest of Micah and subsequently of the Danites (Judg. 17:7–18:30), as well as an ancestor to Shubael, called both chief and officer over the treasuries (1 Chron. 23:16; 26:24). (2) A descendant of Phinehas, he was among those who accompanied Ezra from Babylon to Jerusalem during the reign of Artaxerxes (Ezra 8:2). (3) An alternate spelling for Gershon son of Levi (see Gen. 46:11) in 1 Chron. 6. See also Gershon.

Hashabiah

(1) A Levite from the family of Merari. He was the son of Amaziah and the father of Malluk, and his descendant Ethan was a priestly musician in the time of King David (1 Chron. 6:45). (2) A Levite from the family of Merari. He was the son of Bunni and the father of Azrikam, and his descendant Shemaiah was among the first to resettle in Jerusalem after the exile (1 Chron. 9:14; Neh. 11:15). (3) A priestly musician during David’s reign. He played under the supervision of his father, Jeduthun, one of the three chief musicians under King David’s direct oversight (1 Chron. 25:3, 19). (4) The leader of the Hebronite family charged with the religious and governmental affairs west of the Jordan River during David’s reign (1 Chron. 26:30). (5) The son of Kemuel, he was an officer over the tribe of Levi (1 Chron. 27:17). (6) A Levitical chief who participated in the great Passover of King Josiah (2 Chron. 35:9).

(7) A Levite from the family of Merari, he journeyed with Ezra from Babylon to Jerusalem and assisted in the transportation of gold and silver for the temple (Ezra 8:19, 24). (8) The ruler of the half-district of Keilah. He helped Nehemiah rebuild the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 3:17). He may be the same person as in Ezra 8:19, 24–25. (9) A Levite leader listed among those who signed the covenant of national renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:11; 12:24). He may be the same person as in Ezra 8:19, 24. (10) The son of Mattaniah and the father of Bani, his grandson Uzzi was the chief officer of the Levites in Jerusalem under Nehemiah’s governance (Neh. 11:22). (11) The head of the priestly family of Hilkiah when Joiakim was high priest (Neh. 12:21).

Jazer

An Amorite town whose exact location is disputed but lies toward the Ammonite border, east of the Jordan River and opposite Jericho. After receiving intelligence from spies, Moses took Jazer, together with its rich pasturelands, from the Amorites (Num. 21:32). The town was allotted to the tribe of Gad (Num. 32:1, 3, 35; Josh. 13:25) and given to Levites (Josh. 21:39; 1 Chron. 6:81). Jazer was included in the census of the fighting men of Israel (2 Sam. 24:5), and it provided a plentiful supply of capable men for David’s civil administration (1 Chron. 26:31). The town subsequently came under the control of Moab and is mentioned in oracles of judgment against that nation (Isa. 16:8–9; Jer. 48:32).

Jehieli

(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).

Jehielites

Jeriah

A family leader of the Levitical clan of Kohath during David’s reign (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23). In 1 Chron. 26:31 the name is spelled “Jerijah” (NRSV, KJV, although some English versions, NIV among them, retain “Jeriah” there).

Jerijah

Jeshaiah

The name “Jeshaiah” is a variant of “Isaiah.” (1) A grandson of Zerubbabel, descended from David (1 Chron. 3:21). (2) A son of Jeduthun who received the eighth lot in the music ministry of the temple (1 Chron. 25:3, 15). (3) A Levite who helped administer gifts dedicated to the temple (1 Chron. 26:25). (4) An Elamite family head who returned with Ezra from Babylon to Israel (Ezra 8:7). (5) A Levite recruited by Ezra to serve in the temple (Ezra 8:19). (6) A Benjamite leader who settled in Jerusalem at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:7).

Joel

(1) The prophet Samuel’s firstborn son, who, with his brother, Abijah, was appointed as a judge by their father but perverted justice and accepted bribes, thus prompting the Israelites to ask Samuel for a king (1 Sam. 8:1–5; 1 Chron. 6:28, 33). (2) A Simeonite clan leader (1 Chron. 4:35). (3) A Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:4, 8), though there is some question as to whether the Joel of v. 8 is the same as that of v. 4. (4) A chief of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:12). (5) One of Samuel’s Levite ancestors (1 Chron. 6:36). (6) A chief of the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:3). (7) One of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:38). (8) A Levite and Gershonite who was part of the company appointed by David to bring the ark of the covenant up to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:7, 11, 17). (9) A Levite and Gershonite appointed for temple service who, with his brother Zetham, is put in charge of the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 23:8; 26:22). He may be the same Joel as in 1 Chron. 15:7, 11, 17. (10) A chief over half the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 27:20). (11) A Levite involved in the purification of the temple during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chron. 29:12). (12) One of the men in postexilic Judah who had married foreign wives and, at Ezra’s prompting, pledged to put them away (Ezra 10:43). (13) A Benjamite overseer during the days of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:9). (14) The prophet Joel, son of Pethuel (Joel 1:1).

Joram

(1) King of Israel (r. 851–842 BC), Ahab and Jezebel’s son (2 Kings 3:1–3). His reign was troubled by the rebellion of Moab and Syria, two of his father’s vassal states. He was killed, along with Ahaziah king of Judah (r. 843–842 BC), in Jehu’s purge of the Omride dynasty (2 Kings 9:14–29). (2) The son of Tou (or Toi), king of Hamath during David’s reign in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 8:9–12). In the parallel account, 1 Chron. 18:9–10, he is called “Hadoram” (see also Hadoram). (3) One of the Levites in charge of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 26:25).

Kenaniah

Laadan

(1) A grandson of Levi through Gershon (1 Chron. 23:7; 26:21). Ladan is sometimes called “Libni” (Exod. 6:17; Num. 3:18; 1 Chron. 6:17, 20). In 1 Chron. 23:8–9, three sons of Ladan (Jehiel, Zetham, Joel) are listed, but then follow three sons of Ladan’s brother, Shimei (Shelomoth, Haziel, Haran) and the words “these were the heads of the families of Ladan.” (2) A descendant of Ephraim through Tahan (1 Chron. 7:25–26).

Ladan

Manassites

Members of the half-tribe of Manasseh (Deut. 4:43; Josh. 16:9; 17:12; cf. Deut. 29:8; 2 Kings 10:33; 1 Chron. 26:32).

Ner

(1) The father of Abner, Saul’s general and cousin (1 Sam. 14:50–51; 2 Sam. 2:8; 1 Chron. 26:28). (2) Saul’s grandfather (1 Chron. 8:33; 9:39).

Rehabiah

The son of Eliezer, a grandson of Moses, and a Levitical leader (1 Chron. 23:17; 24:21; 26:25).

Shebuel

(1) A descendant of Levi and Gershom (1 Chron. 23:16; 26:24). He is the same person as Shubael in 1 Chron. 24:20; thus, Shubael was not Gershom’s son, but rather a later descendant. (2) A son of Heman (1 Chron. 25:4; see also 25:20).

Shelomith

(1) The wife of an Egyptian whose son was stoned for blasphemy in the Israelite camp after an argument (Lev. 24:11). (2) The daughter of Zerubbabel (1 Chron. 3:19). (3) The first son of Izhar of the Kohathite family (1 Chron. 23:18). He is also referred to as “Shelomoth” (1 Chron. 24:22), which appears to be a family name. (4) The son of Zikri, he, along with his family, was responsible for a portion of the temple treasuries during David’s time (1 Chron. 26:25–26, 28). (5) The fourth of four sons born to Rehoboam and Maakah (2 Chron. 11:20). (6) The head of a family that returned with Ezra after the Babylonian exile (Ezra 8:10).

Shubael

Treasure

Treasure was stored in the Jerusalem temple and palace (Josh. 6:24) and was collected from the spoils of war (Josh. 6:19), from offerings (2 Kings 12:4; Mark 12:41), and from royal gifts (2 Kings 12:18; 1 Chron. 29:3). The temple treasury contained gold, silver, other metals, and precious stones (1 Chron. 29:8). Treasuries also housed written records (Ezra 6:1). Treasure was stored in the small rooms that surrounded the sanctuary (1 Chron. 28:12; see also Jer. 38:11) and was guarded by Levites (1 Chron. 9:26). Several treasurers are named (1 Chron. 9:26; 26:20, 22; 2 Chron. 25:24). The Ethiopian eunuch who met Philip was a treasurer in the court of the Kandake (Acts 8:27). The treasury funded repairs to the temple (2 Kings 12:7; Ezra 7:20).

Invading kings frequently raided the temple treasury, including Shishak of Egypt (1 Kings 14:26), Jehoash of Israel (2 Kings 14:14), and finally Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon (2 Kings 24:13; Dan. 1:2), as foretold by Jeremiah (Jer. 15:13). On other occasions, the kings of Judah drew money from the treasury to make tribute payments to foreign rulers (1 Kings 15:18; 2 Kings 12:18; 16:8; 18:15). “Treasury” can also refer to a private account (Prov. 8:21).

Jesus taught that his followers should store up their treasures in heaven and not on earth (Matt. 6:19–21). Earthly treasures will be destroyed over time or perhaps even stolen. In this vein, he urged the rich young ruler to sell his possessions so he might have “treasure in heaven” (Matt. 19:21).

Treasury

Uzzielite

Descended from Uzziel, a clan in the tribe of Levi (Num. 3:27; 1 Chron. 26:23).

Zetham

The second of the three sons of Ladan, from the clan of Gershon of the tribe of Levi. Zetham was a manager of the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 23:8; 26:22).

Zichri

(1) The third of the three sons of Izhar the Levite (Exod. 6:21). (2) The second of the nine sons of Shimei the Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:19). (3) The fifth of the eleven sons of Shashak the Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:23). (4) The sixth of the six sons of Jeroham the Benjamite (1 Chron. 8:27). (5) The son of Asaph the Levite (1 Chron. 9:15). (6) One of the sons of Eliezer the Levite, he was among those in charge of treasuries for “things dedicated” by King David (1 Chron. 26:25). (7) The father of Eliezer, officer over the Reubenites during the reign of King David (1 Chron. 27:16). (8) The father of Amasiah the Judahite, commander of a family of warriors in the service of King Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 17:16). (9) The father of Elishaphat, a unit commander among those who collaborated with the priest Jehoiada to return the monarchy to the house of David (2 Chron. 23:1). (10) An Ephraimite warrior in King Pekah’s army who killed King Ahaz’s son Maaseiah and two of his high-ranking officials, Azrikam and Elkanah (2 Chron. 28:7). (11) The father of Joel, a Benjamite provincial leader (Neh. 11:9). (12) The head of the priestly family of Abijah in the days of Joiakim (Neh. 12:17).

Zicri

Secondary Matches

The following suggestions occured because 1 Chronicles 26:20-32 is mentioned in the definition.

Administration of Law

Ancient court systems reflected the needs, values, and structures of the broader society. Not surprisingly, the court systems in nomadic and urban societies are quite different. Nomadic courts were more informal, based more on custom than law. The context of nomadic justice was located primarily within the family and clan. Those with disputes sought out elders and wise leaders to settle them. Urban court systems used more-fixed institutions of judges under the supervision of priests and kings. Even in an urban system the court functioned on a case-by-case basis and drew little or no distinction between criminal and civil offenses. Cases dealt primarily with an injury and the compensation for the injury. The basic process involved stating a case before a judge, each side calling witnesses, and the judge giving a judgment.

Old Testament

Courts in ancient Israel reflected features of both nomadic and urban court systems as well as the broader judicial practices of the ancient Near East. In ancient Israel a case could be tried by the elders, a judge, a priest, or the king. The elders were heads of families and leading citizens. They sat at the city gate (Prov. 31:23), where they heard cases (Ruth 4:1–12), oversaw property transactions (Gen. 23:10–20), settled disputes, and imposed penalties (Deut. 22:18–19). As Israelite society developed, judges were appointed from each tribe and town to administer justice (Deut. 16:18). If a case was too difficult, the judge could transfer the case to a higher court and judge (Exod. 18:21–22). Once a higher court gave a verdict, the participants and lower courts were bound by the decision (Deut. 17:8–13). Priests distinguished between the holy and the common, between clean and unclean (Lev. 10:10). However, they could judge all types of cases, not just religious ones (Deut. 21:5; Ezek. 44:23–24).

With the establishment of the monarchy, the king became the highest judge, and the elders and priests became minor judges. David appointed judges from the Levites over all Israel to administer justice (1 Chron. 26:29), but he also heard cases himself. Solomon provided the quintessential example of a wise judge as he settled the case of the two women and the one remaining child (1 Kings 3:16–28). Solomon moved the court from the city gate to the “Hall of Justice” in his palace (1 Kings 7:7). Jehoshaphat reformed Judah’s court system and established two courts, one over cases concerning God, the other over cases concerning the king (2 Chron. 19:5–11).

The OT does not provide a detailed description of the Israelite court procedures; however, glimpses into the procedures can be pieced together from several passages. Whether at the city gate, sanctuary, or palace, a private person who appeared as a plaintiff initiated the judicial action (Deut. 25:7–8). The parties stood before the judge, while the judge was seated (Deut. 19:17). However, the judge stood to pronounce judgment (Isa. 3:13). The plaintiff was the satan, “accuser” or “adversary” (Ps. 109:6). The accusation could be given orally (Isa. 41:21) or in writing (Job 31:35–36). There was no public prosecutor or defender. Each party brought its own case and witnesses. A conviction required at least two witnesses (Num. 35:30; Deut. 19:15). Witnesses accepted responsibility for the sentence, which is why they had to throw the first stones when such a penalty was in order (Deut. 17:7; John 8:7). If they provided false testimony, they faced the punishment for the crime about which they testified. Each side could produce physical evidence to make its case (Deut. 22:13–17). If a case lacked sufficient evidence or witnesses, an oath or an ordeal could be undertaken to support one’s case (Exod. 22:6–10). At times, lots were cast to select a guilty individual (Josh. 7:14–15) or to end a quarrel (Prov. 18:18). After everything had been examined, the judge acquitted the innocent and condemned the guilty (Deut. 25:1). Depending upon the crime, the penalty could be a fine, compensation, bodily punishment, or even death. Jail was primarily used for those awaiting trial and not as a punishment. If evidence and witnesses were lacking and a murder went unsolved, then a sacrifice was made to declare the community’s innocence and to atone for the community (Deut. 21:1–8).

Ideally, judges were just, righteous, fair, and defenders of the weak (Deut. 16:18–20). Unfortunately, multiple examples exist of false witnesses (Deut. 19:18) and corrupt judges who accepted bribes, perverted justice, and showed favoritism (Exod. 23:3, 8; Mic. 3:11). Ultimately, God was the supreme judge of all, protector of the weak, just, and no respecter of persons.

New Testament

During the NT period numerous lesser Sanhedrins, or councils, administered justice in Jewish communities. The lesser Sanhedrins consisted of twenty-three members, but the one in Jerusalem, the Great Sanhedrin, consisted of the high priest and seventy members comprised of priests, scribes, elders, and laity from among the Sadducees and the Pharisees. The Great Sanhedrin was the supreme legislative and judicial body, and it wielded its own police force (Acts 5:24–26). The Romans allowed the Great Sanhedrin broad authority over internal and religious matters, but they limited its ability to exercise capital punishment (John 18:31). The deaths of Stephen and James were probably lynchings rather than formal executions. Clearly, the Great Sanhedrin had the authority to administer corporal punishment (2 Cor. 11:24).

The Mishnah provides insight into the Great Sanhedrin’s judicial procedure. However, several of the procedures stand in tension with the procedures described in the Gospels concerning Jesus’ trial. Cases were to be heard only during the day, but at least a hearing into the charges facing Jesus occurred at night. The proceedings against Jesus were held at the high priest’s palace instead of properly at the court (John 18:13). Capital cases could not be heard the day before the Sabbath or a festival, but Jesus was condemned on Friday during Passover.

The trials of Jesus and Paul fit well with what is known about Roman law. Roman regional rulers heard cases involving public order but usually left smaller issues in the hands of local courts. For example, Pilate, a prefect, initially wanted to release Jesus, and Gallio, the proconsul of Achaia, refused to hear the charges against Paul. Such officials could also delay a decision for extended periods of time. Hoping to receive a bribe, the procurator Felix held Paul for two years without a judgment (Acts 24:26). Roman officials also had the discretion to send defendants to their home province. Pilate sent Jesus to Herod because Jesus was from Galilee, and Felix inquired about Paul’s home in Cilicia. When hearing a case, the Roman official gave the defendant and the accuser opportunities to make their respective cases and to call witnesses. Pilate gave Jesus an opportunity to defend himself, and Festus explained that it is “not the Roman custom” to condemn someone who has not yet faced the accusers and put on a defense against their charges (Acts 25:16). As a Roman citizen, Paul was afforded rights in the court system. When Paul was imprisoned and beaten without trial, he demanded an apology from the Philippian officials (16:37). Paul’s Roman citizenship also gave him the right to appeal to Caesar (25:11).

Paul expected Christians to abide by the decisions of the courts (Rom. 13:1–3), but he also encouraged Christians to avoid taking other Christians to court (1 Cor. 6:1–11) because they should be able to settle disputes within the church.

Amram

(1) Grandson of Levi, son of Kohath (Exod. 6:16–18; 1 Chron. 6:1–2), and the father of Aaron, Moses, and Miriam (Exod. 6:20; 1 Chron. 6:3). Within various Jewish traditions, Amram receives a generous treatment (see Josephus, Ant. 2.210–23; L.A.B. 9), but the biblical text includes specific mention of Amram only in genealogical lists. We are told, however, that his descendants, the Amramites, were responsible for the care of the sanctuary in the wilderness (Num. 3:27–28) and later for the treasuries (1 Chron. 26:23–26). (2) The son of Bani (Ezra 10:34) who, following the exile, was among those commanded by Ezra to “separate” from his foreign wife.

Court Systems

Old Testament

New Testament

Hallow

Jehiel

Jehuel

Jesaiah

Solomon

As the son and successor to David, Solomon reigned forty years over the united kingdom of Israel (c. 971–931 BC). Extensive accounts of his reign are provided in 1 Kings 1–11; 2 Chron. 1–9. Solomon, the second son born to Bathsheba, was marked out at birth as “loved by the Lord” (2 Sam. 12:24–25 NIV mg.). He succeeded his father as king, even though he was not David’s oldest living son (1 Kings 2). The building of the temple is the centerpiece of the biblical accounts of Solomon’s reign.

It is common to divide Solomon’s reign into two unequal halves (1 Kings 1–10; 11), with Solomon only becoming apostate due to the influence of foreign wives (1 Kings 11). The earlier chapters, however, are not wholly commendatory. Solomon’s “wisdom” in dealing with Joab and Shimei is vengeful and ruthless (2:6, 9). In 1 Kings 3:1 his palace is mentioned before the temple (because it took precedence in Solomon’s mind?). He spent seven years on the temple but lavished thirteen years on his own house (6:38; 7:1). Behind the picture of his excessive wealth and lucrative trade in horses stand the (unheeded) prohibitions of Deut. 17:14–17. His Egyptian marriage and resort to the high places (1 Kings 3:1–4) foreshadow his overt apostasy (11:1–8). All in all, Solomon proved to be a sad disappointment.

In Chronicles the reigns of David and Solomon are viewed as complementary, such that Solomon completed what David had prepared for. Solomon needed David’s plans and provisions (1 Chron. 28–29), but David needed Solomon to actually build the temple. Just as David brought the ark to Jerusalem, Solomon transferred it to the temple (2 Chron. 5). David organized the cultic officials (1 Chron. 22–27), but Solomon installed them (2 Chron. 8:14–15). Chronicles gives a picture of Solomon’s reign that is very different from the one found in Kings. There is no competition to succeed (cf. 1 Kings 1–2), no apostasy, and no raising up of adversaries (cf. 1 Kings 11:14–40). Solomon enjoyed all Israel’s support throughout his reign. This need not, however, be viewed as whitewashing Solomon. The true explanation is that the focus in Chronicles is almost exclusively on Solomon as temple builder. The Chronicler was also aware of Solomon’s failings (as hinted at in 2 Chron. 9:29; 10:4–15).

The immediate dissolution of the united kingdom after Solomon’s death cannot be simply blamed on the inept handling of the crisis by his son Rehoboam (1 Kings 12). Solomon’s policies put an inordinate economic burden on the north (4:7–19). His conscription of forced labor (5:13–18) and sale of twenty cities in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (9:10–14) were resented. The raising up of a series of adversaries, including Jeroboam, was a divine judgment (11:9–13). The prophet Ahijah favored Jeroboam (11:29–39). The prophet Shemaiah prevented Rehoboam’s military invasion of the north (12:21–24). The northern tribes wanted relief from Solomon’s harsh policies (“Your father put a heavy yoke on us” [12:4]). Rehoboam was unwilling (or unable?) to compromise. Solomon’s death is reported in 1 Kings 11:41–43, but frequent allusions to him follow (e.g., 12:2, 4, 6, 9), for it was his policies that precipitated the split.

Solomon was largely responsible for the book of Proverbs (Prov. 1:1; 10:1; 25:1). The superscription of the Song of Songs (Song 1:1) associates the book with Solomon, and he is referred to a number of times within it (1:5; 3:7–11; 8:11–12). He is not, however, the lover depicted. The book of Ecclesiastes sometimes is attributed to him, given that the author describes himself as “son of David, king in Jerusalem” (Eccles. 1:1). The author’s reputed wisdom, wealth, and building programs also suggest the figure of Solomon (1:12–2:11). Solomon’s marriages are used as an illustration in a sermon against foreign marriages in Neh. 13:26. In the NT, Solomon’s wealth and wisdom are alluded to in Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 6:29; 12:42). He is also mentioned in relation to the temple (John 10:23; Acts 3:11).

Zikri