Sons
of Jacob
Genesis
29–30, 35 records the birth of the sons of Jacob, which
provides a covenantal and family basis for the later confederation of
a dozen independent tribes of Semitic peoples. They shared a common
history, culture, religion, and set of traditions that served for a
time to bind them together as a single nation. According to the
family records, the tribes were named after their forebears, who were
born in the following manner. Jacob’s first (and unloved) wife,
Leah, bore Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah, in that order. Then his
beloved Rachel gave him her maid Bilhah, who bore Dan and Naphtali.
Leah’s maid then bore Gad and Asher. Then Leah bore Issachar
and Zebulun. Finally, Rachel bore Joseph and Benjamin. At root, the
later history of the tribes is a family history, traceable to
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. Thus, the story of the tribes begins in
the early second millennium BC.
Genesis
was written at a period considerably after the time of the
patriarchs, and thus written with the awareness that the
characterizations of the patriarchs reflected in some way the
temperament of the individual tribes. The first story told about the
actions of Jacob’s sons is how Simeon and Levi took terrible
vengeance on the city of Shechem for the rape of their sister Dinah.
This brought about Jacob’s rebuke. Jacob feared that this
action would bring further retaliation upon his family (Gen. 34). The
history of the patriarchs comes to its high point in the story of
Joseph, an account that spans Gen. 37–50. Joseph was the
brother revealed in dreams to be elected by God to rule. His
brothers’ jealousy led them to seek to rid themselves of him.
Reuben, the firstborn, is characterized as being the responsible one,
wanting to do him no harm. But in Reuben’s absence, Judah led
the others in selling Joseph into slavery. God was with Joseph,
however, and through a series of events God made Joseph the leader of
Egypt, fulfilling the prophetic dreams.
Genesis
connects this family story with later tribal history. As prophetic
dreams revealed Joseph’s destiny to rule over Egypt, Jacob’s
blessing in Gen. 49 reveals the destiny of the later tribes. Reuben
lost his double-portion inheritance of the firstborn due to his
dishonoring his father (Gen. 35:22). This honor is tacitly conferred
on Joseph in Gen. 48. Jacob said that Levi would be dispersed among
Israel. As the priestly tribe, Levi inherited no land. Judah was
predicted to be the tribe of kings.
Wilderness
and Conquest
In
the wilderness wanderings of Israel, the campsite was organized by
tribe (Num. 2). At its center was the tabernacle. The tribe of Levi
formed an inner circle that surrounded it. At the entrance to the
tabernacle (facing east) were the priests, the sons of Aaron. The
other divisions of Levi were the Merarites, the Gershonites, and the
Kohathites. These together formed the inner circle that guarded the
holy place. Levi was the holiest tribe of Israel, the only tribe
allowed to maintain and service God’s dwelling place. The outer
perimeter of the encampment was formed by twelve tribes (the tribe of
Joseph counted as two). The eastern front was dominated by Judah and
included Issachar and Zebulun. Dan, Asher, and Naphtali were to the
north; Reuben, Simeon, and Gad to the south; and to the west
were Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin.
When
the people were on the move, the priests went in the front carrying
the ark of the covenant, following the pillar of cloud. When it came
to rest over a place, there the priests would set down the ark.
Behind them followed Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun. After them came
the Gershonites and the Merarites, carrying the bundled tabernacle,
which they set up around the ark when the people made camp. Reuben,
Simeon, and Gad took their places. Then came the Kohathites, who
carried the furnishings and vessels for the tabernacle. Next followed
Joseph (Ephraim and Manasseh) and Benjamin. Finally, as a rearguard,
came Dan, accompanied by Asher and Naphtali (Num. 10:11–33).
Once
their sojourn in the wilderness was over, the Israelites began to
conquer the land of Canaan. Joshua allotted portions of land to each
tribe (Josh. 13–21). The descendants of Joseph constituted two
tribes, Manasseh and Ephraim. Each of those two received an
inheritance; thus, Joseph can be said to have received a double
portion as though firstborn. The Jordan River formed a natural border
down the middle of the land. To its east were parts of Manasseh, Gad,
and Reuben. The other tribes were to the west. The southernmost tribe
was Judah. Within Judah was Simeon, which over time was absorbed into
Judah. Levi had no land for an inheritance, since Yahweh was Levi’s
inheritance—fulfilling Jacob’s prophecy of Levi and
Simeon being scattered throughout Israel. Immediately north of Judah
were Dan and Benjamin. The remaining tribes were more northern still.
So that they would not forget Yahweh, the tribes across the Jordan
built an alternative altar, not for sacrifice but rather as a
reminder of the true and living God (Josh. 22).
Judges
The
history of the conquest underscores the fact that the tribes failed
to drive out the inhabitants of the land completely. Many cities
remained centers for non-Israelite culture and religion. “When
Joshua had grown old, the Lord said to him, ‘You are now very
old, and there are still very large areas of land to be taken over’”
(Josh. 13:1). Judges 1 lists many peoples that continued to live
alongside the Israelites.
Some
of these peoples became incorporated into the mix of tribes. Rahab
and her family from Jericho became integrated into the tribe of Judah
(Josh. 2–6). The Gibeonites were a Canaanite people group who
were incorporated into Israel (Josh. 9). Ruth the Moabite married
into Judah (Ruth 4). Uriah the Hittite is an example of a Canaanite
who was fully naturalized, to the extent that he kept himself
ceremonially pure and fought in God’s holy wars for Israel
(2 Sam. 11:11).
The
book of Judges records the relative success or failure of each tribe
to subdue and settle its own territory, and Judah consistently stands
out as superior in this respect. Judges 1:2 puts Judah first. Judah
provided leadership and support to Simeon, helping it to fulfill its
own calling (1:17). After describing Judah’s success, Judg. 1
delineates the other tribes’ failures.
Two
stories at the end of Judges illustrate the character of Judah in
this period. Whenever Bethlehem and the other cities of Judah are the
setting, sojourners and others are treated hospitably, have no fears,
and prosper. This is true also of the book of Ruth. But when folk
travel elsewhere—to Moab or north to Ephraim or Benjamin—they
meet only trouble. Ephraim provided no protection to Micah when the
lawless Danites overran his house (Judg. 18). Moab brought only
famine, barrenness, and death (Ruth 1).
But
the worst case of all is the Benjamite city of Gibeah (Judg. 19–20).
There, the sin of Sodom was repeated as men surrounded the host’s
house and demanded the sojourner. All Israel took up arms to destroy
the wicked city and to punish the wicked tribe. As in the first two
verses of Judges, God appointed Judah to the leadership position
(Judg. 20:18). Judah then did to Benjamin what God had done to Sodom,
almost wiping out the tribe.
United
Kingdom
Nevertheless,
when the tribes came together and demanded a king, the first king
whom God gave them, Saul, was from the tribe of Benjamin (1 Sam.
9:17). Benjamin was situated midway between Judah of the south and
the northern tribes. Saul was successful in leading the army of
Israel, and for a time he enjoyed God’s blessing. But in the
end, God rejected him and sent Samuel the prophet to anoint a
Bethlehemite, David, to become the next king. However, upon Saul’s
death, his son Ish-Bosheth (Ishbaal) claimed the throne (2 Sam.
2:8–9), around 1011 BC.
There
followed a bitter civil war between the house of Saul, backed by the
northern tribes, and the house of David, backed by Judah. After seven
years, David had grown stronger and Ish-Bosheth weaker, until at
Hebron David was finally acknowledged as king of all Israel (2 Sam.
5:3). David’s throne would last for centuries, until the
destruction of Jerusalem. In the NT, David’s greater son Jesus
inherited the throne. Thus, Jacob’s prophecy that the tribe of
Judah would hold the scepter was fulfilled.
The
northern tribes did not forget that they had once fought against
David. David was caught in a scandal when his troops were in battle,
and this may have further lessened their loyalty to him (2 Sam.
12). When his son Absalom rebelled and proclaimed himself king, the
northern tribes once more allied themselves against David, and
another civil war ensued. Although David won back his throne, the
dissatisfaction of the northern tribes with the house of David
continued (2 Sam. 15–19).
After
David died, Solomon inherited his throne (971 BC). Throughout his
reign, Solomon placed burdens on the tribes. He divided his kingdom
into administrative districts that did not exactly correspond to the
tribal territories. Dan and Zebulun were folded into other
territories, and Asher seemed to have been ceded to Phoenicia
(1 Kings 4). Thus, Solomon’s kingdom systematically
weakened tribal identities. He laid a levy upon the tribes of Israel
of thousands of men to provide a labor force for his building
projects (1 Kings 5). Solomon built and consecrated the temple,
and Jerusalem thus became both the political and religious center of
the nation. The price for this, however, was the exacerbated
discontent of the northern tribes.
Upon
Solomon’s death, the tribes confronted his son Rehoboam with a
demand to lighten Solomon’s “harsh labor and . . .
heavy yoke” (1 Kings 12:4). Rehoboam foolishly replied,
“My father made your yoke heavy; I will make it even heavier.
My father scourged you with whips; I will scourge you with scorpions”
(1 Kings 12:14). The northern tribes finally abandoned David’s
house and thus became an independent political and religious state
(931 BC).
Divided
Kingdom
Throughout
the period of the divided kingdom, tribal identities became less
important, for their loyalties were now dominated by the reigning
king of either nation. The border between the northern and the
southern kingdoms was more or less a straight line, from Joppa on the
west near the Mediterranean, to the upper tip of the Dead Sea. This
cut through Dan, Ephraim, and Benjamin, leaving Simeon surrounded by
Judah. Jerusalem was just south of the border. The first king of the
north, Jeroboam, placed golden calves just north of the border, in
Bethel, and also at the northern end of his kingdom, in the city of
Dan. These served as cultic alternatives to the temple in Jerusalem
for the duration of the northern kingdom. He also modified the law of
Moses to allow for non-Levitical priests and a different liturgical
calendar. The northern kingdom was called “Israel” (its
capital was Samaria), and the southern kingdom was called “Judah”
(1 Kings 12:25–33).
For
half a century war ensued between the two kingdoms. The two formed an
alliance during the reigns of Ahab and his sons. King Ahab of Israel
gave his daughter Athaliah to be married to King Jehoshaphat’s
son Jehoram. Together the kingdoms fought against common enemies,
such as Syria and Moab. They successfully turned back the superpower
of the day, Assyria.
Under
King Ahab and his wife Jezebel, Baal worship was aggressively
promoted at the expense of traditional Yahwism. During this period
Elijah and Elisha called the people back to the God of their
ancestors, but with little success (1 Kings 17–2 Kings
13). A small group of faithful worshipers called the “sons of
the prophets” did remain true to Yahweh, but most of Israel
abandoned him. Hosea and Amos later also warned Israel, but their
calls went unheeded. Ahab and Jezebel’s daughter Athaliah
married Jehoram, and both of them promoted Baal worship in Judah just
as in Israel. Thus, the people of Yahweh had become the people of
Baal. Jezebel’s son Joram ruled Israel upon Ahab’s death,
and Athaliah’s son Ahaziah ruled Judah upon Jehoram’s
death.
Elisha
secretly anointed one of Joram’s generals, Jehu, to bring the
Omride dynasty to an end in Israel and to become the next king
(2 Kings 9). Jehu killed both kings and Jezebel, and he
destroyed all remnants of Ahab’s family. He also slaughtered
the worshipers of Baal: “so Jehu destroyed Baal worship in
Israel” (10:28). Upon the death of her son the king, Athaliah
seized the throne and did to David’s house what Jehu had done
to Ahab’s: she had every family member killed.
But
one infant survived: Joash. He was secretly raised in the temple of
Yahweh until he was seven years old. Then his supporters proclaimed
him king. Athaliah cried out, “Treason! Treason!”
(2 Kings 11:14), and the priest Jehoiada had her put to death.
The place and objects of Baal worship were destroyed, ending
state-sponsored Baalism in Judah (11:17–18).
Fall
of Both Kingdoms
After
both kingdoms’ period of infatuation with Baal (under the
domination of the Omrides), their history as nations continued to
their final fall. In Israel, the people never gave up Jeroboam’s
perversion of the law of Moses. In Judah, kings varied widely in
their regard for the law of Moses; sometimes they were faithful,
sometimes very unfaithful. Meanwhile, Assyria was a constant threat.
During the reign of the good king Hezekiah, Judah was overrun by the
forces of the Assyrian king Sennacherib. God miraculously delivered
Jerusalem (2 Kings 18). However, there was no such deliverance
for Israel. Samaria was besieged for three years and finally taken
(722 BC). Most of the population was deported (17:5–18). Other
people groups were transplanted there who learned the law of Moses
and feared Yahweh along with their own gods (17:24–41).
At
this point in their history, only Judah remained as a political
entity; the northern tribes of Israel were lost. After the faithful
king Hezekiah, Judah’s next significant king was Manasseh. He
is described in 2 Kings as the king most offensive to God. To
categorize him, it was not enough to compare him unfavorably with
David (see 2 Kings 14:3) or to equate him with Ahab and Jezebel
(see 8:18). Rather, Manasseh was compared to the pagan nations that
Joshua had driven out of the land, which were destroyed because of
their wickedness. Manasseh was the last straw. Because of his
complete abandonment to idolatry, God determined to make an end of
Jerusalem (21:11–15).
Yet
still the judgment was delayed. Two years after Manasseh’s
death, Josiah reigned on the throne of David, and early in his career
the Book of the Law was rediscovered in the temple. Josiah called for
national repentance, and for a time Judah got rid of its idols and
returned to God (2 Kings 23). But this repentance was relatively
short-lived.
Josiah
was the last good king of Judah. God sent Judah prophets such as
Jeremiah, but they went unheeded. In the end, God sent King
Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon up against his own beloved city, Jerusalem.
Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed, many of its people killed,
and most of those who were left carried into exile to Babylon.
Exile
and Restoration
The
fall of Jerusalem in 586 BC essentially ended the existence of the
tribes as independent political entities. For the remainder of their
history they were, almost without exception, under the heel of great
foreign powers. At this point, they were called “Jews.”
Nebuchadnezzar conscripted some of the younger men to serve in his
court (Dan. 1). The deportees remained in Babylon until its empire
fell to the Medes and the Persians under Cyrus the Great in 539 BC.
Cyrus
issued a decree at that time allowing the Jews to return to their
ancestral land and rebuild the temple of Yahweh. They began to
migrate back to the land of promise and began their efforts to
rebuild the temple and the city of Jerusalem. These efforts continued
under a succession of Persian kings. Although the Jews were home and
able once again to worship God in the way he had specified in the
law, Nehemiah lamented that they were little more than slaves, since
they were subject to Persia (Neh. 9:36). Gone was the dynasty of
David, gone were most of the tribes, and gone was the greatness of
days past. The sins of their fathers had brought them to this sad
situation.
In
the return to the land, the genealogies of the returnees were very
important. These preserved family and tribal identities so that their
lineages would not be lost. The books that originated in the
restoration period preserve these lists (see 1 Chron. 1–9).
Persia
and the entire ancient world eventually were conquered by Alexander
the Great. His successors divided the land after his death; two
generals controlled Syria to the north and Egypt to the south of
Palestine. They constantly squabbled over their borders, which
included Palestine. Finally, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (r. 175–164
BC), king of Syria, decided to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city. He
brought great pressure on the Jews to abandon their faith. Jews found
with a copy of the law were killed, and circumcision of infants was
forbidden. He ransacked the temple and placed an idol in it. Some
Jews abandoned their faith, but others resisted. Finally, Antiochus
died, and the Jews for a short time enjoyed independence. Over time,
the Roman Empire engulfed Palestine. Herod the Great ruled as king of
the Jews for Rome in the years 37–4 BC. Upon Herod’s
death, his kingdom was divided among his sons.
New
Testament
The
Jews in Judea in Jesus’ day had learned to find their national,
ethnic, and cultural identity in the law of Moses. They dutifully
followed the purity laws, especially in keeping the Sabbath. Their
religion was centered on the temple, and they kept Passover and the
other prescribed obligations. Although the one remaining tribe,
Judah, no longer could boast of a king on the throne of David or even
independence, it was a nation whose people thought of themselves as
Yahweh’s people. By Jesus’ time, they anticipated that a
descendant of David, a Messiah, would arise to restore the lost
kingdom of David.
Although
the northern tribes were lost, there was some limited continuing
awareness of tribal identity in this period. The book of Esther’s
Mordecai is from the tribe of Benjamin, and there are a number of
references to Benjamin in the intertestamental literature (e.g.,
2 Macc. 3:4). Anna the prophetess was from the tribe of Asher
(Luke 2:36). Paul knew himself to be from the tribe of Benjamin (Rom.
11:1; Phil. 3:5). He used his knowledge of this fact to help bolster
his argument that he was truly a Jew. The Levites also survived the
exile, and the priestly caste continued. The kingly and priestly
tribes remained, with a few others.
Jesus
is presented in Matt. 1 as a direct descendant of David through the
line of kings. He is the promised Messiah (John 1:41), the “Lion
of the tribe of Judah” (Rev. 5:5). Jesus promised his twelve
disciples that some day they would rule over the tribes of Israel
(Matt. 19:28). In Christ, the definition of the tribes of Israel had
changed. Gentiles were now grafted onto the olive tree of Israel
(Rom. 11:17). Revelation 7:4–10 records the number from each
tribe who bear the seal of the Lamb. After hearing this, John turned
and saw them: they were revealed to be a vast company of the redeemed
from every tribe on earth. Thus, the church had spiritually become
the twelve tribes of Israel.
In
AD 70 the temple was destroyed. Soon afterward, Israel was scattered,
not to be a nation again in the promised land until 1948.
