Cities, towns, and villages were essential parts of a common
civilization pattern shared by the ancient Near East and the Bible.
Towns and cities were designed to provide the basic needs of
security, shelter, and sustenance to enable their populations to
engage in a variety of social, economic, religious, and political
activities.
The
urban picture of the biblical world is complicated by several
factors. The first is the large span of time covered in the Bible.
The urban chronology of Scripture begins at the moment of the first
attempt at city building (Gen. 4:17) and ends with the revelation of
the new Jerusalem, the city of God (Rev. 3:12; 21:2).
Moreover,
the Bible is not concerned with providing a detailed commentary on
the expansion of city and urban life. It is true that several of the
great cities of the ancient Near East and the Greco-Roman world are
mentioned in the pages of the Bible; however, many of the religious,
social, economic, and political factors involved in the development
of urban life are not identified or discussed. The archaeological
record often suggests a more complex picture.
In
addition, a wide variety of terms are used broadly and
interchangeably in the Scriptures to describe settlement patterns and
socio-urban structures. For example, the specific differences between
a city, a town, and a village are not clearly identified in the
biblical text. Normally, a city had a fortified wall or other type of
defensive enclosure, while a town or village did not.
Furthermore,
city status was not necessarily determined by size. Ancient cities
were much smaller. During the reign of Solomon, Jerusalem covered
about thirty-three acres. But by the time of Jesus it measured nearly
two hundred acres. Jericho, the oldest city in Palestine, was no
larger than ten acres. The archaeological record suggests that
Jericho was occupied by at least 7000 BC. Hazor, one of the largest
cities in the upper Galilee, covered 175 acres. The dimensions of
Palestinian cities were minuscule compared to the great pagan cities
such as Nineveh, Babylon, and Rome.
Archaeological
Evidence
Archaeological
evidence suggests that some of the chief concerns of city building
remained constant over time. Cities were planted along main highways
or trade routes. Often a city sat at important crossroads or
intersections. An adequate water supply was necessary, as were raw
materials for shelter and industry. The site had to be easy to defend
and surrounded by adjacent agricultural land sufficient to sustain
the population. All cities in the ancient Near East built walls and
city gates. Most featured an acropolis or citadel and a working
system of city streets. Many cities contained a sanctuary or high
place where individuals could worship.
At
least four major phases of urbanization in Palestine occurred during
the biblical period.
Early
Bronze Age II (3000–2700 BC).
Although Jericho and other cities had their origin in the
Chalcolithic period, the Early Bronze Age produced a significant
expansion of urban life. Cities in this period included Megiddo, Ai,
Gezer, Arad, Jericho, and others. Larger sites protected by
fortifications with gates are characteristic of this period. Temples,
fortified citadels, and residential houses were found arranged along
streets and thoroughfares inside the city. The water supply became a
community concern, and steps were taken to conserve runoff water into
large reservoirs or cisterns. Such urban planning presupposes a
social hierarchy in the differentiation of labor and need. Farmers,
craftsmen, and traders, as well as priests and rulers, worked and
lived side by side in the city.
Middle
Bronze Age IIB (1750–1650 BC).
In the second wave of urbanization, the Canaanites refortified and
rebuilt older settlements such as Dan, Hazor, Megiddo, and Shechem.
Other sites, such as Bethel and Beth Shemesh, were established as new
settlements. Distinctive walls, fortifications, gates, and cultic
architecture characterized this period. Mud-brick was a common
construction material. Larger city-states controlled agricultural
resources and ruled numerous villages and settlements within their
immediate vicinity. These city-states often joined together in
political alliances. Cuneiform documents from Mari and Hazor provide
a glimpse into the social, cultural, and political life in the cities
of this period. This wave of urbanization began to decline by the
Late Bronze Age.
Iron
Age II (1000–586 BC).
Early Iron Age settlements developed alongside the declining Late
Bronze cities as rough camps, simple enclosures, and villages in the
highlands of Palestine. Later, during the monarchial period, some of
the villages and cities expanded into full urban centers, following
royal hierarchical and administrative blueprints. Cities contained
administrative buildings, enhanced fortifications and gates, new
water systems, and planned street systems offering systematic
drainage. Housing generally followed a typical pattern. Stone became
the construction material of choice. Both the united monarchy and the
divided kingdoms of Israel and Judah established royal cities,
administrative centers, fortified border cities, and fortresses.
Urban life gravitated toward the upkeep of a central religious and
economic royal administration.
Roman
period.
As a champion of all things Hellenic, Alexander the Great introduced
the Greek city, or polis, into the oriental culture of the Levant.
This new type of city, with its theaters, gymnasia, statues, and
colonnades, served as a beacon of Greek civilization. Such cities
attracted Greek settlers, traders, and local natives (Acts 18:1–3,
18–28; Rom. 16:3–5; 1 Cor. 16:19). The Greek agora
(marketplace) replaced the Palestinian city gate as the center of
trade and commerce. Sepphoris and the towns of the Decapolis were
examples of this type of city in Palestine. The Romans imitated the
Hellenistic city plan but emphasized one main north-south
thoroughfare (cardo) and east-west streets. Building activity in
Palestine flourished under Herod the Great (37–4 BC). He
rebuilt, expanded, and renamed many Palestinian sites, such as
Caesarea, Sebaste, and the Tower of Antonia in Jerusalem. Herod
radically changed the landscape of Jerusalem, rebuilding there on a
massive scale not only the palace but also the temple.
Old
Testament
The
common Hebrew word for “city,” ’ir, occurs 1,093
times in the OT. English versions normally translate the word as
“city,” but sometimes “town” is used. The
same term is found outside the Bible in one of the Lachish letters
and as a cognate in several Semitic languages. The etymology of ’ir
is not clear, but it may be related to the Sumerian word for “city,”
uru. The word may have originally designated a fortified or protected
place.
In
the OT, ’ir can be applied to a wide range of settlements,
including villages, towns, and capital cities regardless of size or
location. For example, Deut. 3:5 speaks of cities fortified with high
walls, gates, and bars in the same sentence with “rural towns”
or “country settlements” [NIV: “unwalled
villages”]. On the other hand, a distinction is made between a
“walled city” and a “village” in Lev. 25:29,
31. In Num. 13:19 Moses specifically charges the spies with the task
of determining whether the Canaanite cities are fortified or more
like camps. Cities given to the Levites in Num. 35:1–8 also
included the surrounding pasturelands connected with them. A number
of times the OT speaks of the fields associated with a city or
village (Lev. 25:34; Josh. 21:12; Neh. 11:25, 30).
Cities
were also given special designations or names. Cities of refuge are
so designated to provide protection for individuals who have
committed accidental manslaughter (Num. 35:11; Josh. 20:2; 1 Chron.
6:57). Jericho was called “the City of Palms” (Deut.
34:3; 2 Chron. 28:15). Jerusalem was known as “the City of
David” (1 Kings 3:1; 2 Chron. 5:2), “Zion”
(Isa. 33:20; Zech. 8:3; Heb. 12:22), and “the holy city”
(Isa. 52:1; Rev. 21:1).
Two
other Hebrew terms are often translated “city.” The noun
qeret occurs only five times in biblical poetry (Job 29:7; Prov. 8:3;
9:3, 14; 11:11). The noun qiryah is found twenty-nine times. It is
sometimes translated “town” in the NIV (Deut. 2:36; Job
39:7; Isa. 25:2; Jer. 49:25; Hos. 7:12). The etymology of either word
is uncertain, but both may be derived from qir (“wall”).
In many cases qiryah functions as a synonym of ’ir.
In
Deut. 2:36 and 3:4 qiryah is used to designate the towns taken by the
Israelites in Transjordan. Heshbon is identified in Num. 21:28 as the
“town” (qiryah; NIV: “city”) of Sihon. The
word qiryah is also found in the names of several towns, such as
Kiriath Jearim (Josh. 15:9) and Kiriath Sepher (Josh. 15:15). Hebron
was originally Kiriath Arba (Gen. 23:2; 35:27), and Balaam rode to
Kiriath Huzoth (Num. 22:39). Shaveh Kiriathaim (Gen. 14:5) and
Kiriathaim (Num. 32:37) contain a form of qiryah.
Smaller
communities were called “villages” or “settlements”
(Gen. 25:16; Lev. 25:31; Deut. 2:23). Some of these were connected to
a larger city or provincial center. The book of Joshua commonly
speaks of a city or town and “its villages” (Josh. 13–19;
cf. 1 Chron. 6:26). In addition, the Hebrew phrase “daughters
of” (i.e., settlements) is frequently used to identify smaller
villages under the jurisdiction of a larger city and dependent upon
it (Num. 21:25, 32; 32:42; Josh. 15:45, 47; Neh. 11:25–31).
New
Testament
The
Greek word polis occurs 163 times in the NT and is translated as
“town” or “city.” Several sites are called
polis: Nazareth (Matt. 2:23), Capernaum (Luke 4:31), Arimathea (Luke
23:51), Bethlehem (John 7:42), and others. Jerusalem is called “the
holy city” (Matt. 4:5; cf. Rev. 3:12), “the city of the
Great King” (Matt. 5:35), and “the city of the living
God” (Heb. 12:22). During his ministry, Jesus preached in the
towns of Galilee (Matt. 11:1) and Samaria (Matt. 10:5). In the book
of Acts, Paul served as an evangelist to the Greek and Roman cities
in the Mediterranean world.
