A collection of 150 poems. They are the hymnbook of the OT
period, used in public worship. Psalms contains songs of different
lengths, types, and dates. The earliest psalm (Ps. 90) is attributed
to Moses (mid-second millennium BC), while the content of Ps. 126 and
Ps. 137 points to the latest periods of the OT (mid-first millennium
BC). They continue to be used as a source of public worship and
private devotion.
Historical
Background
Most
psalms have a title. In the Hebrew text this title comprises the
first verse, whereas English translations set it off before the first
verse. Titles vary. Many name an author (e.g., David [Ps. 3]; Asaph
[Ps. 77]; sons of Korah [Ps. 42]), while others provide information
about genre (e.g., Psalms of Ascent [Pss. 120–134]), tune
(e.g., “Do Not Destroy” [Ps. 75]), use in worship (Ps.
92), and a circumstance that led to composition (Ps. 51). Information
in the title gives hints concerning how psalms were written and
brought into a final collection.
Composition
As
mentioned, the titles of the psalms often give indications of
authorship and occasionally name the circumstance that led to the
writing of the psalm. A good example is Ps. 51, where the title
states, “For the director of music. A psalm of David. When the
prophet Nathan came to him after David had committed adultery with
Bathsheba.” The title connects the psalm with the events
recorded in 2 Sam. 11–12 and suggests that David wrote the
song in response to his sin and Nathan’s confrontation.
Although
only a handful of the psalms have such a historical title, it is
likely that most psalms were composed in response to some specific
circumstance that encouraged the author to write. Interestingly,
though, the psalmists do not speak about the specific circumstance in
the psalm itself. Psalm 51, for instance, fits perfectly with the
situation that the title describes in that it expresses guilt toward
God and asks for forgiveness, but nowhere does it speak specifically
about adultery. The psalmists do this intentionally because they are
writing the song not as a memorial to an event, but rather as a
prayer that others who have had similar though not identical
experiences can use after them. Thus, Ps. 51 has been used as a model
prayer for many penitents, whether they have sinned like David or in
another way.
Most
modern hymns have a similar background. John Newton, for instance,
was inspired to write “Amazing Grace” because of awe that
he felt at his conversion to Christianity from the evil of being a
slave trader. However, when he wrote it, he wanted others to sing it
as reflecting not on his conversion but on their own.
Collection
The
psalms were composed over a thousand-year period. Thus, it appears
that the book of Psalms was a growing collection until it came to a
close at an unknown time between the writing of the two Testaments.
In
1 Chron. 16:7–36 we may get a glimpse of how the process
worked. The text describes David turning a musical composition over
to the Levitical musician Asaph and his associates. It is likely that
the priests kept an official copy of the book of Psalms in the holy
place (the temple while it stood). The psalms, after all, were the
hymns of ancient Israel. Their primary function was as a corporate
book of prayer, though certainly they could be used in private
devotions (note Hannah’s prayer in 1 Sam. 2:1–10 and
its relationship to Ps. 113).
Organization
and Structure
The
psalms have no obvious organization that explains the location of all
the psalms. They are not organized in terms of genre, authorship,
time of composition, or length. There is only one statement about
organization, found in Ps. 72:20: “This concludes the prayers
of David son of Jesse.” In the light of this comment, it is
surprising that a number of Davidic psalms appear in subsequent
sections (Pss. 101; 103; 108–110; 122; 124; 131; 133; 138–145).
The best explanation is that at one point Ps. 72 concluded the
Davidic psalms, but there was a reorganization before the canonical
order was permanently closed.
A
number of contemporary theories try to find some deep structure to
the book, but it is best to refrain from speculation in regard to the
overall structure. Nonetheless, a few structural characteristics are
obvious. First, the division of Psalms into five books seems to
reflect the fivefold division of the Pentateuch:
I.
Book 1 (Pss. 1–41)
II.
Book 2 (Pss. 42–72)
III.
Book 3 (Pss. 73–89)
IV.
Book 4 (Pss. 90–106)
V.
Book 5 (Pss. 107–150)
Each
book ends with a doxology. Such an intentional association with the
Pentateuch would lend support to the Psalter’s claim to
authority. Although these are prayers to God, they are also God’s
word.
Second,
within the Psalter there are subcollections. That is, there are
psalms that came into the book not individually but as a group. The
best-known such group are the Psalms of Ascent (Pss. 120–134),
probably so named because worshipers sang them while going up
(ascending) to the Temple Mount during one of the annual religious
festivals in Jerusalem.
Third,
it appears that psalms are intentionally placed at the beginning and
at the end of the book to serve as an introduction and a conclusion.
Psalms 1–2 serve as an introduction that alerts the reader to
the twin important themes of law and messiah. Psalm 1 pronounces a
blessing on those who love God’s law. The psalms, after all,
are an intimate and personal conversation with God. One must be on
the side of the godly to enter such a holy textual space, just as one
must be godly to enter the precincts of the temple. After the reader
enters, Psalm 2 provides an encounter with God and his anointed one
(messiah). At the end of the book, the last five psalms (Pss.
146–150) constitute a tremendous doxology of praise.
This
leads to the final observation on structure. Psalms of lament
predominate at the beginning of the book, but they give way to hymns
of praise toward the end. It is almost as if one enters the Psalter
mourning and leaves it praising. Indeed, the Psalter brings the
reader into contact with God and thus transforms the reader from
sadness to joy.
Literary
Considerations
Genre.
The individual psalms may be identified as songs, prayers, or poems.
Specifically, they are lyric poems (expressing the emotions of the
poet), often addressed to God, and set to musical accompaniment.
Although the categories overlap, seven different types of psalms can
be recognized, with the first three being by far the most common.
• Lament.
The largest single group of psalms are the laments, characterized by
the expression of unhappy emotions: sadness, disappointment, anger,
worry. The lamenters call on God to save them, even while at times
complaining about God’s actions toward them (Ps. 42:9–10).
Some laments contain petitions for forgiveness (Ps. 51), while others
assert innocence of any wrongdoing (Ps. 26). A few laments even
contain curses directed toward the enemies who are trying to harm the
psalmist (Ps. 69:19–28). Most laments end by praising God or
reaffirming confidence in God (Ps. 130:7–8). Usually the reason
for the change from mourning to rejoicing is not given, but Ps. 77
pinpoints the reason as the memory of God’s great salvation
events in the past (vv. 10, 16–20). One psalm, Ps. 88, laments
but never makes the turn, remaining in the pit of despair. Yet even
here we have a glimmer of hope in that the one who laments is still
speaking to God.
• Thanksgiving.
When God answers a lament, the response is thanksgiving. Psalms of
thanksgiving are very similar to hymns (see below), but they cite an
earlier problem that God has addressed. Psalm 30 praises God for
restoring the psalmist’s good fortune and health after he
suffered due to his earlier arrogance that led him to forget God (vv.
6–7).
• Hymn.
Hymns are psalms of unalloyed praise directed toward God. The
psalmists often call for others to join their worship of God (Ps.
100).
• Remembrance.
While many psalms evoke memories of God’s actions in the past
(as the lament in Ps. 77 recalls the exodus), certain psalms focus on
rehearsing the actions of God in the past. Psalm 136 is one of the
most memorable examples. As a liturgical psalm, it recites a divine
action (“[God] swept Pharaoh and his army into the Red Sea”
[v. 15]) followed by a congregational response (“His love
endures forever”).
• Confidence.
These psalms are defined by their mood of quiet trust in God even in
the midst of trouble. They often present a reassuring image of God.
The picture of God as a shepherd in Ps. 23 or as a mother in Ps. 131
are good examples.
• Wisdom.
Some psalms meditate on the law (Pss. 1; 119) or have interests
similar to those of wisdom literature, such as Job, Proverbs, and
Ecclesiastes (Pss. 49; 73).
• Kingship.
A number of psalms praise God as king (Ps. 47) or the human king as
his agent (Pss. 20–21) or both (Ps. 2).
Style.
The psalms are poems, and so their style is characterized by the use
of parallelism and figurative language. Poetry is also notable for
its short lines. A poet packs a lot of meaning into very few words.
So it is important to slow down and reflect on a psalm in order to
derive its maximum effect. Besides brevity of expression,
parallelism, and figurative language, poets create interest by using
other literary tools. The psalmists use these poetic devices not only
to inform their readers’ intellect but also to stimulate their
imagination and arouse their emotions. (See also Acrostic; Imagery;
Poetry.)
Theological
Message
Although
the psalms are not theological essays, readers can learn about God
and their relationship with God from these poems. The book of Psalms
is a bit like a portrait gallery of God, using images to describe who
he is and the nature of our relationship with him. Some examples
include God as shepherd (Ps. 23), king (Ps. 47), warrior (Ps. 98),
and mother (Ps. 131), and the list could be greatly expanded. Each
one of these picture images casts light on the nature of God and also
the nature of our relationship with God. After all, the
aforementioned psalms explicitly or implicitly describe God’s
people as sheep, subjects, soldiers, and children.
Connection
to the New Testament and Today
Jesus
himself draws attention to Psalms as a book that anticipated his
coming suffering and glorification (Luke 24:25–27, 44). The
Gospels recognized that Jesus’ zeal for God was well expressed
by Ps. 69:9 (John 2:17). When at the apex of his suffering on the
cross, Jesus uttered the words found in Ps. 22:1 (Matt. 27:46). The
NT writers also saw that Jesus was the fulfillment of the covenant
that promised that a son of David would have an everlasting throne
(2 Sam. 7:16). Accordingly, the royal psalms (e.g., Pss. 2; 110)
often were applied to Jesus, who is the Messiah (the Christ, “the
anointed one”).
Today
we read Psalms not only as an ancient witness to the coming work of
Christ but also, as John Calvin put it, as a mirror of our souls. The
psalms were written for worshipers who came after them with similar
though not identical joys and problems. The psalms should become
models of our prayers.
