Terminology
The
word “Palestine” is derived from the name of one of the
Sea Peoples (Heb. pelishtim) who migrated to the southern coastal
region of the Fertile Crescent from one or more of the coastal
regions of the Mediterranean (see Philistines).
The
word “Palestine” has at times been used to refer to an
area as small as this southwestern coastal region (functioning at
times as a synonym for “Philistia”) and as large as the
land on both sides of the Jordan River, including the Negev in the
south.
Most
English versions of the Bible do not mention “Palestine,”
although in the KJV the Hebrew word peleshet (usually rendered
“Philistia” or “Philistines”) is translated
as “Palestina” in Exod. 15:14; Isa. 14:29, 31 and as
“Palestine” in Joel 3:4.
Other
designations of this region within the Scripture include “Canaan”
(Gen. 10:19; Josh. 22:9), “the land” (Gen. 13:17; Josh.
2:1), “the land of Canaan” (Gen. 17:8; Num. 13:2), “the
land of the Hebrews” (Gen. 40:15), “the land . . .
promised on oath” (Gen. 50:24; Deut. 6:23), in various
combinations and order “the land of the Canaanites, Hittites,
Amorites, Hivites, Periz-zites, Jebusites, and Girgashites”
(Exod. 3:17; 13:5; 23:23), “the Lord’s land” (Josh.
22:19), “the land of Israel” (1 Sam. 13:19; Ezek.
47:18), and “Trans-Euphrates,” which was “beyond
the river” from the perspective of those in Persia (Ezra 4:10;
Neh. 2:7). Compare also “the tribes of Israel” (2 Sam.
24:2; Ezek. 47:13), “Israel and Judah” (2 Sam. 5:5;
2 Chron. 30:6), and “from Dan to Beersheba” (Judg.
20:1; 1 Kings 4:25).
In
the NT, this territory is usually designated by reference to the
provinces of Judea and Galilee (Matt. 2:22; John 7:1), which
sometimes are mentioned with the Decapolis (Matt. 4:25) and Samaria
(Acts 9:31; cf. Luke 3:1).
Boundaries
and Size
Boundaries.
Palestine is in the southwestern portion of the Fertile Crescent
(i.e., western Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel). It is
located northeast of the Nile River basin and west-southwest of the
basins of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
Generally
speaking, it is bounded by Lebanon to the north, the Mediterranean
Sea (= the Sea, the Great Sea, or the western sea) on the west,
Wadi el-Arish (= the river of Egypt, the Wadi of Egypt) in the
southwest, the Sinai Peninsula in the south, and the Transjordan in
the east (Gen. 15:18; Num. 34:3–7, 11–12; Deut. 1:7;
11:24; 34:2; Josh. 1:4; 11:16; 2 Kings 24:7). When the
Transjordan is considered part of Palestine (cf. Deut. 34:1), the
eastern boundary is the Syrian (Syro-Arabian) Desert. In several
biblical texts the northeast boundary of this region is “the
great river, the Euphrates” (Gen. 15:18; Deut. 1:7; 11:24;
Josh. 1:4; 1 Chron. 5:9; cf. 2 Sam. 8:3).
Size.
Because
of fluidity in the use of the term “Palestine,” it is
difficult to speak precisely of the land area designated by it.
Palestine west of the Jordan River is about six thousand square
miles, similar to the land area of the state of Hawaii.
A
description of “the whole land” viewed by Moses included
both the Negev and Gilead, part of the Transjordan (Deut. 34:1–3).
In the OT, the Negev is regularly included as one of the regions of
the land on the west side of the Jordan (Deut. 1:7; Josh. 10:40;
11:16; Jer. 17:26). The unity of the land on both sides of the Jordan
is reflected in texts that focus on Israel’s inheritance of
land (Deut. 3:12–17), cities of refuge (Num. 35:14; Josh.
20:7–8), and military victories (Josh. 12:1–8; 24:8–13).
The
land area of Palestine increases considerably if one includes these
areas, for the Transjordan region is about 4,000 square miles, while
the Negev is about 4,600 square miles.
Topographical
Regions
Frequent
seismic activity, the rising and falling of the landmass, and
deposits from the inundation and withdrawal of seas produced seven
topographical regions current in Palestine.
Coastal
plain.
The coastal plain is the fertile terrain bordering the Mediterranean,
though the coastline itself consists of beaches, sand dunes,
wetlands, and rock cliffs.
The
southern portion of the coastal plain was once inhabited by the
Philistines (with the coastal cities of Gaza, Ashkelon, and Ashdod).
Moving north of the Yarkon River, we pass through the marshy Plain of
Sharon and the Dor Plain. In the north, hills rise near Carmel and
extend west to the central highlands. North of the Carmel range lie
the Acco Plain, the Asher Plain, and the coastlands of Phoenicia
(including Tyre and Sidon).
Hill
country.
The hill country is located between, and runs parallel to, the
coastal plain on the west and the Jordan Valley on the east. The
hills, ridges, plateaus, and valleys of the hill country are the
setting for most of the OT narratives.
The
hill country is bisected by the Jezreel Valley, which runs east-west
from the Jordan Valley to the Bay of Acco (Haifa Bay), north of
Carmel.
The
hill country south of the Jezreel Valley is called “the central
highlands,” which consist of the rough and rocky hills of
Samaria in the north (such as Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal) and the
more arid (and, historically, less populated) Judean hill country in
the south. The highest hills of this area exceed three thousand feet.
In
Scripture the southern hill country (or portions of it) is called
“the hill country of Judah/Judea” (Josh. 11:21; Luke
1:39) and “the hill country of Bethel” (Josh. 16:1;
1 Sam. 13:2), while the northern (Samarian) hill country (or
portions of it) is called “the hill country of Israel”
(Josh. 11:21), “the hill country of Naphtali” (Josh.
20:7), and, most frequently, “the hill country of Ephraim”
(Josh. 17:15; Judg. 2:9; 1 Kings 4:8).
The
hill country north of the Jezreel Valley consists of two parts, Lower
and Upper Galilee, divided by the fault through which runs Wadi
esh-Shaghur. Lower Galilee has fertile basins and hills about two
thousand feet above sea level. Farther north is Upper Galilee, with
hills averaging about three thousand feet. It forms a transition to
the mountains of Lebanon, which lie to the north.
The
Shephelah (“lowland” or “piedmont”) is the
region of gentle and rolling hills between five hundred and one
thousand feet above sea level between the Judean hill country and the
coastal plain. These hills formerly were covered with sycamore trees
and provided Judeans with protection against an attack from the west.
Jezreel
Valley.
The Jezreel Valley is often equated with the Plain of Esdraelon,
though some distinguish the fault basin (Esdraelon) from the rift
valley (Jezreel).
On
its west side, this fertile plain begins north of Carmel at the
coast, moving east to the Jordan Valley. The central highlands lie to
the north (Galilee) and south (Samaria) of this plain.
The
fertile soil of this low-lying basin was valued for farming. Traders
and armies regularly passed through this great plain, and it was
often the place of military conflict (cf. Judg. 6:33; 1 Sam.
29:1, 11; Hos. 1:5).
Jordan
Valley.
The Jordan Valley (also known as the Jordan Rift Valley or the Dead
Sea Rift) begins near the base of Mount Hermon in the north (9,232
feet). Moving south, the rift continues to the Hula Valley, through
which the Jordan River flows to the Sea of Galilee (Sea of
Gennesaret, Lake Kinnereth). The Sea of Galilee is about twelve miles
long and five miles wide, located within an area of hills and
valleys.
The
Jordan River meanders south, flowing through a deep gorge and falling
three thousand feet before coming to the Dead Sea (also called “the
Sea of the Arabah” [Deut. 4:49; Josh. 3:16] and “the Salt
Sea” [Num. 34:3, 12; Josh. 15:2, 5 ESV, NASB]), the lowest
place on earth. At its lowest point, the Dead Sea is more than 2,600
feet below sea level.
The
Jordan Valley rises as one continues south from the Dead Sea
(forty-eight miles long and eight miles wide) through the arid Arabah
(cf. Isa. 33:9; Zech. 14:10) to the Gulf of Aqaba.
The
term “Arabah” is generally used to refer to the extension
of the rift south of the Dead Sea, though at one time in the history
of ancient Israel it referred to a region that included the Jordan
Valley between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea, on both the east
(Deut. 3:17; Josh. 12:1–3) and the west (Deut. 11:30; Josh.
11:2; Ezek. 47:8) sides of the Jordan River.
Transjordan.
The
Transjordan region is located east of the Jordan Valley and west of
the Syrian (Syro-Arabian) Desert. Three major rivers run across this
region, each moving from east to west. The Yarmouk (Yarmuk) and the
Jabbok (Zarqa) rivers empty into the Jordan River, while the Arnon
River (Wadi el-Mujib) flows into the Dead Sea.
In
ancient Israel, regions of the Transjordan, from north to south,
included Bashan (Karnaim), north of the Yarmuk River; Gilead, south
of the Yarmuk; Ammon, the region of modern-day Amman, southeast of
Gilead; Moab, south of the Arnon River; and Edom, south of Wadi
el-Hesa (Zered River [cf. Num. 21:12; Deut. 2:13–14]).
The
capture of the territory belonging to Sihon between the Jabbok and
the Arnon rivers was a significant event in the history of ancient
Israel (Num. 21:24; Josh. 12:1–2).
Although
the Transjordan is often excluded from “Palestine,” there
were times in biblical history when the land on both sides of the
Jordan was considered a unit. For example, “the other half of
Manasseh, the Reubenites and the Gadites” received their tribal
inheritance east of the Jordan (cf. Josh. 13:8–32). They
inhabited Bashan, Gilead, and the land of the Amorites (cf. Deut.
3:12–17; 34:1; Judg. 20:1).
According
to 2 Sam. 8, David established control over Moab (vv. 2, 12),
the Beqaa Valley (“along the Euphrates River” [v. 3
GW]), Aram (v. 6; vv. 12–13 MT), Ammon and Amalek (v. 12),
and Edom (v. 14; vv. 12–13 LXX, Syriac; cf. 1 Chron.
18:2–13).
In
Scripture, the central Transjordan hill country is sometimes called
“the hill country of Gilead” (Gen. 31:21, 23, 25; Deut.
3:12). The southern elevated region in Edom is called “the hill
country of Seir” (Gen. 36:8–9; Deut. 2:5).
Negev.
The Negev (Negeb) is shaped like an inverted triangle with its peak
at the southern city of Eilat (Elath) near the biblical Ezion Geber
(cf. 1 Kings 9:26). It is bounded on the north by the Judean
hill country, on the west by Sinai, and on the east by the Arabah
Valley (which lies along the rift south of the Dead Sea).
The
Negev is an extremely dry area, with the most rain found in the
northern (twelve inches annually) and western (ten inches annually)
sections, and the least in the Arabah Valley (two inches annually).
It is a place of sand dunes, rocky desert, and brown hills that
increase in height as one moves toward Sinai.
Although
the Negev is described as “a land of hardship and distress, of
lions and lionesses, of adders and darting snakes” (Isa. 30:6),
it was also a place of wells and springs, in addition to cities and
towns such as Beersheba (Josh. 15:21–32; 2 Sam. 24:7).
Sinai
peninsula.
The Sinai peninsula is about twenty-three thousand square miles. It
consists primarily of plains, plateaus, and hills (the highest of
which is Jebel Yiallaq, at 3,656 feet), with a coastline along the
Mediterranean of 145 miles.
The
longest river in the region is the Wadi el-Arish, which runs 155
miles northward from central Sinai to the Mediterranean.
Israel’s
activities in the Desert of Sinai are often mentioned in the
Pentateuch (e.g., Exod. 19:1–2; Num. 1:1; 9:5).
The
Desert of Sinai is distinguished from the Desert of Sin (Exod. 16:1)
and the Desert of Paran (Num. 10:12). Other arid areas within the
Sinai Peninsula include the Desert of Zin (Num. 34:3), the Desert of
Shur (Exod. 15:22), and the Desert of Etham (Num. 33:8).
Climate
The
climate of Palestine consists of a dry and hot season from June to
August and a wet season from mid-October to mid-April. It is common
for the wet season to consist of two distinct periods of heavy rain,
one at the beginning and one toward the end of this period (cf.
“spring and autumn rains” [Deut. 11:14; Joel 2:23; James
5:7]).
Two
transitional seasons of about six weeks each bridge the wet and the
dry seasons. One occurs between early September and the end of
October, the other between early April and the middle of June.
Average
temperatures throughout the region range from 46.5–55 degrees
(Fahrenheit) in January (both the coldest and the wettest month in
Palestine) to 71.5–93 degrees in August.
Most
rainfall in Palestine occurs as cyclonic storm systems (about
twenty-five each year) bring warm air from North Africa eastward over
the Mediterranean, clashing with cooler air from Europe and Asia. As
clouds move over the land, precipitation falls heaviest on the west
side of the hills, leaving the east side of the hills with less rain.
Typically,
rainfall is heaviest in the northern areas of Palestine, the regions
closest to the Mediterranean, and in the Transjordan. The area around
the Dead Sea is extremely dry, with evaporation exceeding
precipitation. In contrast, the northern highlands have forty inches
of annual rainfall.
In
Palestine, precipitation can also take the form of both snow (cf.
2 Sam. 23:20; Prov. 25:13) and, in a significant way, dew (cf.
Judg. 6:37–40; Song 5:2). Dew provides moisture for agriculture
especially in the coastal plain, the central highlands, and the
Jezreel Valley.
During
the transitional seasons, desiccating winds (sometimes called sirocco
winds) bring warm desert air from the east (and at times from the
south), raising the temperature and lowering the relative humidity
throughout Palestine. These winds often bring fine dust from the
desert. The effects are most onerous in the Jordan Valley. References
to an east wind in Scripture are common (Gen. 41:6; Hos. 13:15; Jon.
4:8; see also “south wind” in Job 37:17; Luke 12:55).
Roads
Two
major highways passed through Palestine: “the Way of the Sea,”
or Via Maris (cf. Isa. 9:1; Matt. 4:15), and “the King’s
Highway” (cf. Num. 20:17; 21:22).
The
Way of the Sea moved north from Egypt through the coastal plain,
heading east through the Jezreel Valley. From this point it branched
out in three directions: northwest through Phoenicia, north toward
Damascus, and east to join with the King’s Highway.
The
King’s Highway was a Transjordanian route passing from the Gulf
of Aqaba in the south (cf. Deut. 2:8) through Edom, Moab, Gilead, and
Bashan to Damascus in the north.
Merchants
and armies used these highways to pass through Palestine, while local
traffic often used east-west roads to move throughout the area.
