18 When Jesus saw the crowd around him, he gave orders to cross to the other side of the lake. 19 Then a teacher of the law came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go."
20 Jesus replied, "Foxes have holes and birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has no place to lay his head."
21 Another disciple said to him, "Lord, first let me go and bury my father."
22 But Jesus told him, "Follow me, and let the dead bury their own dead."
Big Idea: Matthew encourages his readers to trust and follow Jesus wholeheartedly, as he shows Jesus’ power and authority to be greater than sin, the demonic, and even nature.
Understanding the Text
Matthew continues in this passage to emphasize themes of Jesus’ authority—here over sin (9:1–8), the demonic (8:28–34), and nature (8:23–27)—and faith as the appropriate discipleship response to Jesus (9:21–22; cf. 8:26). The call to follow Jesus wholeheartedly is issued in 8:18–22, picking up the call stories of the first four disciples (4:18–22) and anticipating that of Matthew, a tax collector, in 9:9. The story of Jesus’ calming the storm shares a plot connection with 14:22–33, where Jesus (with Peter momentarily) walks on the sea. Jesus’ (messianic) identity and the disciples’ little faith are emphasized in both accounts. The story of Jesus’ claim to forgive sins (9:2, 8) evokes Matthew’s identification of Jesus as the one who “will save his people from their sins” (1:21) and foreshadows Jesus’ death, which will be “for the forgiveness of sins” (26:28).
Interpretive Insights
8:20 the Son of Man has no place to lay his head. Jesus here refers to himself as the “Son of Man,” a designation familiar from its Old Testament usage. This is the first of thirty occurrences of “Son of Man” in Matthew; in each case Jesus uses the phrase to describe himself (in Matthew as well as in the other three Gospels). Although in many cases it functions primarily as a circumlocution for “I,” the echoing of Ezekiel (in which God frequently calls Ezekiel “son of man”) may suggest Jesus’ solidarity with Israel. At a few key points in Matthew “Son of Man” occurs as part of an allusion to Daniel 7:13–14; these occurrences signal Jesus’ vindication and authority (Matt. 10:23; 16:27–28; 24:30–31; 26:64).
8:22 Follow me. The message of 8:18–22 concerns discipleship, and specifically the sacrifice (8:18–20) and priority (8:21–22) involved in following Jesus. Jesus has already called four of his disciples to “follow me” (4:18–22). This call comes from Jesus and is not self-initiated, similar to the call of the first four disciples at 4:19 (see comments there). Here Jesus seems to deter one who volunteers to follow by emphasizing the cost involved (a nomadic existence). But the passage also indicates that one who is called must be ready to give uncompromising allegiance to Jesus. Rather than keeping a focus on the particular circumstances of these would-be disciples, the passage highlights the importance of following Jesus as one’s highest priority and following him despite the cost (cf. 6:33).
8:26 You of little faith. Jesus has already referred to his disciples as those of “little faith,” as they are the most explicit audience of the Sermon on the Mount (6:30; see 5:1–2). In the present occurrence their “little faith” (oligopistos) is tied to their fear of the storm and waves around the boat. Their fear displaces what should be their trust in Jesus, who has already shown authority over illness (8:1–17). Now Matthew highlights Jesus’ authority over creation by calming the storm. The characterization of “little faith” follows the disciples across Matthew (see 14:31; 16:8; 17:20; cf. 28:17).
8:27 What kind of man is this? Even the winds and the waves obey him? The disciples’ question that concludes the story of Jesus’ calming the storm is an important one for Matthew and his readers and hearers. It is the first time in the narrative that the question of Jesus’ identity has been raised explicitly since before his public ministry (1:1–4:16). The disciples have heard him teach and have seen him heal the sick. Now when they see his authority extending even over nature, they press to know what kind of man it is who stands before them. This question will guide the narrative in subsequent chapters, as Matthew highlights differing opinions of who Jesus might be (e.g., 11:2–3; 12:23; 14:1–2, 33; 15:22), culminating in Peter’s affirmation that Jesus is indeed God’s Messiah (16:16).
8:28 Gadarenes. Jesus and his disciples have now crossed the lake (the Sea of Galilee) and arrived in the region of the Gadarenes, which is part of the Decapolis (see 4:25).1According to Josephus, Gadara was home to Gentiles as well as some Jews (J.W.1.155). A mixed population makes sense of the presence of a herd of pigs (8:30), since Jews considered pigs and their meat unclean (Deut. 14:8). It is not clear, however, whether the two demon-possessed men healed by Jesus are Jew or Gentile. Given that Matthew otherwise clearly delineates Gentile recipients of healing (8:5–13; 15:21–28) and highlights the Jewish scope of Jesus’ mission (10:5–6; 15:24), it is more likely that this story also fits Jesus’ ministry to Israel in the regions in and around Galilee (see 4:23–25).
8:29 before the appointed time. The kairos (“appointed time”) indicated here very likely refers to the final day (see the same phrase, pro kairou, with this referent at 1 Cor. 4:5), when God was expected to make all things right and Satan and his powers would be destroyed. The only explicit reference to Jesus as “Son of God” in Matthew up to this point has been Satan’s taunt during Jesus’ temptation (“If you are the Son of God” [4:3]). What the demonic realm seems to know already, Jesus’ disciples will come to recognize (14:33; 16:16). For the import of “Son of God” in Matthew, see comments on 4:3, 6.
8:34 they pleaded with him to leave the region. Matthew has already begun to narrate a range of responses to Jesus and his kingdom ministry, including great faith (8:10), little faith (8:26), amazement (7:28; 8:27), and hesitance (8:21). Here the people of this town respond to Jesus’ display of power over the demonic by begging him to leave. Matthew seems to be indicating that the restorative power of the kingdom is not welcomed by everyone.
9:2 When Jesus saw their faith. Matthew highlights the faith of the friends of the paralyzed man (“their faith”), in concert with others in chapters 8–9 who come trusting that Jesus can heal someone they care for (8:5–6; 9:18). The theme of faith is pervasive in these miracle chapters, both implicitly and explicitly (8:2, 10, 13; 9:2, 18, 22, 28–29; cf. 8:26), as Matthew highlights the importance of trusting in Jesus’ authority to heal in line with Isaiah’s picture of eschatological restoration (8:17).
Take heart, son; your sins are forgiven. In chapter 8 Jesus has healed the sick, demonstrated power over a storm, and cast out demons. Now Matthew indicates that Jesus has power even to forgive sins. This scene of Jesus forgiving sins is unusual in Matthew: Jesus frequently heals, but only here does he claim to forgive sin. The scene foreshadows the Passover celebration that Jesus shares with his disciples, when he connects the Passover cup to his death (i.e., blood) as a means of “the forgiveness of sins” (26:28).
9:5 Which is easier: to say, “Your sins are forgiven,” or to say, “Get up and walk”? With this question, Jesus responds to teachers of the law who challenge his claim to forgive a man his sins. It seems clear that it is easier to claim to forgive sins than to claim to heal, since the latter claim is easily and quickly debunked if the man remains unable to walk. But to demonstrate his authority to forgive sins, Jesus heals the man, who then gets up and walks home (9:6–7).
9:8 they praised God, who had given such authority to man. While the teachers of the law seem to think that Jesus has crossed a line of authority—they consider his offer of forgiveness to be blasphemy (9:3)—the crowd that witnesses the healing attributes the action to God, “who had given such authority to human beings [anthropois]” (NRSV). If Matthew intends a wordplay here between the “Son of Man” (9:6) and “man” (9:8), as captured in the NIV, then it is precisely Jesus’ role as representative humanity that is in view in this passage (see comments on “Son of Man” at 8:20).
Teaching the Text
1. Jesus, as rightful king of this world, has power over nature and forces that work against God’s purposes. Matthew continues to emphasize Jesus’ authority in his Galilean ministry, both in word and deed. Not only does Jesus have authority over illness and disease (8:1–17), but also Matthew demonstrates Jesus’ power over the created world (8:23–27), over evil (8:28–34), and over sin (9:1–8). The cumulative effect of these displays of power is to show that Jesus is the true king of all. His arrival signals the return of the rightful king of all things, whose power will be made explicit in the final moments of the Gospel (“All authority in heaven and earth has been given to me” [28:18]). So the displays of power in chapters 8–9 are displays of kingdom authority. In line with good Jewish theology, God in Jesus is reclaiming what rightfully belongs to God (e.g., Ps. 24:1).
It is fairly common to hear Jesus’ miracles, both healings and especially his power over nature, used to prove his divinity. This equation has arisen from modernist debates about Jesus’ identity. While Matthew does portray Jesus as the embodiment of Israel’s God (see the section “Matthew’s Narrative Christology” in the introduction), he does not highlight this portrayal through the miraculous deeds of Jesus. In fact, Matthew makes it clear that these miraculous deeds point to Jesus as the Messiah—that is, the human agent of God’s restoring work (e.g., 11:2–5). This is Matthew’s burden: to prove that Jesus is God’s Messiah. In the Old Testament those who performed miracles by the power of God—both healings and miracles of nature—were not considered divine for doing so (e.g., Elijah in 1 Kings 17; Elisha in 2 Kings 6). So in preaching and teaching on Jesus’ miraculous works, we might focus where Matthew does. Jesus’ miracles signal that Jesus is God’s agent of restoration—the true Messiah—as God inaugurates the kingdom in this world.
2. Putting trust in Jesus and following him are right responses to experiencing his authority. Interspersed in these two chapters focused on Jesus’ authority over illness, sin, and evil are discipleship sayings (8:18–22; 9:9–17). The first of these two discipleship moments highlights the cost of following Jesus. It is not enough only to be willing to follow Jesus; potential disciples are called here to count the cost (8:19–20). Since Jesus has no permanent home, his followers must reckon on following him wherever he would lead. Allegiance to Jesus displaces home and even family commitments, something that we see in 8:21–22, where family obligation is shown to be secondary to following Jesus. To first-century ears, this would sound quite countercultural, given the significance of family loyalty and obligation in the ancient world. Jesus in Matthew will speak to this question at a number of points (e.g., 10:37–39; 12:46–50; 19:29). Following Jesus means reorienting oneself in relation to all other commitments. No allegiance is left untouched.
So as we teach this passage, we might ask people to consider their loyalty to Jesus and the kingdom that he is bringing. Have other loyalties displaced this primary one? Do we value comfort and security more than the values of the kingdom? And might our families become places for reflection and practice of kingdom values such as mercy, justice, and faithfulness?
Illustrating the Text
Jesus, as rightful king of this world, has power over nature and forces that work against God’s purposes.
Quote: Our modern worldview leads us to assume a God who is distant from creation, with the laws of nature alone explaining natural phenomena. So passages like this one where Jesus demonstrates authority over creation might seem foreign to our way of thinking. G. K. Chesterton, in Orthodoxy, suggests an interesting mediating view in this regard.
Because children have abounding vitality, because they are in spirit fierce and free, therefore they want things repeated and unchanged. They always say, “Do it again”; and the grown-up person does it again until he is nearly dead. For grown-up people are not strong enough to exult in monotony. But perhaps God is strong enough to exult in monotony. It is possible that God says every morning, “Do it again” to the sun; and every evening, “Do it again” to the moon. It may not be automatic necessity that makes all daisies alike; it may be that God makes every daisy separately, but has never got tired of making them. It may be that He has the eternal appetite of infancy; for we have sinned and grown old, and our Father is younger than we.2
Putting trust in Jesus and following him are right responses to experiencing his authority.
Poetry: “A Tent for a Home,” by Jeannine Brown. This lyric about allegiance and security is drawn from Matthew 8:18–22:
The fox has its hole and the bird its nest,
But the Son has no place to lay his head,
So they followed the Lord and they gave up their homes,
And they journeyed as strangers.
My roots go too deep, I care far too much,
For all of the things of this world.
So I’ll follow my Lord and I’ll give up my home,
And I’ll find my home in you.
After this first group of three miracles (there are 2 more groups of three that follow), Jesus encounters two people who are interested in following him. The first seems overzealous and boasts, a bit naively it appears, that he will follow Jesus wherever he goes. Jesus…
18 When Jesus saw the crowd around him, he gave orders to cross to the other side of the lake. 19 Then a teacher of the law came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go."
20 Jesus replied, "Foxes have holes and birds of the air have nests, but the Son of Man has no place to lay his head."
21 Another disciple said to him, "Lord, first let me go and bury my father."
22 But Jesus told him, "Follow me, and let the dead bury their own dead."
Matthew includes here a teaching on discipleship. Although the identity of the two “would-be” disciples has been debated (is either a true disciple?), the account focuses on Jesus’s expectations for his disciples in light of the arrival of God’s kingdom: sacrifice and uncompromising allegiance (8:18–20), even in the face of family obligations (8:21–22; for “Son of Man” [8:20] as Jesus’s self-designation, see “Theological Themes” in the introduction).
Big Idea: Matthew encourages his readers to trust and follow Jesus wholeheartedly, as he shows Jesus’ power and authority to be greater than sin, the demonic, and even nature.
Understanding the Text
Matthew continues in this passage to emphasize themes of Jesus’ authority—here over sin (9:1–8), the demonic (8:28–34), and nature (8:23–27)—and faith as the appropriate discipleship response to Jesus (9:21–22; cf. 8:26). The call to follow Jesus wholeheartedly is issued in 8:18–22, picking up the call stories of the first four disciples (4:18–22) and anticipating that of Matthew, a tax collector, in 9:9. The story of Jesus’ calming the storm shares a plot connection with 14:22–33, where Jesus (with Peter momentarily) walks on the sea. Jesus’ (messianic) identity and the disciples’ little faith are emphasized in both accounts. The story of Jesus’ claim to forgive sins (9:2, 8) evokes Matthew’s identification of Jesus as the one who “will save his people from their sins” (1:21) and foreshadows Jesus’ death, which will be “for the forgiveness of sins” (26:28).
Interpretive Insights
8:20 the Son of Man has no place to lay his head. Jesus here refers to himself as the “Son of Man,” a designation familiar from its Old Testament usage. This is the first of thirty occurrences of “Son of Man” in Matthew; in each case Jesus uses the phrase to describe himself (in Matthew as well as in the other three Gospels). Although in many cases it functions primarily as a circumlocution for “I,” the echoing of Ezekiel (in which God frequently calls Ezekiel “son of man”) may suggest Jesus’ solidarity with Israel. At a few key points in Matthew “Son of Man” occurs as part of an allusion to Daniel 7:13–14; these occurrences signal Jesus’ vindication and authority (Matt. 10:23; 16:27–28; 24:30–31; 26:64).
8:22 Follow me. The message of 8:18–22 concerns discipleship, and specifically the sacrifice (8:18–20) and priority (8:21–22) involved in following Jesus. Jesus has already called four of his disciples to “follow me” (4:18–22). This call comes from Jesus and is not self-initiated, similar to the call of the first four disciples at 4:19 (see comments there). Here Jesus seems to deter one who volunteers to follow by emphasizing the cost involved (a nomadic existence). But the passage also indicates that one who is called must be ready to give uncompromising allegiance to Jesus. Rather than keeping a focus on the particular circumstances of these would-be disciples, the passage highlights the importance of following Jesus as one’s highest priority and following him despite the cost (cf. 6:33).
8:26 You of little faith. Jesus has already referred to his disciples as those of “little faith,” as they are the most explicit audience of the Sermon on the Mount (6:30; see 5:1–2). In the present occurrence their “little faith” (oligopistos) is tied to their fear of the storm and waves around the boat. Their fear displaces what should be their trust in Jesus, who has already shown authority over illness (8:1–17). Now Matthew highlights Jesus’ authority over creation by calming the storm. The characterization of “little faith” follows the disciples across Matthew (see 14:31; 16:8; 17:20; cf. 28:17).
8:27 What kind of man is this? Even the winds and the waves obey him? The disciples’ question that concludes the story of Jesus’ calming the storm is an important one for Matthew and his readers and hearers. It is the first time in the narrative that the question of Jesus’ identity has been raised explicitly since before his public ministry (1:1–4:16). The disciples have heard him teach and have seen him heal the sick. Now when they see his authority extending even over nature, they press to know what kind of man it is who stands before them. This question will guide the narrative in subsequent chapters, as Matthew highlights differing opinions of who Jesus might be (e.g., 11:2–3; 12:23; 14:1–2, 33; 15:22), culminating in Peter’s affirmation that Jesus is indeed God’s Messiah (16:16).
8:28 Gadarenes. Jesus and his disciples have now crossed the lake (the Sea of Galilee) and arrived in the region of the Gadarenes, which is part of the Decapolis (see 4:25).1According to Josephus, Gadara was home to Gentiles as well as some Jews (J.W.1.155). A mixed population makes sense of the presence of a herd of pigs (8:30), since Jews considered pigs and their meat unclean (Deut. 14:8). It is not clear, however, whether the two demon-possessed men healed by Jesus are Jew or Gentile. Given that Matthew otherwise clearly delineates Gentile recipients of healing (8:5–13; 15:21–28) and highlights the Jewish scope of Jesus’ mission (10:5–6; 15:24), it is more likely that this story also fits Jesus’ ministry to Israel in the regions in and around Galilee (see 4:23–25).
8:29 before the appointed time. The kairos (“appointed time”) indicated here very likely refers to the final day (see the same phrase, pro kairou, with this referent at 1 Cor. 4:5), when God was expected to make all things right and Satan and his powers would be destroyed. The only explicit reference to Jesus as “Son of God” in Matthew up to this point has been Satan’s taunt during Jesus’ temptation (“If you are the Son of God” [4:3]). What the demonic realm seems to know already, Jesus’ disciples will come to recognize (14:33; 16:16). For the import of “Son of God” in Matthew, see comments on 4:3, 6.
8:34 they pleaded with him to leave the region. Matthew has already begun to narrate a range of responses to Jesus and his kingdom ministry, including great faith (8:10), little faith (8:26), amazement (7:28; 8:27), and hesitance (8:21). Here the people of this town respond to Jesus’ display of power over the demonic by begging him to leave. Matthew seems to be indicating that the restorative power of the kingdom is not welcomed by everyone.
9:2 When Jesus saw their faith. Matthew highlights the faith of the friends of the paralyzed man (“their faith”), in concert with others in chapters 8–9 who come trusting that Jesus can heal someone they care for (8:5–6; 9:18). The theme of faith is pervasive in these miracle chapters, both implicitly and explicitly (8:2, 10, 13; 9:2, 18, 22, 28–29; cf. 8:26), as Matthew highlights the importance of trusting in Jesus’ authority to heal in line with Isaiah’s picture of eschatological restoration (8:17).
Take heart, son; your sins are forgiven. In chapter 8 Jesus has healed the sick, demonstrated power over a storm, and cast out demons. Now Matthew indicates that Jesus has power even to forgive sins. This scene of Jesus forgiving sins is unusual in Matthew: Jesus frequently heals, but only here does he claim to forgive sin. The scene foreshadows the Passover celebration that Jesus shares with his disciples, when he connects the Passover cup to his death (i.e., blood) as a means of “the forgiveness of sins” (26:28).
9:5 Which is easier: to say, “Your sins are forgiven,” or to say, “Get up and walk”? With this question, Jesus responds to teachers of the law who challenge his claim to forgive a man his sins. It seems clear that it is easier to claim to forgive sins than to claim to heal, since the latter claim is easily and quickly debunked if the man remains unable to walk. But to demonstrate his authority to forgive sins, Jesus heals the man, who then gets up and walks home (9:6–7).
9:8 they praised God, who had given such authority to man. While the teachers of the law seem to think that Jesus has crossed a line of authority—they consider his offer of forgiveness to be blasphemy (9:3)—the crowd that witnesses the healing attributes the action to God, “who had given such authority to human beings [anthropois]” (NRSV). If Matthew intends a wordplay here between the “Son of Man” (9:6) and “man” (9:8), as captured in the NIV, then it is precisely Jesus’ role as representative humanity that is in view in this passage (see comments on “Son of Man” at 8:20).
Teaching the Text
1. Jesus, as rightful king of this world, has power over nature and forces that work against God’s purposes. Matthew continues to emphasize Jesus’ authority in his Galilean ministry, both in word and deed. Not only does Jesus have authority over illness and disease (8:1–17), but also Matthew demonstrates Jesus’ power over the created world (8:23–27), over evil (8:28–34), and over sin (9:1–8). The cumulative effect of these displays of power is to show that Jesus is the true king of all. His arrival signals the return of the rightful king of all things, whose power will be made explicit in the final moments of the Gospel (“All authority in heaven and earth has been given to me” [28:18]). So the displays of power in chapters 8–9 are displays of kingdom authority. In line with good Jewish theology, God in Jesus is reclaiming what rightfully belongs to God (e.g., Ps. 24:1).
It is fairly common to hear Jesus’ miracles, both healings and especially his power over nature, used to prove his divinity. This equation has arisen from modernist debates about Jesus’ identity. While Matthew does portray Jesus as the embodiment of Israel’s God (see the section “Matthew’s Narrative Christology” in the introduction), he does not highlight this portrayal through the miraculous deeds of Jesus. In fact, Matthew makes it clear that these miraculous deeds point to Jesus as the Messiah—that is, the human agent of God’s restoring work (e.g., 11:2–5). This is Matthew’s burden: to prove that Jesus is God’s Messiah. In the Old Testament those who performed miracles by the power of God—both healings and miracles of nature—were not considered divine for doing so (e.g., Elijah in 1 Kings 17; Elisha in 2 Kings 6). So in preaching and teaching on Jesus’ miraculous works, we might focus where Matthew does. Jesus’ miracles signal that Jesus is God’s agent of restoration—the true Messiah—as God inaugurates the kingdom in this world.
2. Putting trust in Jesus and following him are right responses to experiencing his authority. Interspersed in these two chapters focused on Jesus’ authority over illness, sin, and evil are discipleship sayings (8:18–22; 9:9–17). The first of these two discipleship moments highlights the cost of following Jesus. It is not enough only to be willing to follow Jesus; potential disciples are called here to count the cost (8:19–20). Since Jesus has no permanent home, his followers must reckon on following him wherever he would lead. Allegiance to Jesus displaces home and even family commitments, something that we see in 8:21–22, where family obligation is shown to be secondary to following Jesus. To first-century ears, this would sound quite countercultural, given the significance of family loyalty and obligation in the ancient world. Jesus in Matthew will speak to this question at a number of points (e.g., 10:37–39; 12:46–50; 19:29). Following Jesus means reorienting oneself in relation to all other commitments. No allegiance is left untouched.
So as we teach this passage, we might ask people to consider their loyalty to Jesus and the kingdom that he is bringing. Have other loyalties displaced this primary one? Do we value comfort and security more than the values of the kingdom? And might our families become places for reflection and practice of kingdom values such as mercy, justice, and faithfulness?
Illustrating the Text
Jesus, as rightful king of this world, has power over nature and forces that work against God’s purposes.
Quote: Our modern worldview leads us to assume a God who is distant from creation, with the laws of nature alone explaining natural phenomena. So passages like this one where Jesus demonstrates authority over creation might seem foreign to our way of thinking. G. K. Chesterton, in Orthodoxy, suggests an interesting mediating view in this regard.
Because children have abounding vitality, because they are in spirit fierce and free, therefore they want things repeated and unchanged. They always say, “Do it again”; and the grown-up person does it again until he is nearly dead. For grown-up people are not strong enough to exult in monotony. But perhaps God is strong enough to exult in monotony. It is possible that God says every morning, “Do it again” to the sun; and every evening, “Do it again” to the moon. It may not be automatic necessity that makes all daisies alike; it may be that God makes every daisy separately, but has never got tired of making them. It may be that He has the eternal appetite of infancy; for we have sinned and grown old, and our Father is younger than we.2
Putting trust in Jesus and following him are right responses to experiencing his authority.
Poetry: “A Tent for a Home,” by Jeannine Brown. This lyric about allegiance and security is drawn from Matthew 8:18–22:
The fox has its hole and the bird its nest,
But the Son has no place to lay his head,
So they followed the Lord and they gave up their homes,
And they journeyed as strangers.
My roots go too deep, I care far too much,
For all of the things of this world.
So I’ll follow my Lord and I’ll give up my home,
And I’ll find my home in you.
The OT employs thirty-five different words for birds (both wild and domestic), but the identification of these words with known species has proved to be very difficult. Like other words for animals, terminology for birds often is employed in personal names (e.g., Jonah, Oreb, Zippor, Zipporah). There is significant evidence for fowling practices in ancient Israel, usually by means of nets and snares (Pss. 124:7; 140:5; Prov. 6:5; 7:23; Lam. 3:52; Hos. 7:12; Amos 3:5). Small birds and chickens are occasionally even depicted on Iron Age II (1000 586 BC) seals and vessels from sites such as el-Jib (Gibeon) and Tell en-Nasbeh (Mizpah).
Like other animals in the Bible, birds are depicted as agents of God. Divine agency is especially evident in instances such as the ravens feeding Elijah (1 Kings 17:4–6) and the dove bringing an olive leaf to Noah (Gen. 8:11). The Bible also employs bird-related imagery such as in descriptions of divine judgment (Prov. 30:17; Jer. 12:9). Birds may also serve as ominous signs of impending judgment (Hos. 8:1). God’s “wings” can offer both healing (Mal. 4:2 KJV, RSV) and protection (Ruth 2:12; Pss. 17:8; 36:7; 57:1; 61:4; 63:7; 91:4). The metaphor of the soul or spirit as a bird is referenced in the description of the Holy Spirit descending like a dove (Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; Luke 3:22; John 1:32). The observation that birds “do not sow or reap” is employed as an image of worry-free living (Luke 12:24; cf. Job 38:41; Ps. 147:9). Jesus’ reference to “when the rooster crows” (Mark 13:35) is not strictly literal but rather refers to a watch of the night: the quarter of the night after midnight.
The prominence of sacrificial birds (especially doves and pigeons) in ritual literature indicates that they were likely raised for such purposes in ancient Israel. All birds could be eaten except those listed as unclean in Lev. 11:13–19 (twenty species) and Deut. 14:12–18 (twenty-one species). Generally speaking, birds of prey and those that feed on carrion or fish were considered unclean. Birds often served as food for the poor (Matt. 10:29–31; Luke 12:6–7). Poor people could offer birds as a substitute for expensive livestock (Lev. 5:7; 12:8; 14:21–22; cf. Luke 2:24), while the poorest of the poor were permitted to bring grain (Lev. 5:11). Finally, in one purgation ritual a live bird is used to carry away impurities (Lev. 14:52–53; cf. 16:22).
A cross is an upright wooden beam or post on which persons were either tied or nailed as a means of torture and execution. The Latin cross was shaped like a t and was the type most commonly used by the Romans. Jesus was crucified probably on a Latin cross, which allowed for a convenient place for a sign (called a titlos in John 19:19) to be placed above his head (Matt. 27:37 pars.).
Not long before the Romans took over Palestine, the Jewish ruler Alexander Jannaeus crucified about eight hundred Pharisees who opposed him in 86 BC. This gruesome event was out of character for the Jewish nation and was frowned upon by the Jews of the day as well as by the later Jewish historian Josephus. But it was the Romans who perfected crucifixion as a means of torture and execution. The Romans called crucifixion “slaves’ punishment” because it was intended for the lowest members of society. It became the preferred method of execution for political crimes such as desertion, spying, rebellion, and insurrection. Roman crucifixion was common in NT times and extended well into the fourth century AD.
As for the significance of Jesus’ crucifixion, the OT teaches that it is blood that makes atonement for sin (Lev. 17:11). Just as sacrificial lambs shed their blood on the altar for the sins of Israel, Jesus shed his blood on the cross for the sins of the world (John 1:29). The crucifixion of Jesus was the greatest atoning event in history. His blood, which provided the means for a new covenant, was poured out for many on the cross (Matt. 26:28). The cross, as gruesome as it was, was the means through which Christ died “for our sins” (Gal. 1:4). Jesus freely scorned the shame of the cross so that we might be reconciled to God by his shed blood (Col. 1:20; Heb. 12:2).
Jesus also bore the curse of God in our place when he died on the cross. The one who hangs on a tree is divinely cursed (Deut. 21:23). God’s curse is a curse upon sin, death, and fallenness. Jesus took God’s curse upon himself in order to redeem us from that curse (Gal. 3:13).
Jesus demonstrated the humble nature of his mission and ministry by his obedience to death, even death on the cross (Phil. 2:8). For Jesus the cross was not simply his martyrdom, as if he simply died for a worthy cause; it was the pinnacle example of obedience and love in the Bible. Jesus called his followers to take up a cross and follow his example of selfless sacrifice (Matt. 16:24). Jesus’ cross is a symbol of his love, obedience, and selflessness.
Most of all, the cross reveals the unconditional love of God, who offered his Son as the atoning sacrifice for sin (John 3:16; 1 John 4:10). The brutal cross reveals the beautiful love of Jesus, who willingly laid down his life (1 John 3:16).
The Greek term for “disciple,” mathētēs, means “student.” Like other rabbis and religious figures of the time, Jesus taught a group of such students (Matt. 9:14; 22:16; Mark 2:16; John 1:35; 4:1). The forms of address that Jesus’ disciples used for him reflect the nature of the relationship: “rabbi” (Mark 9:5), “teacher” (Mark 9:38), and “master” (Luke 5:5). In addition to receiving instruction from Jesus, his disciples took care of his physical needs (Matt. 21:1; John 4:8), ate with him (Matt. 9:10; 26:18), performed exorcisms and healings (Matt. 10:1; Luke 10:17), baptized (John 4:2), controlled access to Jesus (Matt. 19:13; John 12:21), and traveled with him (Luke 8:1; John 2:12). On one occasion Jesus visited the house of Peter and healed Peter’s mother-in-law (Matt. 8:14), which suggests that although the Gospels do not generally depict the private lives of Jesus or his disciples apart from their public ministry, the relationship among these men did not prevent the disciples from maintaining their own homes, families, and, probably, occupations.
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:6 17). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60 percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
The present abode of God and the final dwelling place of the righteous. The ancient Jews distinguished three different heavens. The first heaven was the atmospheric heavens of the clouds and where the birds fly (Gen. 1:20). The second heaven was the celestial heavens of the sun, the moon, and the stars. The third heaven was the present home of God and the angels. Paul builds on this understanding of a third heaven in 2 Cor. 12:2 4, where he describes himself as a man who “was caught up to the third heaven” or “paradise,” where he “heard inexpressible things.” This idea of multiple heavens also shows itself in how the Jews normally spoke of “heavens” in the plural (Gen. 1:1), while most other ancient cultures spoke of “heaven” in the singular.
Although God is present everywhere, God is also present in a special way in “heaven.” During Jesus’ earthly ministry, the Father is sometimes described as speaking in “a voice from heaven” (Matt. 3:17). Similarly, Jesus instructs us to address our prayers to “Our Father in heaven” (6:9). Even the specific request in the Lord’s Prayer that “your kingdom come, your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven” (6:10) reminds us that heaven is a place already under God’s full jurisdiction, where his will is presently being done completely and perfectly. Jesus also warns of the dangers of despising “one of these little ones,” because “their angels in heaven always see the face of my Father in heaven” (18:10). Jesus “came down from heaven” (John 6:51) for his earthly ministry, and after his death and resurrection, he ascended back “into heaven,” from where he “will come back in the same way you have seen him go into heaven” (Acts 1:11).
Given this strong connection between heaven and God’s presence, there is a natural connection in Scripture between heaven and the ultimate hope of believers. Believers are promised a reward in heaven (“Rejoice and be glad, because great is your reward in heaven” [Matt. 5:12]), and even now believers can “store up for [themselves] treasures in heaven” (6:20). Even in this present life, “our citizenship is in heaven” (Phil. 3:20), and our hope at death is to “depart and be with Christ, which is better by far” (1:23). Since Christ is currently in heaven, deceased believers are already present with Christ in heaven awaiting his return, when “God will bring with Jesus those who have fallen asleep in him” (1 Thess. 4:14).
In general, Torah (Law) may be subdivided into three categories: judicial, ceremonial, and moral, though each of these may influence or overlap with the others. The OT associates the “giving of the Torah” with Moses’ first divine encounter at Mount Sinai (Exod. 19 23) following the Israelites’ deliverance from the land of Egypt, though some body of customary legislation existed before this time (Exod. 18). These instructions find expansion and elucidation in other pentateuchal texts, such as Leviticus and Deut. 12–24, indicating that God’s teachings were intended as the code of conduct and worship for Israel not only during its wilderness wanderings but also when it settled in the land of Canaan following the conquest.
More specifically, the word “law” often denotes the Ten Commandments (or “the Decalogue,” lit., the “ten words”) (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4) that were delivered to Moses (Exod. 20:1–17; Deut. 5:6–21). These commandments reflect a summary statement of the covenant and may be divided into two parts, consistent with the two tablets of stone on which they were first recorded: the first four address the individual’s relationship to God, and the last six focus on instructions concerning human relationships. Despite the apparent simplistic expression of the Decalogue, the complexity of these guidelines extends beyond individual acts and attitudes, encompassing any and all incentives, enticements, and pressures leading up to a thing forbidden. Not only should the individual refrain from doing the prohibited thing, but also he or she is obligated to practice its opposite good in order to be in compliance.
An individual with the ability to read and write who uses these skills in a professional manner. The scribe was highly esteemed in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Most scribes were royal secretaries (2 Sam. 8:17; 20:25). Early scribal activities included writing official records, drafting letters, and preparing royal decrees, deeds, and other things (2 Kings 12:10; 25:19; 2 Chron. 26:11). The scribes also read to the king (Jer. 36:21). As a result, scribes often became counselors to the king in matters of state (1 Chron. 27:32). After the exile, scribes became experts in the law of Moses (Ezra 7:6). By NT times, scribes were associated with the Pharisees as professional teachers of the law (Mark 2:16). Along with the chief priests, scribes conspired to kill Jesus (Luke 19:47).
In the OT, the phrase “son of man” usually refers to humanity in general or to a specific individual. In Ezekiel, for instance, God addresses the prophet himself as “son of man,” possibly indicating his human status compared with God or, alternatively, highlighting his unique status as God’s prophet in contrast with the rest of humanity.
One of the most crucial OT “son of man” texts is Dan. 7 because of its influence on the “Son of Man” in the Gospel tradition. The first half of the chapter records Daniel’s vision (7:1 14), while the second half contains its interpretation (7:15–27). In the vision Daniel sees “one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven” (7:13). This exalted figure contrasts with the first three beasts, which are “like a lion” (7:4), “like a bear” (7:5), and “like a leopard” (7:6). The fourth beast is so gruesome that it defies comparison with any species of the animal kingdom (7:7). Many agree that the beasts likely refer to ancient world empires; however, the referent of “one like a son of man” has given rise to much debate. The figure may refer to earthly Israel, since at this figure’s vindication he is endowed with authority and glory. This is precisely what “the holy people of the Most High” receive in verse 27. In this way, the “one like a son of man” is a symbol for the persecuted, earthly saints. Alternatively, the exalted figure could be a heavenly being such as the archangel Gabriel (9:21) or Michael (10:13; 12:1). Here “one like a son of man” is the heavenly counterpart and leader of suffering Israel and fights a cosmic battle on its behalf.
In the NT the term “Son of Man” occurs mostly in the Gospels and, with the exception of John 12:34 (where the crowd quotes Jesus), is uttered exclusively by Jesus himself. Unlike in Daniel, the epithet occurs in the Gospels with the definite article, likely indicating that the Son of Man was a known figure. In first-century Judaism many Jews believed that the Son of Man would return at the end as savior and judge. The OT provides the most helpful background for understanding the Son of Man in the Gospels.
The Son of Man sayings in the Gospels fall within three categories: earthly, suffering-resurrection, and future-vindication sayings. Starting with the earthly sayings, in Mark 2:10, for example, the Son of Man has “authority on earth to forgive sins,” and in 2:28 he exercises dominion over the Sabbath. Although in Daniel the Son of Man does not receive such authority until his appearance in Yahweh’s presence at his vindication, the Son of Man in the Gospels exercises such authority during his earthly ministry. Jesus also predicts that the Son of Man will suffer, die, and be raised again. In Mark, these suffering-resurrection predictions occur three times (8:31; 9:31; 10:33–34). Echoing Dan. 7, this plight of Jesus recalls the suffering of the holy ones caused by the little horn (v. 21). If the “one like a son of man” represents the holy ones in their vindication, then it is reasonable that he does so in their suffering as well; however, the text of Daniel is silent on this point. Finally, the clearest reference to Dan. 7 occurs in the future-vindication sayings. In Mark 13:26; 14:62 the Son of Man comes with/on the clouds, which points to his vindication over the Sanhedrin, the dominant adversaries of Jesus in Mark. Matthew appears to develop even more than Mark the judicial responsibilities of the Son of Man (Matt. 13:41–43; 25:31–33). Meanwhile, in Luke the church must stay alert and be prepared for the return of the Son of Man (12:39–40; 17:22–37; 21:34–36).
Finally, the Son of Man in Revelation is in the heavenly temple functioning as both judge and caretaker of the seven churches (Rev. 1:12–20) and reaps the saints while “seated on the cloud” (14:14–16).
While in the OT suffering is regularly an indication of divine displeasure (Lev. 26:16 36; Deut. 28:20–68; Ps. 44:10–12; Isa. 1:25; cf. Heb. 10:26–31), in the NT it becomes the means by which blessing comes to humanity.
The Bible often shows that sinfulness results in suffering (Gen. 2:17; 6:5–7; Exod. 32:33; 2 Sam. 12:13–18; Rom. 1:18; 1 Cor. 11:27–30). Job’s friends mistakenly assume that he has suffered because of disobedience (Job 4:7–9; 8:3–4, 20; 11:6). Job passionately defends himself (12:4; 23:10), and in the final chapter of the book God commends Job and condemns his friends for their accusations (42:7–8; cf. 1:1, 22; 2:10). The writer makes clear that suffering is not necessarily evidence of sinfulness. Like Job’s friends, Jesus’ disciples assume that blindness is an indication of sinfulness (John 9:1–2). Jesus rejects this simplistic notion of retributive suffering (John 9:3, 6–7; cf. Luke 13:1–5).
The NT writers reveal that Jesus’ suffering was prophesied in the OT (Mark 9:12; 14:21; Luke 18:31–32; 24:46; Acts 3:18; 17:3; 26:22–23; 1 Pet. 1:11; referring to OT texts such as Ps. 22; Isa. 52:13–53:12; Zech. 13:7). The Lord Jesus is presented as the answer to human suffering: (1) Through the incarnation, God’s Son personally experienced human suffering (Phil. 2:6–8; Heb. 2:9; 5:8). (2) Through his suffering, Christ paid the price for sin (Rom. 4:25; 3:25–26), so that believers are set free from sin (Rom. 6:6, 18, 22) and helped in temptation (Heb. 2:18). (3) Christ Jesus intercedes for his suffering followers (Rom. 8:34–35). (4) Christ is the example in suffering (1 Pet. 2:21; 4:1; cf. Phil. 3:10; 2 Cor. 1:5; 4:10; 1 Pet. 4:13), and though he died once for sins (Heb. 10:12), he continues to suffer as his church suffers (Acts 9:4–5). (5) Christ provides hope of resurrection (Rom. 6:5; 1 Cor. 15:20–26; Phil. 3:10–11) and a future life without suffering or death (Rev. 21:4).
The NT writers repeatedly mention the benefits of suffering, for it has become part of God’s work of redemption. The suffering of believers accompanies the proclamation and advancement of the gospel (Acts 5:41–42; 9:15–16; 2 Cor. 4:10–11; 6:2–10; Phil. 1:12, 27–29; 1 Thess. 2:14–16; 2 Tim. 1:8; 4:5) and results in salvation (Matt. 10:22; 2 Cor. 1:6; 1 Thess. 2:16; 2 Tim. 2:10; Heb. 10:39), faith (Heb. 10:32–34, 38–39; 1 Pet. 1:7), the kingdom of God (Acts 14:22), resurrection from the dead (Phil. 3:10–11), and the crown of life (Rev. 2:10). It is an essential part of the development toward Christian maturity (Rom. 5:3–4; 2 Cor. 4:11; Heb. 12:4; James 1:3–4; 1 Pet. 1:7; 4:1).
Suffering is associated with knowing Christ (Phil. 3:10); daily inward renewal (2 Cor. 4:16); purity, understanding, patience, kindness, sincere love, truthful speech, the power of God (2 Cor. 4:4–10); comfort and endurance (2 Cor. 1:6); obedience (Heb. 5:8); blessing (1 Pet. 3:14; 4:14); glory (Rom. 8:17; 2 Cor. 4:17); and joy (Matt. 5:12; Acts 5:41; 2 Cor. 6:10; 12:10; James 1:2; 1 Pet. 1:6; 4:13). Other positive results of Christian suffering include perseverance (Rom. 5:3; James 1:3), character and hope (Rom. 5:4), strength (2 Cor. 12:10), and maturity and completeness (James 1:4). Present suffering is light and momentary when compared to future glory (Matt. 5:10–12; Acts 14:22; Rom. 8:18; 2 Cor. 4:17; Heb. 10:34–36; 1 Pet. 1:5–7; 4:12–13).
Throughout the Bible, believers are instructed to help those who suffer. The OT law provides principles for assisting the poor, the disadvantaged, and the oppressed (Exod. 20:10; 21:2; 23:11; Lev. 19:13, 34; 25:10, 35; Deut. 14:28–29; 15:1–2; 24:19–21). Jesus regularly taught his followers to help the poor (Matt. 5:42; 6:3; 19:21; 25:34–36; Luke 4:18; 12:33; 14:13, 21). It is believers’ responsibility to show mercy (Matt. 5:7; 9:13), be generous (Rom. 12:8; 2 Cor. 8:7; 1 Tim. 6:18), mourn with mourners (Rom. 12:15), carry other’s burdens (Gal. 6:1–2), and visit prisoners (Matt. 25:36, 43). See also Servant of the Lord.
What fills the space between the earth and heavens, providing a domain for flying birds (Gen. 1:6–8, 20–23; Deut. 4:17). “Birds of the air,” or “birds in the sky,” is a common biblical expression (e.g., Gen. 1:26, 28, 30; 2:19–20; Pss. 8:8; 79:2; 104:12; Matt. 6:26; 8:20; 13:32). Moses threw soot into the air, which led to the plague of boils on Egypt (Exod. 9:8–12). People threw dust into the air as an expression of mourning (Acts 22:23). Paul uses the images of boxing and speaking “into the air” to express futility (1 Cor. 9:26; 14:9). As the boundary between earth and heaven, the air is where Christ will meet his church at his coming (1 Thess. 4:17). Paul’s contemporaries also distinguished between lower, impure air (vapor) and upper, pure air (ether). Spirits haunted the vapor. Paul therefore claims that Satan is the evil spirit who rules the air below where Jesus is seated at the right hand of the Father (Eph. 1:20–23; 2:2).
Burial can refer to the ritual, body preparation, or interment.
Burial rites. Genesis in particular uses some formulaic phrases: “died and was gathered to his people” and “rest with [one’s] fathers/ancestors” (25:8; 35:29; 47:30; 49:33; cf. Job 14:10). In Abraham’s death (Gen. 25:8), this “gathering” does not refer to his actual burial, since it occurs between his death and burial; nor was Abraham ever buried with his ancestors (cf. Num. 20:26 [Aaron]; Deut. 32:50 [Moses]). This idiom refers to joining one’s ancestors in the realm of the dead. With communal notions, the phrase also refers to elements of family burial (similarly, “gathered to your people” [Num. 27:13]; “gathered to their ancestors” [Judg. 2:10]).
In Jacob’s obituary he “gathered up” his feet and then was “gathered” to his people (Gen. 49:33 KJV), rich imagery because he had “gathered” his sons (cf. 49:1). This expression is also used of depositing the human remains in a collective family burial site (Judg. 2:10; 2 Kings 22:20; cf. Jer. 25:33).
In the genealogically sensitive books of Kings and Chronicles a formula is used for the kings: “X rested with his ancestors and was buried in Y.” Here, “Y” can denote a place such as the City of David (1 Kings 2:10; 11:43; 14:31; 2 Chron. 16:13–14). Authors depart from this formula in order to describe a person’s desecration, such as Jezebel; the dogs consumed her except for her skull, hands, and feet (2 Kings 9:37; cf. 1 Kings 21:23–24).
Jacob and Joseph receive specialized Egyptian embalming. Embalming preserved a more holistic persona through use of special fluids and wrappings for seventy days (Gen. 50:2–3, 26). Death usually required immediate burial, even for criminals (Deut. 21:1–9, 22–23; 1 Kings 13:24–30). Outside Israel, the inclusion of grave utensils (e.g., juglets, cooking pots, bowls, and jewelry) with the deceased was indicative of a person’s status and needs in the afterlife. The OT prophets forbade certain practices of mourning such as self-mutilation (Lev. 21:1–6; cf. Amos 6:6–7).
In the NT, burial could include treatment with spices for odorific and purification reasons (Luke 23:56; John 19:40). Placed on a bench (mishkab, “resting place”), the body was covered in wrappings and a special facecloth (John 11:44). Familial respect required demonstration of grief with laments (Acts 8:2; cf. 1 Kings 13:29–30; Jer. 9:17–22).
Specific locations. In the OT, burial occurred in cemeteries, shaft tombs, rock-hewn tombs, or natural caves. The wealthy procured burial sites for their posterity (Gen. 23:3–20). Middle and Late Bronze Age (2200–1200 BC) examples have been excavated at Jericho, Gibeon, and Hazor. In a process known as secondary burial, older remains were moved to a repository in the rear of the cave to clear room for a new corpse (cf. Matt. 8:21–22). Only Rachel was not buried in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 35:19–20). Her “stone pillar” may be a rock cairn, in which the body is interred beneath a mound of stones. Well-known landmarks, such as trees, identified the graves of others (Gen. 35:8 [Deborah]; 1 Sam. 31:11–13 [Saul]).
Iron Age I sites (1200–1000 BC) could mark tribal territories (Judg. 8:32), like Joseph’s bones at Shechem (Josh. 24:32). Iron Age II sites (1000–586 BC) show the royal tombs of kings in their capitals or ancestral areas, be it a special garden or Samaria (2 Kings 21:18, 26; 13:13). An inscription was found along the Kidron naming the owner, Shebna (Isa. 22:15–16). Such tombs often included a charnel pit. Here, older bones were placed as more recent corpses were laid out on the bench above the pit. The poor usually were consigned to public cemeteries. The Hellenistic period (332–53 BC) saw the use of shaft tombs. With a sloping entry into a burial chamber, a shaft tomb often contained perpendicular niches (kokhim) for individual bodies. These tombs were common along the coastal plain and sites such as Dor, Gezer, and Lachish.
In the intertestamental period, elaborate structures, arcosolia, were built above or adjacent to the entry, such as Jason’s tomb in southwestern Jerusalem. The loculus was a second type with a central chamber and three sprawling kokhim. The Herodian period employed a strategic entrance guarded with a rolling stone four to five feet in diameter, like that used for Jesus. During the Roman period (37 BC–AD 367), stone sarcophagi (lit., “flesh eaters”) were used, and such have been excavated at Beth She’arim and Jerusalem. Later, bones were placed in ossuaries (boxes for bones) after the corpse had decayed in the burial niche.
Burial can refer to the ritual, body preparation, or interment.
Burial rites. Genesis in particular uses some formulaic phrases: “died and was gathered to his people” and “rest with [one’s] fathers/ancestors” (25:8; 35:29; 47:30; 49:33; cf. Job 14:10). In Abraham’s death (Gen. 25:8), this “gathering” does not refer to his actual burial, since it occurs between his death and burial; nor was Abraham ever buried with his ancestors (cf. Num. 20:26 [Aaron]; Deut. 32:50 [Moses]). This idiom refers to joining one’s ancestors in the realm of the dead. With communal notions, the phrase also refers to elements of family burial (similarly, “gathered to your people” [Num. 27:13]; “gathered to their ancestors” [Judg. 2:10]).
In Jacob’s obituary he “gathered up” his feet and then was “gathered” to his people (Gen. 49:33 KJV), rich imagery because he had “gathered” his sons (cf. 49:1). This expression is also used of depositing the human remains in a collective family burial site (Judg. 2:10; 2 Kings 22:20; cf. Jer. 25:33).
In the genealogically sensitive books of Kings and Chronicles a formula is used for the kings: “X rested with his ancestors and was buried in Y.” Here, “Y” can denote a place such as the City of David (1 Kings 2:10; 11:43; 14:31; 2 Chron. 16:13–14). Authors depart from this formula in order to describe a person’s desecration, such as Jezebel; the dogs consumed her except for her skull, hands, and feet (2 Kings 9:37; cf. 1 Kings 21:23–24).
Jacob and Joseph receive specialized Egyptian embalming. Embalming preserved a more holistic persona through use of special fluids and wrappings for seventy days (Gen. 50:2–3, 26). Death usually required immediate burial, even for criminals (Deut. 21:1–9, 22–23; 1 Kings 13:24–30). Outside Israel, the inclusion of grave utensils (e.g., juglets, cooking pots, bowls, and jewelry) with the deceased was indicative of a person’s status and needs in the afterlife. The OT prophets forbade certain practices of mourning such as self-mutilation (Lev. 21:1–6; cf. Amos 6:6–7).
In the NT, burial could include treatment with spices for odorific and purification reasons (Luke 23:56; John 19:40). Placed on a bench (mishkab, “resting place”), the body was covered in wrappings and a special facecloth (John 11:44). Familial respect required demonstration of grief with laments (Acts 8:2; cf. 1 Kings 13:29–30; Jer. 9:17–22).
Specific locations. In the OT, burial occurred in cemeteries, shaft tombs, rock-hewn tombs, or natural caves. The wealthy procured burial sites for their posterity (Gen. 23:3–20). Middle and Late Bronze Age (2200–1200 BC) examples have been excavated at Jericho, Gibeon, and Hazor. In a process known as secondary burial, older remains were moved to a repository in the rear of the cave to clear room for a new corpse (cf. Matt. 8:21–22). Only Rachel was not buried in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 35:19–20). Her “stone pillar” may be a rock cairn, in which the body is interred beneath a mound of stones. Well-known landmarks, such as trees, identified the graves of others (Gen. 35:8 [Deborah]; 1 Sam. 31:11–13 [Saul]).
Iron Age I sites (1200–1000 BC) could mark tribal territories (Judg. 8:32), like Joseph’s bones at Shechem (Josh. 24:32). Iron Age II sites (1000–586 BC) show the royal tombs of kings in their capitals or ancestral areas, be it a special garden or Samaria (2 Kings 21:18, 26; 13:13). An inscription was found along the Kidron naming the owner, Shebna (Isa. 22:15–16). Such tombs often included a charnel pit. Here, older bones were placed as more recent corpses were laid out on the bench above the pit. The poor usually were consigned to public cemeteries. The Hellenistic period (332–53 BC) saw the use of shaft tombs. With a sloping entry into a burial chamber, a shaft tomb often contained perpendicular niches (kokhim) for individual bodies. These tombs were common along the coastal plain and sites such as Dor, Gezer, and Lachish.
In the intertestamental period, elaborate structures, arcosolia, were built above or adjacent to the entry, such as Jason’s tomb in southwestern Jerusalem. The loculus was a second type with a central chamber and three sprawling kokhim. The Herodian period employed a strategic entrance guarded with a rolling stone four to five feet in diameter, like that used for Jesus. During the Roman period (37 BC–AD 367), stone sarcophagi (lit., “flesh eaters”) were used, and such have been excavated at Beth She’arim and Jerusalem. Later, bones were placed in ossuaries (boxes for bones) after the corpse had decayed in the burial niche.
A carnivorous mammal with pointed ears and muzzle and a bushy tail (Neh. 4:3; Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58), often viewed as an expendable pest (Judg. 15:4–5; Song 2:15). The fox came to represent a politically cunning person, as in the case of Herod Antipas (Luke 13:32).
The image of a bird’s nest implies God-given security (Deut. 32:11; Ps. 104:17; Ezek. 31:6), yet no “nest” made by human hands protects from God’s judgment (Jer. 49:16; Obad. 4; Hab. 2:9). Exiles exchange “nesting” places with the wilderness birds (Isa. 34:11; Jer. 48:28), but Jesus had no “nest” at all (Matt. 8:20).
Burial can refer to the ritual, body preparation, or interment.
Burial rites. Genesis in particular uses some formulaic phrases: “died and was gathered to his people” and “rest with [one’s] fathers/ancestors” (25:8; 35:29; 47:30; 49:33; cf. Job 14:10). In Abraham’s death (Gen. 25:8), this “gathering” does not refer to his actual burial, since it occurs between his death and burial; nor was Abraham ever buried with his ancestors (cf. Num. 20:26 [Aaron]; Deut. 32:50 [Moses]). This idiom refers to joining one’s ancestors in the realm of the dead. With communal notions, the phrase also refers to elements of family burial (similarly, “gathered to your people” [Num. 27:13]; “gathered to their ancestors” [Judg. 2:10]).
In Jacob’s obituary he “gathered up” his feet and then was “gathered” to his people (Gen. 49:33 KJV), rich imagery because he had “gathered” his sons (cf. 49:1). This expression is also used of depositing the human remains in a collective family burial site (Judg. 2:10; 2 Kings 22:20; cf. Jer. 25:33).
In the genealogically sensitive books of Kings and Chronicles a formula is used for the kings: “X rested with his ancestors and was buried in Y.” Here, “Y” can denote a place such as the City of David (1 Kings 2:10; 11:43; 14:31; 2 Chron. 16:13–14). Authors depart from this formula in order to describe a person’s desecration, such as Jezebel; the dogs consumed her except for her skull, hands, and feet (2 Kings 9:37; cf. 1 Kings 21:23–24).
Jacob and Joseph receive specialized Egyptian embalming. Embalming preserved a more holistic persona through use of special fluids and wrappings for seventy days (Gen. 50:2–3, 26). Death usually required immediate burial, even for criminals (Deut. 21:1–9, 22–23; 1 Kings 13:24–30). Outside Israel, the inclusion of grave utensils (e.g., juglets, cooking pots, bowls, and jewelry) with the deceased was indicative of a person’s status and needs in the afterlife. The OT prophets forbade certain practices of mourning such as self-mutilation (Lev. 21:1–6; cf. Amos 6:6–7).
In the NT, burial could include treatment with spices for odorific and purification reasons (Luke 23:56; John 19:40). Placed on a bench (mishkab, “resting place”), the body was covered in wrappings and a special facecloth (John 11:44). Familial respect required demonstration of grief with laments (Acts 8:2; cf. 1 Kings 13:29–30; Jer. 9:17–22).
Specific locations. In the OT, burial occurred in cemeteries, shaft tombs, rock-hewn tombs, or natural caves. The wealthy procured burial sites for their posterity (Gen. 23:3–20). Middle and Late Bronze Age (2200–1200 BC) examples have been excavated at Jericho, Gibeon, and Hazor. In a process known as secondary burial, older remains were moved to a repository in the rear of the cave to clear room for a new corpse (cf. Matt. 8:21–22). Only Rachel was not buried in the cave of Machpelah (Gen. 35:19–20). Her “stone pillar” may be a rock cairn, in which the body is interred beneath a mound of stones. Well-known landmarks, such as trees, identified the graves of others (Gen. 35:8 [Deborah]; 1 Sam. 31:11–13 [Saul]).
Iron Age I sites (1200–1000 BC) could mark tribal territories (Judg. 8:32), like Joseph’s bones at Shechem (Josh. 24:32). Iron Age II sites (1000–586 BC) show the royal tombs of kings in their capitals or ancestral areas, be it a special garden or Samaria (2 Kings 21:18, 26; 13:13). An inscription was found along the Kidron naming the owner, Shebna (Isa. 22:15–16). Such tombs often included a charnel pit. Here, older bones were placed as more recent corpses were laid out on the bench above the pit. The poor usually were consigned to public cemeteries. The Hellenistic period (332–53 BC) saw the use of shaft tombs. With a sloping entry into a burial chamber, a shaft tomb often contained perpendicular niches (kokhim) for individual bodies. These tombs were common along the coastal plain and sites such as Dor, Gezer, and Lachish.
In the intertestamental period, elaborate structures, arcosolia, were built above or adjacent to the entry, such as Jason’s tomb in southwestern Jerusalem. The loculus was a second type with a central chamber and three sprawling kokhim. The Herodian period employed a strategic entrance guarded with a rolling stone four to five feet in diameter, like that used for Jesus. During the Roman period (37 BC–AD 367), stone sarcophagi (lit., “flesh eaters”) were used, and such have been excavated at Beth She’arim and Jerusalem. Later, bones were placed in ossuaries (boxes for bones) after the corpse had decayed in the burial niche.
The term “homeless,” as used generally in Scripture, refers to the poor and destitute. Through the prophet Isaiah, God berates the nation of Israel for “practicing religion” without caring for the poor, including bringing “the homeless poor into your house” (Isa. 58:7 NRSV). Jesus conveys a picture of the final judgment, in which all human beings are judged based on their response to the poor and homeless: food for the hungry, water for the thirsty, clothes for the naked, relationship for the sick and imprisoned (Matt. 25:35–46). This is not an example of a works-based faith; rather, it is the manifestation of God’s love in the life of a true believer (1 John 3:17–18). Homelessness is often the result of complex situations ranging from the systemic to the personal. Regardless of the cause, Christians are compelled to aid the homeless by the commandment to love both God and your neighbor (Matt. 22:37–39).
Some argue that Jesus Christ himself was homeless, based upon Jesus’ saying, “Foxes have dens and birds have nests, but the Son of Man has no place to lay his head” (Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58). Although “homeless” may have correctly characterized Jesus during his three years of public ministry in various cities about the land, the common aspects of poverty (severe material need, hopelessness) are not seen in the person of Jesus in the Gospel accounts. Paul, however, laments that he and the other apostles are homeless despite other believers’ blessed material state (1 Cor. 4:11). See also Fatherless; Poor, Orphan, Widow.
The term “homeless,” as used generally in Scripture, refers to the poor and destitute. Through the prophet Isaiah, God berates the nation of Israel for “practicing religion” without caring for the poor, including bringing “the homeless poor into your house” (Isa. 58:7 NRSV). Jesus conveys a picture of the final judgment, in which all human beings are judged based on their response to the poor and homeless: food for the hungry, water for the thirsty, clothes for the naked, relationship for the sick and imprisoned (Matt. 25:35–46). This is not an example of a works-based faith; rather, it is the manifestation of God’s love in the life of a true believer (1 John 3:17–18). Homelessness is often the result of complex situations ranging from the systemic to the personal. Regardless of the cause, Christians are compelled to aid the homeless by the commandment to love both God and your neighbor (Matt. 22:37–39).
Some argue that Jesus Christ himself was homeless, based upon Jesus’ saying, “Foxes have dens and birds have nests, but the Son of Man has no place to lay his head” (Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58). Although “homeless” may have correctly characterized Jesus during his three years of public ministry in various cities about the land, the common aspects of poverty (severe material need, hopelessness) are not seen in the person of Jesus in the Gospel accounts. Paul, however, laments that he and the other apostles are homeless despite other believers’ blessed material state (1 Cor. 4:11). See also Fatherless; Poor, Orphan, Widow.
A journey to a religious site. In biblical times, Jerusalem was a prominent destination of pilgrimage, as implied in the law of cultic centralization in Deut. 12:13–14. Several of the prophets envision a future age in which the nations travel to Jerusalem for instruction (e.g., Isa. 2; Mic. 4).
Jesus made several pilgrimages to Jerusalem in connection with major Jewish feasts. His parents took him to Jerusalem for the Passover, as was their custom (Luke 2:41–42). As an adult, Jesus continued to make this journey. The three journeys of Jesus to Jerusalem recorded in the Gospel of John are the chief evidence for the tradition that his ministry lasted three years (John 2:13; 5:1; 12:1). Jesus also traveled to Jerusalem for the Feast of Booths (John 7:10) and the Feast of Dedication (John 10:22).
Paul’s final journey to Jerusalem, which eventuated in his arrest, was for the purpose of attending the Jewish Feast of Pentecost there (Acts 20:16). This festival was also responsible for the presence of many foreigners in Jerusalem in the days of the early church (Acts 2:1).
In a broader sense, and especially in some older English translations, pilgrimage can refer to a period of residence outside one’s proper homeland (sojourning). This usage recalls the prominent biblical theme of sojourning, which pertains to the patriarchs (Gen. 47:9), Moses (Acts 7:29), the Israelites (Deut. 10:19), as well as several other biblical figures. In the NT, this aspect of the Israelite experience (see Heb. 11:13) is applied to Jesus (Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58) and, in a figurative sense, to Christian communities (Phil. 3:20; 1 Pet. 2:11).
Jacob laid his head upon a stone while he slept (Gen. 28:11). The use of a hard object as a pillow recalls carved wooden pillows known from Egypt. Michal used an article made of goat hair to disguise an idol as a sleeping person (1 Sam. 19:13). Although in 1 Sam. 19:13 some versions translate the Hebrew word kebir as “pillow,” it probably refers to a net over the head of a sleeping person. Some older English translations use “pillow” to render a Hebrew word (mera’ashah) that probably refers simply to the place where the head is laid (1 Sam. 26:7; 1 Kings 19:6). Other obscure passages perhaps refer to pillows (Prov. 7:16; Amos 3:12).
Jesus slept on a pillow or cushion in a boat (Mark 4:38). Elsewhere, the Gospels state that he did not have a “place to lay his head” (Matt. 8:20; Luke 9:58). See also Bed.
A “type” (from Gk. typos) can be defined as a biblical event, person, or institution that serves as an example or pattern for events, persons, or institutions in the later OT or in the NT. Typology is based on the assumption that there is a pattern in God’s work in the OT and in the NT that forms a promise-fulfillment relationship. In the OT there are shadows of things that will be more fully revealed in the NT. Thus, the OT flows into the NT as part of a continuous story of salvation history. What is promised in the OT is fulfilled in the NT. This can be accomplished through prophetic word or through prophetic action/event. The use of prophetic action/event to predict or foreshadow future actions/events involves typology. Typology is part of the promise-fulfillment scheme that connects the two Testaments.
A number of biblical interpreters note that three primary characteristics of types can be identified. First, there must be some notable point of resemblance or analogy between the type and its antitype. Second, there must be evidence that the type was appointed by God to represent the thing typified. Here one must avoid the two extremes of, on the one hand, saying that a type is a type only when the Scripture explicitly calls it such, and, on the other hand, of finding a type “behind every tree.” Third, a type should prefigure something in the future. Thus, antitypes in the NT must present truth more fully realized than in the OT.
Typological interpretation of the OT is different from allegorizing a text. The former restricts itself to the meaning intended by the original author, whereas the latter reads things into the OT passage (usually in connection with messianic prophecy) not initially intended. On the other hand, it should be noted that the OT authors may not always have fully comprehended the long-range fulfillment of their prophecies. Thus, for example, Ps. 22 reveals King David’s trials and tribulations that are later viewed by NT authors as applicable to the crucifixion of Christ (e.g., the quotation of Ps. 22:18 in John 19:24 regarding the soldiers casting lots for Jesus’ clothes). David probably did not envision his situation as predictive of the sufferings of the coming Christ. But the Holy Spirit did, and he allowed the Gospel authors to make the connection. Thus, typology is a special form of biblical prophecy, which Jesus seemed to use extensively. Hence, the type is found in the OT, and its antitype occurs in the NT.
More particularly, Jesus seemed to perceive himself as the antitype to all three of the aforementioned possible types. First, Jesus fulfilled in himself persons in the OT who were types. Thus, Jesus is the ultimate David, Solomon, Elijah, Elisha, Jonah, the heavenly Son of Man of Dan. 7, and the Suffering Servant of Isa. 52:13–53:12. Second, with regard to famous OT events, Jesus reenacted the new exodus and passed the test in the new wilderness wanderings (Matt. 4:1–11 pars.), and then he proclaimed a new law from the mountain, as did Moses (Matt. 5–7). Third, Jesus revised or replaced OT institutions such as the sacrificial system and the feasts of Yahweh (most notably Passover) at his death, and at his resurrection he became the new temple of God.
The NT continues Jesus’ typological interpretation of the OT, seeing in him the supreme antitype of OT symbolism. Thus, for example, Paul sees Christ as the second Adam (Rom. 5:12–21), whose church is the new Israel, the eschatological people of God (1 Cor. 10:1–13). Matthew perceives Jesus to be the new Moses (Matt. 1–10). Note the following comparisons:
Moses, the Old Testament Type vs. Jesus, Matthew’s Antitype to Moses:
Moses was born to deliver his people. Jesus was born to save his people.
Pharoah tried to kill the infant Moses. Herod tried to kill the infant Jesus.
Moses was “baptized” in the exodus. Jesus was baptized in the new “exodus.”
Moses was tempted in the wilderness. Jesus was tempted in the wildnerness.
Moses performed ten plagues. Jesus performed ten miracles.
Moses received the law on the mount. Jesus gave a new law on the mount.
Luke understands Jesus to be the new David (Luke 1:32). Hebrews asserts that Jesus has inaugurated the new covenant (chap. 8), the true priesthood (chaps. 7–8; 10), whose death is the fulfillment and replacement of the sacrificial system of the OT (chaps. 9–10). But perhaps the most extensive usage of typology in the NT occurs in Rev. 21–22 (cf. Rev. 19), where the new creation is the antitype of the old creation of Gen. 1–3 (see table 10).
Table 10. New Creation Typology in Revelation 21–22
Sinful people are scattered (Gen. 1-3). God’s people unite to sing his praises (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:6-7).
The “marriage” of Adam and Eve takes place in the garden (Gen. 1-3). The marriage of the second Adam and his bride, the church has come (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7, 21:2, 9).
God is abandoned by sinful people (Gen. 1-3). God’s people (new Jerusalem, bride of Christ) are made ready for God; marriage of the Lamb. (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:7-8, 21:2, 9-21).
Exclusion from bounty of Eden (Gen. 1-3). Invitation to marriage supper of Lamb (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:9).
Satan introduces sin into world (Gen. 1-3). Satan and sin are judged (Rev. 21-22; cf. 19:11-21, 20:7-10).
The serpent deceives humankind (Gen. 1-3). The ancient serpent is bound “to keep him from deceiving the nations (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:2-3).
God gives humans dominion over the earth (Gen. 1-3). God’s people will reign with him forever (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4, 6, 22:5).
People rebel against the true God, resulting in physical and spiritual death (Gen. 1-3). God’s people risk death to worship the true God and thus experience life (Rev. 21-22; cf. 20:4-6).
Sinful people are sent away from life (Gen. 1-3). God’s people have their names written in the book of life (Rev. 20:4-6, 15; 21:6, 27).
Death enters the world (Gen. 1-3). Death is put to death (Rev. 20:14; 21:4).
God creates the first heaven and earth, eventually cursed by sin (Gen. 1-3). God creates a new heaven and earth, where sin is nowhere to be found (Rev. 21:1)/
Water symbolizes chaos (Gen. 1-3). There is no longer any sea (Rev. 21:1).
Sin brings pain and tears (Gen. 1-3). God comforts his people and removes crying and pain (Rev. 21:4).
Sinful humanity is cursed with wandering (exile) (Gen. 1-3). God’s people are given a permanent home (Rev. 21:3).
Community is forfeited (Gen. 1-3). Genuine community is experienced (Rev. 21-22; cf. 21:3, 7).
Sinful people are banished from the presence of God (Gen. 1-3). God lives among his people (Rev. 21:3, 7, 22; 22:4).
Creation begins to grow old and die (Gen. 1-3). All things are made new (Rev. 21:5).
Water is used to destroy wicked humanity (Gen. 1-3). God quenches thirst with water from the spring of life (Rev. 21:6; 22:1).
“In the beginning, God…” (Gen. 1-3). “I am the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end.” (Rev. 21:6).
Sinful humanity suffers a wandering exile in the land (Gen. 1-3). God gives his children an inheritance (Rev. 21:7).
Sin enters the world (Gen. 1-3). Sin is banished from God’s city (Rev. 21:8, 27; 22:15).
Sinful humanity is separated from the presence of the holy God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people experience God’s holiness (cubed city = holy of holies) (Rev. 21:15-21).
God creates light and separates it from darkness (Gen. 1-3). No more night or natural light; God himself is the source of light (Rev. 21:23; 22:5)
Languages of sinful humanity are confused (Gen. 1-3). God’s people is a multicultural people (Rev. 21:24, 26; 22:2).
Sinful people are sent away from the garden (Gen. 1-3). The new heaven/earth includes a garden (Rev. 22:2).
Sinful people are forbidden to eat from the tree of life (Gen. 1-3). God’s people may eat freely from the tree of life (Rev. 22:2, 14).
Sin results in spiritual sickness (Gen. 1-3). God heals the nations (Rev. 22:2).
Sinful people are cursed (Gen. 1-3). The curse is removed from redeemed humanity, and people become a blessing (Rev. 22:3).
Sinful people refuse to serve/obey God (Gen. 1-3). God’s people serve him (Rev. 22:3).
Sinful people are ashamed in God’s presence (Gen. 1-3). God’s people will “see his face” (Rev. 22:4).
