The founder of what became known as the movement of Jesus
followers or Christianity. For Christian believers, Jesus Christ
embodies the personal and supernatural intervention of God in human
history.
Introduction
Name.
Early Christians combined the name “Jesus” with the title
“Christ” (Acts 5:42; NIV: “Messiah”). The
name “Jesus,” from the Hebrew Yehoshua or Yeshua, was a
common male name in first-century Judaism. The title “Christ”
is from the Greek christos, a translation of the Hebrew mashiakh
(“anointed one, messiah”). Christians eventually were
named after Jesus’ title (Acts 11:26). During the ministry of
Jesus, Peter was the first disciple to recognize Jesus as the Messiah
(Matt. 16:16; Mark 9:29; Luke 9:20).
Sources.
From the viewpoint of Christianity, the life and ministry of Jesus
constitute the turning point in human history. From a historical
perspective, ample early source materials would be expected. Indeed,
both Christian and non-Christian first-century and early
second-century literary sources are extant, but they are few in
number. In part, this low incidence is due to society’s initial
resistance to the Jesus followers’ movement. The ancient Roman
historian Tacitus called Christianity “a superstition,”
since its beliefs did not fit with the culture’s prevailing
worldview and thus were considered antisocial. Early literary sources
therefore are either in-group documents or allusions in non-Christian
sources.
The
NT Gospels are the principal sources for the life and ministry of
Jesus. They consist of Matthew, Mark, Luke (the Synoptic Gospels),
and John. Most scholars adhere to the so-called Four Source
Hypothesis. In this theory, Mark was written first and was used as a
source by Matthew and Luke, who also used the sayings source Q (from
German Quelle, meaning “source”) as well as their own
individual sources M (Matthew) and L (Luke). John used additional
sources.
The
early church tried to put together singular accounts, so-called
Gospel harmonies, of the life of Jesus. The Gospel of the Ebionites
represents one such attempt based on the Synoptic Gospels. Another
harmony, the Diatessaron, based on all four Gospels, was produced
around AD 170 by Tatian. Additional source materials concerning the
life of Christ are provided in the NT in texts such as Acts, the
Pauline Epistles, the General Epistles, and the Revelation of John.
Paul wrote to the Galatians, “But when the time had fully come,
God sent his Son, born of a woman, born under law” (Gal. 4:4).
The first narrative about Jesus by the Christian community was a
passion narrative, the account of his death and resurrection. The
first extant references to this tradition are found in Paul’s
letters (1 Cor. 2:2; Gal. 3:1). The resurrection was recognized
from the beginning as the cornerstone of the Christian faith (1 Cor.
15:13–14).
Among
non-Christian sources, the earliest reference to Jesus is found in a
letter written circa AD 112 by Pliny the Younger, the Roman governor
of Bithynia-Pontus (Ep. 10.96). The Roman historian Tacitus mentions
Christians and Jesus around AD 115 in his famous work about the
history of Rome (Ann. 15.44). Another Roman historian, Suetonius,
wrote around the same time concerning unrest among the Jews in Rome
because of a certain “Chrestos” (Claud. 25.4). Some
scholars conclude that “Chrestos” is a misspelling of
“Christos,” a reference to Jesus.
The
Jewish author Josephus (first century AD) mentions Jesus in a story
about the Jewish high priest Ananus and James the brother of Jesus
(Ant. 20.200). A controversial reference to Jesus appears in a
different part of the same work, where Josephus affirms that Jesus is
the Messiah and that he rose from the dead (Ant. 18.63–64). The
majority of scholars consider this passage to be authentic but
heavily edited by later Christian copyists. Another Jewish source,
the Talmud, also mentions Jesus in several places, but these
references are very late and of little historical value.
Noncanonical
Gospels that mention Jesus include, for example, the Infancy Gospel
of Thomas, the Gospel of Thomas, the Gospel of Peter, the Gospel of
James, the Gospel of Judas Iscariot, the Gospel of the Hebrews, the
Egerton Gospel, and the Gospel of Judas. Although some of these may
contain an occasional authentic saying or event, for the most part
they are late and unreliable.
Jesus’
Life
Birth
and childhood. The
Gospels of Matthew and Luke record Jesus’ birth in Bethlehem
during the reign of Herod the Great (Matt. 2:1; Luke 2:4, 11). Jesus
was probably born between 6 and 4 BC, shortly before Herod’s
death (Matt. 2:19). Both Matthew and Luke record the miracle of a
virginal conception made possible by the Holy Spirit (Matt. 1:18;
Luke 1:35). Luke mentions a census under the Syrian governor
Quirinius that was responsible for Jesus’ birth taking place in
Bethlehem (2:1–5). Both the census and the governorship at the
time of the birth of Jesus have been questioned by scholars.
Unfortunately, there is not enough extrabiblical evidence to either
confirm or disprove these events, so their veracity must be
determined on the basis of one’s view regarding the general
reliability of the Gospel tradition.
On
the eighth day after his birth, Jesus was circumcised, in keeping
with the Jewish law, at which time he officially was named “Jesus”
(Luke 2:21). He spent his growing years in Nazareth, in the home of
his parents, Joseph and Mary (2:40). Of the NT Gospels, the Gospel of
Luke contains the only brief portrayal of Jesus’ growth in
strength, wisdom, and favor with God and people (2:40, 52). Luke also
contains the only account of Jesus as a young boy (2:41–49).
Jesus
was born in a lower socioeconomic setting. His parents offered a
temple sacrifice appropriate for those who could not afford to
sacrifice a sheep (Luke 2:22–24; cf. Lev. 12:8). Joseph, Jesus’
earthly father, was a carpenter or an artisan in wood, stone, or
metal (Matt. 13:55). From a geographical perspective, Nazareth was
not a prominent place for settling, since it lacked fertile ground.
Jesus’ disciple Nathanael expressed an apparently common
first-century sentiment concerning Nazareth: “Nazareth! Can
anything good come from there?” (John 1:46).
Jesus
was also born in a context of scandal. Questions of illegitimacy were
surely raised, since his mother Mary was discovered to be pregnant
before her marriage to Joseph. According to Matthew, only the
intervention of an angel convinced Joseph not to break his betrothal
(Matt. 1:18–24). Jesus’ birth took place in Bethlehem,
far from his parents’ home in Nazareth. According to kinship
hospitality customs, Joseph and Mary would have expected to stay with
distant relatives in Bethlehem. It is likely that they were unwelcome
because of Jesus’ status as an illegitimate child; thus Mary
had to give birth elsewhere and place the infant Jesus in a feeding
trough (Luke 2:7). A similar response was seen years later in
Nazareth when Jesus was identified as “Mary’s son”
(Mark 6:3) rather than through his paternal line, thereby shaming him
as one who was born an illegitimate child. Jesus was likewise
rejected at the end of his life as the crowds cried, “Crucify
him!” (Matt. 27:22–23; Mark 15:13–14; Luke 23:21;
John 19:6, 15). When Jesus was arrested, most of his followers fled
(Matt. 26:56; Mark 14:50–52), and a core disciple, Peter,
vehemently denied knowing him (Matt. 26:69–74; Mark 14:66–71;
Luke 22:55–60; John 18:15–17, 25–27). His own
siblings did not believe in him (John 7:5) and were evidently ashamed
of his fate, since from the cross Jesus placed the care of his mother
into the hands of “the disciple whom he loved” (19:26–27)
rather than the next brother in line, as was customary.
Baptism,
temptation, and start of ministry.
After Jesus was baptized by the prophet John the Baptist (Luke
3:21–22), God affirmed his pleasure with him by referring to
him as his Son, whom he loved (Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22).
Jesus’ baptism did not launch him into fame and instant
ministry success; instead, Jesus was led by the Spirit into the
wilderness, where he was tempted for forty days (Matt. 4:1–11;
Mark 1:12–13; Luke 4:1–13). Mark stresses that the
temptations immediately followed the baptism. Matthew and Luke
identify three specific temptations by the devil, though their order
for the last two is reversed. Both Matthew and Luke agree that Jesus
was tempted to turn stones into bread, expect divine intervention
after jumping off the temple portico, and receive all the world’s
kingdoms for worshiping the devil. Jesus resisted all temptation,
quoting Scripture in response.
Matthew
and Mark record that Jesus began his ministry in Capernaum in
Galilee, after the arrest of John the Baptist (Matt. 4:12–13;
Mark 1:14). Luke says that Jesus started his ministry at about thirty
years of age (3:23). This may be meant to indicate full maturity or
perhaps correlate this age with the onset of the service of the
Levites in the temple (cf. Num. 4:3). John narrates the beginning of
Jesus’ ministry by focusing on the calling of the disciples and
the sign performed at a wedding at Cana (1:35–2:11).
Jesus’
public ministry: chronology.
Jesus’ ministry started in Galilee, probably around AD 27/28,
and ended with his death around AD 30 in Jerusalem. The temple had
been forty-six years in construction (generally interpreted as the
temple itself and the wider temple complex) when Jesus drove out the
money changers (John 2:20). According to Josephus, the rebuilding and
expansion of the second temple had started in 20/19 BC, during the
eighteenth year of Herod’s reign (Ant. 15.380). The ministry of
John the Baptist had commenced in the fifteenth year of Tiberius
(Luke 3:1–2), who had become a coregent in AD 11/12. From these
dates of the start of the temple building and the correlation of the
reign of Tiberius to John the Baptist’s ministry, the onset of
Jesus’ ministry can probably be dated to AD 27/28.
The
Gospel of John mentions three Passovers and another unnamed feast in
John 5:1. The length of Jesus’ ministry thus extended over
three or four Passovers, equaling about three or three and a half
years. Passover, which took place on the fifteenth of Nisan, came on
a Friday in AD 30 and 33. The year of Jesus’ death was
therefore probably AD 30.
Jesus’
ministry years may be divided broadly into his Galilean and his
Judean ministries. The Synoptic Gospels describe the ministry in
Galilee from various angles but converge again as Jesus enters Judea.
Galilean
ministry.
The early stages of Jesus’ ministry centered in and around
Galilee. Jesus presented the good news and proclaimed that the
kingdom of God was near. Matthew focuses on the fulfillment of
prophecy (Matt. 4:13–17). Luke records Jesus’ first
teaching in his hometown, Nazareth, as paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–30);
the text that Jesus quoted, Isa. 61:1–2, set the stage for his
calling to serve and revealed a trajectory of rejection and
suffering.
All
Gospels record Jesus’ gathering of disciples early in his
Galilean ministry (Matt. 4:18–22; Mark 1:16–20; Luke
5:1–11; John 1:35–51). The formal call and commissioning
of the Twelve who would become Jesus’ closest followers is
recorded in different parts of the Gospels (Matt. 10:1–4; Mark
3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16). A key event in the early ministry
is the Sermon on the Mount/Plain (Matt. 5:1–7:29; Luke
6:20–49). John focuses on Jesus’ signs and miracles, in
particular in the early parts of his ministry, whereas the Synoptics
focus on healings and exorcisms.
During
Jesus’ Galilean ministry, onlookers struggled with his
identity. However, evil spirits knew him to be of supreme authority
(Mark 3:11). Jesus was criticized by outsiders and by his own family
(3:21). The scribes from Jerusalem identified him as a partner of
Beelzebul (3:22). Amid these situations of social conflict, Jesus
told parables that couched his ministry in the context of a growing
kingdom of God. This kingdom would miraculously spring from humble
beginnings (4:1–32).
The
Synoptics present Jesus’ early Galilean ministry as successful.
No challenge or ministry need superseded Jesus’ authority or
ability: he calmed a storm (Mark 4:35–39), exorcized many
demons (Mark 5:1–13), raised the dead (Mark 5:35–42), fed
five thousand (Mark 6:30–44), and walked on water (Mark
6:48–49).
In
the later part of his ministry in Galilee, Jesus often withdrew and
traveled to the north and the east. The Gospel narratives are not
written with a focus on chronology. However, only brief returns to
Galilee appear to have taken place prior to Jesus’ journey to
Jerusalem. As people followed Jesus, faith was praised and fear
resolved. Jerusalem’s religious leaders traveled to Galilee,
where they leveled accusations and charged Jesus’ disciples
with lacking ritual purity (Mark 7:1–5). Jesus shamed the
Pharisees by pointing out their dishonorable treatment of parents
(7:11–13). The Pharisees challenged his legitimacy by demanding
a sign (8:11). Jesus refused them signs but agreed with Peter, who
confessed, “You are the Messiah” (8:29). Jesus did
provide the disciples a sign: his transfiguration (9:2–8).
Jesus
withdrew from Galilee to Tyre and Sidon, where a Syrophoenician woman
requested healing for her daughter. Jesus replied, “I was sent
only to the lost sheep of Israel” (Matt. 15:24). Galileans had
long resented the Syrian provincial leadership partiality that
allotted governmental funds in ways that made the Jews receive mere
“crumbs.” Consequently, when the woman replied, “Even
the dogs eat the crumbs that fall from their master’s table,”
Jesus applauded her faith (Matt. 15:27–28). Healing a deaf-mute
man in the Decapolis provided another example of Jesus’
ministry in Gentile territory (Mark 7:31–37). Peter’s
confession of Jesus as the Christ took place during Jesus’
travel to Caesarea Philippi, a well-known Gentile territory. The city
was the ancient center of worship of the Hellenistic god Pan.
Judean
ministry.
Luke records a geographic turning point in Jesus’ ministry as
he resolutely set out for Jerusalem, a direction that eventually led
to his death (Luke 9:51). Luke divides the journey to Jerusalem into
three phases (9:51–13:21; 13:22–17:10; 17:11–19:27).
The opening verses of phase one emphasize a prophetic element of the
journey. Jesus viewed his ministry in Jerusalem as his mission, and
the demands on discipleship intensified as Jesus approached Jerusalem
(Matt. 20:17–19, 26–28; Mark 10:38–39, 43–45;
Luke 14:25–35). Luke presents the second phase of the journey
toward Jerusalem with a focus on conversations regarding salvation
and judgment (Luke 13:22–30). In the third and final phase of
the journey, the advent of the kingdom and the final judgment are the
main themes (17:20–37; 19:11–27).
Social
conflicts with religious leaders increased throughout Jesus’
ministry. These conflicts led to lively challenge-riposte
interactions concerning the Pharisaic schools of Shammai and Hillel
(Matt. 19:1–12; Mark 10:1–12). Likewise, socioeconomic
feathers were ruffled as Jesus welcomed young children, who had
little value in society (Matt. 19:13–15; Mark 10:13–16;
Luke 18:15–17).
Passion
Week, death, and resurrection. Each
of the Gospels records Jesus’ entry into Jerusalem with the
crowds extending him a royal welcome (Matt. 21:4–9; Mark
11:7–10; Luke 19:35–38; John 12:12–15). Luke
describes Jesus’ ministry in Jerusalem as a time during which
Jesus taught in the temple as Israel’s Messiah (19:45–21:38).
In
Jerusalem, Jesus cleansed the temple of profiteering (Mark 11:15–17).
Mark describes the religious leaders as fearing Jesus because the
whole crowd was amazed at his teaching, and so they “began
looking for a way to kill him” (11:18). Dismayed, each segment
of Jerusalem’s temple leadership inquired about Jesus’
authority (11:27–33). Jesus replied with cunning questions
(12:16, 35–36), stories (12:1–12), denunciation
(12:38–44), and a prediction of Jerusalem’s own
destruction (13:1–31). One of Jesus’ own disciples, Judas
Iscariot, provided the temple leaders the opportunity for Jesus’
arrest (14:10–11).
At
the Last Supper, Jesus instituted a new Passover, defining a new
covenant grounded in his sufferings (Matt. 26:17–18, 26–29;
Mark 14:16–25; Luke 22:14–20). He again warned the
disciples of his betrayal and arrest (Matt. 26:21–25, 31; Mark
14:27–31; Luke 22:21–23; John 13:21–30), and later
he prayed for the disciples (John 17:1–26) and prayed in agony
and submissiveness in the garden of Gethsemane (Matt. 26:36–42;
Mark 14:32–42; Luke 22:39–42). His arrest, trial,
crucifixion, death, and resurrection followed (Matt. 26:46–28:15;
Mark 14:43–16:8; Luke 22:47–24:9; John 18:1–20:18).
Jesus finally commissioned his disciples to continue his mission by
making disciples of all the nations (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 1:8)
and ascended to heaven with the promise that he will one day return
(Luke 24:50–53; Acts 1:9–11).
The
Identity of Jesus Christ
Various
aspects of Jesus’ identity are stressed in the four NT Gospels,
depending on their target audiences. In the Gospels the witnesses to
Jesus’ ministry are portrayed as constantly questioning and
examining his identity (Matt. 11:2–5; 12:24; 26:63; 27:11; Mark
3:22; 8:11; 11:28; 14:61; Luke 7:18–20; 11:15; 22:67, 70;
23:39; John 7:20, 25–27; 18:37). Only beings of the spiritual
realm are certain of his divinity (Mark 1:34; 3:11; Luke 4:41). At
Jesus’ baptism, God referred to him as his Son, whom he loved
(Matt. 3:17; Mark 1:11; Luke 3:22). Likewise, when Jesus was
transfigured in the presence of Peter, James, and John, a voice
affirmed, “This is my Son, whom I love” (Matt. 17:5; Mark
9:7). At the moment of his death, the questioning of Jesus’
identity culminated in a confession by a Roman centurion and other
guards: “Surely he was the Son of God!” (Matt. 27:54; cf.
Mark 15:39).
Miracle
worker.
In the first-century setting, folk healers and miracle workers were
part of the fabric of society. Jesus, however, performed signs and
miracles in order to demonstrate the authority of the kingdom of God
over various realms: disease, illness, the spiritual world, nature,
and even future events. Especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus’
signs and miracles are used to show his authority and thus his
identity.
No
challenge superseded Jesus’ authority. Among his ample miracles
and signs, he changed water into wine (John 2:7–9), calmed a
storm in the sea (Matt. 8:23–27; Mark 4:35–39; Luke
8:22–25), exorcized demons (Matt. 9:32–34; Mark 5:1–13;
Luke 9:42–43), healed the sick (Mark 1:40–44), raised the
dead (Matt. 9:23–25; Mark 5:35–42; Luke 7:1–16;
8:49–54; John 11:17, 38–44), performed miraculous
feedings (Matt. 14:17–21; 15:34–38; Mark 6:30–44;
8:5–9; Luke 9:10–17; John 6:8–13), and walked on
water (Matt. 14:25–26; Mark 6:48–49; John 6:19).
The
Pharisees requested miracles as evidence of his authority (Mark
8:11–12). Jesus refused, claiming that a wicked and adulterous
generation asks for a miraculous sign (Matt. 12:38–39; 16:1–4).
The only sign that he would give was the sign of Jonah—his
death and resurrection three days later—a personal sacrifice,
taking upon himself the judgment of the world (Matt. 12:39–41).
Rabbi/teacher.
Jesus’ teaching style was similar to other first-century rabbis
or Pharisees (Mark 9:5; 10:51; John 1:38; 3:2). What distinguished
him was that he spoke with great personal authority (Matt. 5:22, 28,
32, 39, 44; Mark 1:22). Like other rabbis of his day, Jesus gathered
disciples. He called these men to observe his lifestyle and to join
him in his ministry of teaching, healing, and exorcism (Matt. 10:1–4;
Mark 3:13–19; Luke 6:12–16).
Jesus
used a variety of teaching methods. He frequently spoke in parables
(Matt. 6:24; 13:24–52; 18:10–14, 23–35;
21:28–22:14; 24:32–36, 45–51; 25:14–30; Mark
4:1–34; 12:1–12; 13:28–34; Luke 8:4–18;
12:41–46; 13:18–21; 14:15–24; 15:1–16:15,
19–31; 18:1–14; 19:11–27; 20:9–19; 21:29–33),
used figures of speech (John 10:9), hyperbole (Matt. 19:24; Mark
10:25; Luke 18:25), argumentation (Matt. 26:11), object lessons
(Matt. 24:32), frequent repetition (Matt. 13:44–47; Luke
13:18–21), practical examples, and personal guidance.
Major
themes in Jesus’ teaching include the kingdom of God, the cost
of discipleship, internal righteousness, the end of the age, his
identity, his mission, and his approaching death. In his teachings,
observance of Torah was given new context and meaning because God’s
kingdom had “come near” (Matt. 3:2). Jesus had come to
fulfill the law (Matt. 5:17).
Jesus’
teaching ministry often took place amid social conflict. These
conflicts were couched in so-called challenge-riposte interactions in
which the honor status of those involved was at stake. Jesus used
these interactions as teachable moments. When questioned, Jesus gave
replies that reveal omniscience or intimate knowledge of God’s
will, especially in the Gospel of John. In the Synoptic Gospels,
Jesus’ answers are both ethical and practical in nature. The
Synoptics portray Jesus as challenged repeatedly with accusations of
violating customs specified in the Jewish law. Jesus’ answers
to such accusations often echoed the essence of 1 Sam. 15:22,
“To obey is better than sacrifice,” phrased by Jesus as
“I desire mercy, not sacrifice” (Matt. 9:13; 12:7). An
overall “better than” ethic was common in Jesus’
public teaching.
The
Sermon on the Mount (Matt. 5–7) contains a “better than”
ethic in which internal obedience is better than mere outward
obedience. For example, Jesus said that anger without cause is equal
to murder (Matt. 5:21–22), that looking at a woman lustfully
amounts to adultery (Matt. 5:28), and that instead of revenging
wrongs one must reciprocate with love (Matt. 5:38–48). Jesus
valued compassion above traditions and customs, even those contained
within the OT law. He desired internal obedience above the letter of
the law.
Jesus’
teachings found their authority in the reality of God’s
imminent kingdom (Matt. 3:2; 10:7; Mark 1:15; Luke 10:9),
necessitating repentance (Matt. 3:2), belief (Mark 1:15), dependence
(Matt. 18:3–5; Mark 10:15), and loyalty to a new community—the
family of Jesus followers (Mark 3:34; 10:29–30). Jesus urged,
“Seek first [God’s] kingdom and his righteousness”
(Matt. 6:33). Preaching with such urgency was common among prophetic
teachers of the intertestamental period. Jesus, however, had his own
grounds for urgency. He held that God deeply valued all humans (Matt.
10:31) and would bring judgment swiftly (Matt. 25:31–46).
Examples
of a “greater good” ethic in the Synoptics include the
occasions when Jesus ate with sinners (Mark 2:16–17). Jesus
used an aphorism in response to accusations about his associations
with sinners, saying, “It is not the healthy who need a doctor,
but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous, but sinners”
(Mark 2:17). He advocated harvesting and healing on the Sabbath (Mark
2:23–28; 3:1–6), and when he was accused of breaking the
law, he pointed to an OT exception (1 Sam. 21:1–6) to
declare compassion appropriate for the Sabbath. Jesus also applied
the “greater good” ethic in the case of divorce, since
women suffered the societal stigma of adultery and commonly became
outcasts following divorce (Matt. 19:8–9; Mark 10:5–9).
Jesus’
kingdom teachings were simultaneously spiritual, ethical, and
eschatological in application. The teachings were aimed at internal
transformation (Matt. 5:3–9; 18:3; Mark 10:15) and spurring on
love (Matt. 5:44; 7:21). The Spirit of the Lord had called Jesus to
bless the hurting ones as they aspired to a godly character. Jesus
taught, “Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is
perfect” (Matt. 5:48), and “Be merciful, just as your
Father is merciful” (Luke 6:36). The “blessed” ones
in Jesus’ teachings are poor of spirit, peace driven, mournful,
and hungry for righteousness, consumed with emulating godly
character.
Some
scholars believe that Jesus promoted an “interim ethic”
for the kingdom, intended only for a short period prior to the end of
time. However, he was explicit regarding the longevity of his
teachings: “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will
never pass away” (Matt. 24:35; Luke 16:17).
Messiah.
The concept of an anointed one, a messiah, who would restore the
glories of David’s kingdom and bring political stability was
common in Jewish expectation. Both before and after the Babylonian
captivity, many Jews longed for one who would bring peace and
protection. Israel’s prophets had spoken of a coming deliverer,
one who would restore David’s kingdom and reign in justice and
righteousness (2 Sam. 7:11–16; Isa. 9:1–7; 11:1–16;
Jer. 23:5–6; 33:15–16; Ezek. 37:25; Dan. 2:44; Mic. 5:2;
Zech. 9:9). Isaiah’s description of the servant (Isa. 53) whose
suffering healed the nation provided a slightly different angle of
expectation in terms of a deliverer.
Jesus’
authority and popularity as a miracle worker called up messianic
images in first-century Jewish minds. On several occasions hearers
called him “Son of David,” hoping for the Messiah (Matt.
12:23; 21:9). Simon Peter was the first follower who confessed Jesus
as the Christ, the “Messiah” (Matt. 16:16; Mark 8:29). In
line with Isaiah’s model of the Suffering Servant, Jesus
focused not on political ends but rather on spiritual regeneration
through his own sacrificial death (Mark 10:45).
Eschatological
prophet.
Many scholars claim that Jesus is best understood as a Jewish
apocalypticist, an eschatological prophet who expected God to
intervene in history, destroy the wicked, and bring in the kingdom of
God. Central in this understanding are Jesus’ prophecies
concerning the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem (Matt. 24:1–2,
15–22; Mark 13:1; Luke 21:5–24; John 2:19; Acts 6:14). In
addition, it is noted that Jesus had twelve disciples, representative
of the twelve tribes of Israel (Matt. 19:2–28; Luke 22:23–30).
Certain of Jesus’ parables, those with apocalyptic images of
coming judgment, present Jesus as an eschatological prophet (Matt.
24:45–25:30; Luke 12:41–46; 19:11–27).
Suffering
Son of God.
Jesus’ first recorded teaching in a synagogue in Nazareth was
paradigmatic (Luke 4:16–21). He attributed the reading, Isa.
61:1–2, to his personal calling to serve, and in doing so he
revealed a trajectory of suffering. The Gospel of Mark likewise aptly
portrays Jesus as the suffering Son of God. Jesus’ own
teachings incorporated his upcoming suffering (Mark 8:31; 9:12–13,
31; 10:33–34). He summarized his mission by declaring, “The
Son of Man did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his
life as a ransom for many” (Mark 10:45). His earthly career
ended with a trial in Jerusalem consisting of both Roman and Jewish
components (Matt. 26:57–68; 27:1–31; Mark 14:53–65;
15:1–20; Luke 22:54–23:25; John 18:19–24;
18:28–19:16). He was insulted, scourged, mocked, and crucified.
Jesus’
suffering culminated in his humiliating death by crucifixion (Matt.
27:33–50; Mark 15:22–37; Luke 23:33–46; John
19:16–30). Crucifixion was a death of unimaginable horror,
bringing shame and humiliation to the victim and his family. Anyone
hanging on a tree was considered cursed (Deut. 21:23; Gal. 3:13).
Thus, especially in a Jewish society, anyone associated with a
crucified person bore the shame of following one who was executed as
a lowly slave and left as a cursed corpse. The apostle Paul referred
to this shame of the cross when he stated, “I am not ashamed of
the gospel” (Rom. 1:16).
Exalted
Lord.
Jesus had prophesied that he would rise again (Matt. 16:21; 17:9, 23;
20:19; 27:63; Mark 8:31; 9:9, 31; 10:34; Luke 9:22; 18:33; 24:7, 46).
The testimony of the Synoptics is that the resurrection of Jesus
Christ indeed occurred on the third day, Christ having died on Friday
(Mark 15:42–45; Luke 23:52–54; John 19:30–33) and
risen again on Sunday (Matt. 28:1–7; Mark 16:2–7; Luke
24:1–7; John 20:1–16). The resurrected Jesus was
witnessed by the women (Matt. 28:8–9), the eleven disciples
(Matt. 28:16–17; Luke 24:36–43), and travelers on the
road to Emmaus (Luke 24:31–32). According to Paul, he appeared
to as many as five hundred others (1 Cor. 15:6). He appeared in
bodily form, spoke, showed his scars, and ate (Luke 24:39–43;
John 20:27; Acts 1:4). After forty postresurrection days, Jesus
ascended into the heavenly realm (Acts 1:9).
As
much as Jesus’ death was the epitome of shame, his victory over
death was his ultimate exaltation (Phil. 2:5–11). At Pentecost,
Peter proclaimed that in the resurrection God fulfilled OT promises
(Ps. 16:10) by raising his Son from the grave (Acts 2:30–31).
Furthermore, Christ provided freedom from the law through his
resurrection (Rom. 5:13–14), God’s approval of his life
and work (Phil. 2:8–9), and God’s designation of him as
Lord over all the earth, the living and the dead (Acts 17:30–31;
Phil. 2:10; Heb. 1:3), and over all his enemies (Eph. 1:20–23).
Jesus’
exaltation commenced the beginning of forgiveness and justification
(Luke 24:46–47; Acts 13:30–39; Rom. 4:25) and his
intercession for the people of God (Rom. 8:34). His ascension
signaled the coming of the Holy Spirit as comforter and teacher (John
14:26; Acts 2:33) and was accompanied by the promise of his return in
glory (Luke 24:51), at which time he will render judgment (Matt.
19:28; 24:31; Rev. 20:11–15) and establish his eternal kingdom
(1 Cor. 15:24; 2 Tim. 4:1; Rev. 11:15; 22:5).
Jesus’
Purpose and Community
In
the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus is the long-awaited Messiah, who
preaches the good news of the kingdom, urging people to repent
(4:17–23). Repentance and belief allow one to enter the
kingdom. The call into the kingdom is a call into a new covenant, one
made in Jesus’ blood (26:28).
In
the prologue to the Gospel of Mark, the narrator reveals the identity
of Jesus (1:1). Jesus is presented as the one who brings good tidings
of salvation (cf. Isa. 40:9; 52:7; 61:1). The centrality of the
gospel, the good news (Mark 1:14–15), is evident.
Luke
likewise presents the preaching of the good news as a main purpose of
Jesus’ ministry (4:43). The content of this good news is the
kingdom of God (4:43; 8:1; 16:16). When the disciples of John the
Baptist asked Jesus if he was the one who was to come (7:20), Jesus
answered, “Go back and report to John what you have seen and
heard: The blind receive sight, the lame walk, those who have leprosy
are cleansed, the deaf hear, the dead are raised, and the good news
is proclaimed to the poor” (7:22). The kingdom of God, as
presented in Luke, brings freedom for the prisoners, recovery of
sight for the blind, and release for the oppressed (4:18). Jesus’
healings and exorcisms announce the coming kingdom of God already
present in the ministry of Jesus (4:40–44; 6:18–20;
8:1–2; 9:2; 10:8–9).
In
the Gospel of John, Jesus testifies to the good news by way of signs
throughout his ministry. These signs point to Jesus’ glory, his
identity, and the significance of his ministry. Jesus is the Messiah,
the Son of God, who offers eternal and abundant life. This abundant
life is lived out in community.
In
the Gospel of John, the disciples of Jesus represent the community of
God (17:21). The disciples did not belong to the world, but they
continued to live in the world (17:14–16). Throughout his
ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call
to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38;
Luke 9:23–26), a call to the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50;
Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I
will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to
community. Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was
replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18).
Jesus’
ministry continued in the community of Jesus’ followers, God’s
family—the church. Entrance into the community was obtained by
adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and through the
initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26;
Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–62; John 1:12; 3:16;
10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9).
The
Quests for the Historical Jesus
The
quest for the historical Jesus, or seeking who Jesus was from a
historical perspective, is a modern phenomenon deemed necessary by
scholars who claim that the NT Gospels were written long after Jesus’
death and were heavily influenced by the post-Easter understanding of
the church.
The
beginning of this quest is often dated to 1770, when the lecture
notes of Hermann Samuel Reimarus were published posthumously.
Reimarus had launched an inquiry into the identity of Jesus that
rejected as inauthentic all supernatural elements in the Gospels. He
concluded that the disciples invented Jesus’ miracles,
prophecies, ritualistic religion, and resurrection. Reimarus’s
conclusions were not widely accepted, but they set off a flurry of
rationalistic research into the historical Jesus that continued
throughout the nineteenth century. This became known as the “first
quest” for the historical Jesus.
In
1906 German theologian Albert Schweit-zer published The Quest of the
Historical Jesus (German title: Von Reimarus zu Wrede: Eine
Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung), a scathing indictment of the
first quest. Schweitzer’s work showed that nineteenth-century
researchers re-created Jesus in their own image, transforming the
historical Jesus into a modern philanthropist preaching an
inoffensive message of love and brotherhood. Schweitzer’s
conclusions marked the beginning of the end for this first quest.
Schweitzer himself concluded that the historical Jesus was an
eschatological prophet whose purposes failed during his last days in
Jerusalem.
With
the demise of the first quest, some NT scholars, such as Rudolf
Bultmann, rejected any claim to being able to discover the historical
Jesus. This trend continued until 1953, when some of Bultmann’s
former students launched what has come to be known as the “new
quest” for the historical Jesus (1953–c. 1970). This
quest created new interest in the historical Jesus but was still
dominated by the view that the portrait of Jesus in the Gospels is
largely a creation of the church in a post-Easter setting.
As
the rebuilding years of the post–World War II era waned
and scholars started to reap academic fruit from major archaeological
finds such as the DSS, research on the historical Jesus moved on to
what has been called the “third quest.” This quest seeks
especially to research and understand Jesus in his social and
cultural setting.
