7 Belonging to the Gershonites: Ladan and Shimei.
8 The sons of Ladan: Jehiel the first, Zetham and Joel-three in all.
9 The sons of Shimei: Shelomoth, Haziel and Haran-three in all. These were the heads of the families of Ladan.
10 And the sons of Shimei: Jahath, Ziza, Jeush and Beriah. These were the sons of Shimei-four in all.
11 Jahath was the first and Ziza the second, but Jeush and Beriah did not have many sons; so they were counted as one family with one assignment.
David Organizes the Cultic and Secular Officials: According to 1 Chronicles 10–22, David prepared everything for the building of the temple, including full instructions to his son Solomon. First Chronicles 23–27 now describes the division of the Levites for various kinds of service and gives an elaborate and intricate overview of how the cultic service was organized in Jerusalem.
The short, opening comment that David made Solomon king serves as the bridge between David’s and Solomon’s reigns. From 23:2 onward we find the extensive description of the organization of cultic officials, starting with the indication that David gathered (Hebrew ʾasaf) all the officials for the occasion. Since 28:1 contains a similar comment on David gathering the leaders, but with another Hebrew word (qahal), one…
Chapter 11 begins the story of David’s reign, skipping over his struggle with Saul as well as David’s colorful rise to power, but still stressing God’s blessing and providence in his reign. The account of David’s capturing Jerusalem is included (11:4–9), in keeping with the focus on the temple. The comments and lists in this section highlight the point that all Israel supported David as the king.
In 1 Chronicles 13–16 David brings the ark to Jerusalem and organizes the nation for worshiping and praising God. As in 2 Samuel 6:1–7, a man named Uzzah is killed for touching the ark in an attempt to steady it (1 Chron. 13:9–10). Here, however, the story explains that this was because David was not transporting the ark correctly. In 15:11–15 the Levites inform David of the corre…
7 Belonging to the Gershonites: Ladan and Shimei.
8 The sons of Ladan: Jehiel the first, Zetham and Joel-three in all.
9 The sons of Shimei: Shelomoth, Haziel and Haran-three in all. These were the heads of the families of Ladan.
10 And the sons of Shimei: Jahath, Ziza, Jeush and Beriah. These were the sons of Shimei-four in all.
11 Jahath was the first and Ziza the second, but Jeush and Beriah did not have many sons; so they were counted as one family with one assignment.
23:1–27:34 Review · Personnel for Temple and Kingdom: First Chronicles 23–27 is dominated by lists of personnel within the kingdom appointed by David for the support of the temple and its services after his death. While such lists are rarely appreciated by modern readers, they are as key to the Chronicler’s rhetorical strategy as his introductory genealogies in chapters 1–9. They accentuate David’s thorough preparation for the temple construction and worship by provision of personnel for both temple and state.
23:1–32 · First Chronicles 23:1 sets these lists into the context of the final phase of David’s life. While chapters 22 and 28–29 focus on David’s provision of the necessary material resources, chapters 23–27 focus on the equally important provision of human resources for the prope…
David Organizes the Cultic and Secular Officials: According to 1 Chronicles 10–22, David prepared everything for the building of the temple, including full instructions to his son Solomon. First Chronicles 23–27 now describes the division of the Levites for various kinds of service and gives an elaborate and intricate overview of how the cultic service was organized in Jerusalem.
The short, opening comment that David made Solomon king serves as the bridge between David’s and Solomon’s reigns. From 23:2 onward we find the extensive description of the organization of cultic officials, starting with the indication that David gathered (Hebrew ʾasaf) all the officials for the occasion. Since 28:1 contains a similar comment on David gathering the leaders, but with another Hebrew word (qahal), one…
People in the Bible were family-centered and staunchly loyal to their kin. Families formed the foundation of society. The extended family was the source of people’s status in the community and provided the primary economic, educational, religious, and social interactions.
Marriage and divorce. Marriage in the ancient Near East was a contractual arrangement between two families, arranged by the bride’s father or a male representative. The bride’s family was paid a dowry, a “bride’s price.” Paying a dowry was not only an economic transaction but also an expression of family honor. Only the rich could afford multiple dowries. Thus, polygamy was minimal. The wedding itself was celebrated with a feast provided by the father of the groom.
The primary purpose for marriage in the ancient Near East was to produce a male heir to ensure care for the couple in their old age. The concept of inheritance was a key part of the marriage customs, especially with regard to passing along possessions and property.
Marriage among Jews in the NT era still tended to be endogamous; that is, Jews sought to marry close kin without committing incest violations (Lev. 18:6 17). A Jewish male certainly was expected to marry a Jew. Exogamy, marrying outside the remote kinship group, and certainly outside the ethnos, was understood as shaming God’s holiness. Thus, a Jew marrying a Gentile woman was not an option. The Romans did practice exogamy. For them, marrying outside one’s kinship group (not ethnos) was based predominantly on creating strategic alliances between families.
Greek and Roman law allowed both men and women to initiate divorce. In Jewish marriages, only the husband could initiate divorce proceedings. If a husband divorced his wife, he had to release her and repay the dowry. Divorce was common in cases of infertility (in particular if the woman had not provided male offspring). Ben Sira comments that barrenness in a woman is a cause of anxiety to the father (Sir. 42:9–10). Another reason for divorce was adultery (Exod. 20:14; Deut. 5:18). Jesus, though, taught a more restrictive use of divorce than the OT (Mark 10:1–12).
Children and parenting. Childbearing was considered representative of God’s blessing on a woman and her entire family, in particular her husband. In contrast to this blessing, barrenness brought shame on women, their families, and specifically their husbands.
Children were of low social status in society. Infant mortality was high. An estimated 60 percent of the children in the first-century Mediterranean society were dead by the age of sixteen.
Ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean societies exhibited a parenting style based on their view of human nature as a mixture of good and evil tendencies. Parents relied on physical punishment to prevent evil tendencies from developing into evil deeds (Prov. 29:15). The main concern of parents was to socialize the children into family loyalty. Lack of such loyalty was punished (Lev. 20:9). At a very early stage children were taught to accept the total authority of the father. The rearing of girls was entirely the responsibility of the women. Girls were taught domestic roles and duties as soon as possible so that they could help with household tasks.
Family identity was used as a metaphor in ancient Israel to speak of fidelity, responsibility, judgment, and reconciliation. In the OT, the people of Israel often are described as children of God. In their overall relationship to God, the people of Israel are referred to in familial terms—sons and daughters, spouse, and firstborn (Exod. 4:22). God is addressed as the father of the people (Isa. 63:16; 64:8) and referred to as their mother (Isa. 49:14–17).
The church as the family of God. Throughout his ministry, Jesus called his disciples to follow him. This was a call to loyalty (Matt. 10:32–40; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26), a call to fictive kinship, the family of God (Matt. 12:48–50; Mark 3:33–35). Jesus’ declaration “On this rock I will build my church” (Matt. 16:18) was preceded by the call to community. Entrance into the community was granted through adopting the values of the kingdom, belief, and the initiation rite of baptism (Matt. 10:37–39; 16:24–26; Mark 8:34–38; Luke 9:23–26, 57–63; John 1:12; 3:16; 10:27–29; Acts 2:38; 16:31–33; 17:30; Rom. 10:9). Jesus’ presence as the head of the community was eventually replaced by the promised Spirit (John 14:16–18). Through the Spirit, Jesus’ ministry continues in the community of his followers, God’s family—the church. See also Adoption.
Along with Kohath and Merari, Gershon was one of the three sons of Levi, and thus the ancestor of a group of Levites (Gen. 46:11). His name is spelled “Gershon” in Genesis, elsewhere in the Pentateuch (Exod. 6:16 17; Num. 3:17, 21), and in the initial listing of the genealogy in 1 Chron. 6 (v. 1). However, in the Hebrew the spelling reverts to “Gershom” in the remainder of the genealogy (1 Chron. 6:16, 17, 20, 43, 62, 71; see NIV mg.). See also Gershom; Gershonites.
The descendants of Gershon (also spelled “Gershom”) son of Levi (Gen. 46:11) were Libni (also known as Ladan) and Shimei and their descendants (Num. 3:18, 21; 1 Chron. 6:17, 43; 23:7 11). During the wilderness period they were responsible for all activities concerning the tabernacle coverings, screens, and hangings (Num. 3:25–26; 4:21–28; 7:6–7). They also carried the ark of the covenant (Num. 10:17; 1 Chron. 15:7, 11–15). See also Gershon.
A son of Terah and brother of Abraham. He was the father of Lot as well as of Milkah and Iskah. Haran died in Ur of the Chaldeans, where he was born, before Terah took his family and set out for Canaan (Gen. 11:26 32).
Joel is the second of the twelve Minor Prophets. The book is best known for its frightening depiction of God’s judgment in the form of a locust plague and the stirring description of that future day when God will pour his Spirit out on all people (2:28 32).
Joel is a collection of prophetic oracles. Like most prophetic books, the book has both judgment and salvation oracles, although there are more salvation oracles than usual. The first chapter describes an actual locust plague that Joel understands to be a judgment on the people of God. The second chapter also speaks of a locust plague, but this time the locusts are a metaphor for future devastation by a human army. On this basis, Joel calls for the people’s repentance and also places before the people a picture of God’s future salvation, which includes judgment on the other nations.
Joel uses a recent locust plague to paint a picture of the devastation of a coming day of judgment, referred to here and elsewhere in the prophets as the “day of the Lord” (2:1; see also Amos 5:18–20). This vivid and horrifying teaching on judgment is intended not simply to frighten readers but also to encourage their repentance. As frightening as Joel’s language about judgment seems, his language of future salvation is encouraging to an even greater degree.
A Benjamite and the son of Gera, Shimei cursed David in the name of the Lord near Bahurim during David’s flight from Jerusalem (2 Sam. 16:5 14). David twice refused to have Shimei executed, first at the time of the curse and then later at David’s reinstallment as king (19:23). Although David had promised Shimei with an oath that he would live, in his final days David instructed Solomon to kill Shimei. King Solomon offered Shimei a life sentence in Jerusalem, with death the punishment for leaving. Shimei later left and was killed (1 Kings 2:36–46).
(1) The fourth son of Asher (Gen. 46:17), and the father of Heber and Malkiel (1 Chron. 7:30–31). He left Canaan and went to Egypt with his father and the rest of Jacob’s family. He is the ancestor of the Beriites (Num. 26:44). (2) A son of Ephraim, named “Beriah” because tragedy (ra’ah) had come to his family when two of his sons were killed by the men of Gath (1 Chron. 7:23). (3) A Benjamite who was a son of Elpaal (1 Chron. 8:13). (4) A Levite who was a son of Shimei (1 Chron. 23:10). He and his brother Jeush were considered one family with one responsibility because they did not have many sons (1 Chron. 23:11).
Old Testament. In ancient Israel, and more broadly in the surrounding region, the “father’s house” (i.e., ancestral family) was the basic unit of kinship, more extensive than “brothers” (Gen. 46:31; Judg. 16:31) or the single “household” (Exod. 12:3) but smaller than the clan and tribe (note the contrasts in, e.g., Num. 1:2; Judg. 6:15). In genealogies the “father’s house” is often rendered “family” (e.g., Exod. 6:14; Num. 1:2 and throughout the chapter; 1 Chron. 4:38). In some instances, the twelve tribes of Israel are construed as father’s houses (Num. 17:2–6; 1 Sam. 2:28). In 2 Sam. 19:28 the extent of the “father’s house” is well illustrated: clearly, Mephibosheth refers not to the nuclear family of his biological father but rather to the family of his grandfather Saul. In 1 Chron. 23:11, two small families are artificially combined into a single “father’s house,” illustrating that the concept was not strictly biological but instead corresponded to a set of social functions, in this case priestly service.
In addition to censuses and the organization of military service, other functions of the father’s house included the reckoning of collective guilt (2 Sam. 14:9; 24:17; Neh. 1:6), delimiting retaliation in kin-based blood feuds (1 Sam. 22:16, 22; 2 Sam. 3:29; see also Judg. 2:12, 18), and defining a context for endogamous marriage (Gen. 24:38–40). The father’s house played an important role in the life of women, who were identified with their father’s house before marriage and could return to it in the event of widowhood, demonstrating a persistent connection to it (Lev. 22:13; Num. 30:4, 16; Deut. 22:21; Judg. 19:2–3; Esther 4:14; Ps. 45:10; see also the political significance for Abimelek of his mother’s father’s house in Judg. 9:1).
The expression “father’s house” can also refer to a location (Gen. 12:1; 20:13; Judg. 14:19; 1 Sam. 18:2), and indeed this local sense may have largely overlapped with the kinship sense, as extended families inhabited large architectural compounds or even entire small villages.
New Testament. On two occasions Jesus referred to the temple in Jerusalem as his “father’s house,” once when he was a young man (Luke 2:49), and once when he drove merchants from the temple (John 2:16). On another occasion, he referred to a “place where I am going” as “my father’s house” (John 14:2–4). In addition, we have two references to the “father’s house” as a kinship unit (Luke 16:27; and possibly Acts 7:20).-
The descendants of Gershon (also spelled “Gershom”) son of Levi (Gen. 46:11) were Libni (also known as Ladan) and Shimei and their descendants (Num. 3:18, 21; 1 Chron. 6:17, 43; 23:7–11). The Gershonites were counted in a census (Num. 4:22, 38–41) and received thirteen cities from Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Manasseh as their territorial allotment (Josh. 21:6, 27; 1 Chron. 6:62, 71 [ESV, NRSV: “Gershomites”]). During the wilderness period they were responsible for all activities concerning the tabernacle coverings, screens, and hangings (Num. 3:25–26; 4:21–28; 7:6–7). They also carried the ark of the covenant (Num. 10:17; 1 Chron. 15:7, 11–15). See also Gershon.
(1) A son of Terah and brother of Abraham. He was the father of Lot as well as of Milkah and Iskah. Haran died in Ur of the Chaldeans, where he was born, before Terah took his family and set out for Canaan (Gen. 11:26–32). (2) A son of Ephah, the concubine of Caleb, and father of Gazez (1 Chron. 2:46). (3) A son of Shimei (1 Chron. 23:9). See also Harran.
A Levite in the Gershonite group during the time of David and/or Solomon, he was one of the three sons of Shimei (1 Chron. 23:9).
(1) The son of Reaiah of the Zoharite clan from the tribe of Judah, he was the father of Ahumai and Lahad (1 Chron. 4:2). (2) The son of Gershon and a grandson of Levi, forefathers of Asaph the temple musician (1 Chron. 6:43). (3) A Levite, the firstborn son of Shimei from the Gershonite clan (1 Chron. 23:10–11). (4) A Levite, a son of Shelomoth from the Izharite clan (1 Chron. 24:22). (5) A Levite descended from Merari, he and Obadiah supervised the work of repairing and restoring the temple during King Josiah’s reforms (2 Chron. 34:12).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
(1) The first of three sons born to Esau and Oholibamah (Gen. 36:5, 14, 18). (2) The first of seven sons of Bilhan in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:10). (3) A warrior, the second of three sons of Eshek in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:39). (4) The third of four sons of Shimei, a Levite (1 Chron. 23:10). (5) The first of three sons born to King Rehoboam of Judah and Mahalath (2 Chron. 11:19).
(1) The prophet Samuel’s firstborn son, who, with his brother, Abijah, was appointed as a judge by their father but perverted justice and accepted bribes, thus prompting the Israelites to ask Samuel for a king (1 Sam. 8:1–5; 1 Chron. 6:28, 33). (2) A Simeonite clan leader (1 Chron. 4:35). (3) A Reubenite (1 Chron. 5:4, 8), though there is some question as to whether the Joel of v. 8 is the same as that of v. 4. (4) A chief of the tribe of Gad (1 Chron. 5:12). (5) One of Samuel’s Levite ancestors (1 Chron. 6:36). (6) A chief of the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:3). (7) One of David’s mighty warriors (1 Chron. 11:38). (8) A Levite and Gershonite who was part of the company appointed by David to bring the ark of the covenant up to Jerusalem (1 Chron. 15:7, 11, 17). (9) A Levite and Gershonite appointed for temple service who, with his brother Zetham, is put in charge of the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 23:8; 26:22). He may be the same Joel as in 1 Chron. 15:7, 11, 17. (10) A chief over half the tribe of Manasseh (1 Chron. 27:20). (11) A Levite involved in the purification of the temple during Hezekiah’s reign (2 Chron. 29:12). (12) One of the men in postexilic Judah who had married foreign wives and, at Ezra’s prompting, pledged to put them away (Ezra 10:43). (13) A Benjamite overseer during the days of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:9). (14) The prophet Joel, son of Pethuel (Joel 1:1).
(1) A grandson of Levi through Gershon (1 Chron. 23:7; 26:21). Ladan is sometimes called “Libni” (Exod. 6:17; Num. 3:18; 1 Chron. 6:17, 20). In 1 Chron. 23:8–9, three sons of Ladan (Jehiel, Zetham, Joel) are listed, but then follow three sons of Ladan’s brother, Shimei (Shelomoth, Haziel, Haran) and the words “these were the heads of the families of Ladan.” (2) A descendant of Ephraim through Tahan (1 Chron. 7:25–26).
(1) A grandson of Levi through Gershon (1 Chron. 23:7; 26:21). Ladan is sometimes called “Libni” (Exod. 6:17; Num. 3:18; 1 Chron. 6:17, 20). In 1 Chron. 23:8–9, three sons of Ladan (Jehiel, Zetham, Joel) are listed, but then follow three sons of Ladan’s brother, Shimei (Shelomoth, Haziel, Haran) and the words “these were the heads of the families of Ladan.” (2) A descendant of Ephraim through Tahan (1 Chron. 7:25–26).
(1) The first son of three sons of Shimei, he was a Levite who was the head of a family in the Gershonite clan (1 Chron. 23:9). (2) The first son of Izhar of the Kohathite family (1 Chron. 24:22). He is called “Shelomith” in 1 Chron. 23:18.
The second of the three sons of Ladan, from the clan of Gershon of the tribe of Levi. Zetham was a manager of the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 23:8; 26:22).
(1) The son of Shiphi, he was a clan leader of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:37). (2) The second of the four sons of Shimei, a Gershonite Levite (1 Chron. 23:10–11). In the Hebrew text his name is spelled “Zina” in v. 10 and “Zizah” in v. 11 (followed by KJV, NRSV, NET), but one Hebrew manuscript and the LXX write both as “Ziza” (followed by the NIV). (3) The third of four children born to King Rehoboam and Maakah (2 Chron. 11:20).
(1) The son of Shiphi, he was a clan leader of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:37). (2) The second of the four sons of Shimei, a Gershonite Levite (1 Chron. 23:10–11). In the Hebrew text his name is spelled “Zina” in v. 10 and “Zizah” in v. 11 (followed by KJV, NRSV, NET), but one Hebrew manuscript and the LXX write both as “Ziza” (followed by the NIV). (3) The third of four children born to King Rehoboam and Maakah (2 Chron. 11:20).
(1) The son of Shiphi, he was a clan leader of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:37). (2) The second of the four sons of Shimei, a Gershonite Levite (1 Chron. 23:10–11). In the Hebrew text his name is spelled “Zina” in v. 10 and “Zizah” in v. 11 (followed by KJV, NRSV, NET), but one Hebrew manuscript and the LXX write both as “Ziza” (followed by the NIV). (3) The third of four children born to King Rehoboam and Maakah (2 Chron. 11:20).
These books originally formed a single book and were first divided into two in the Greek translation, the LXX. Chronicles tells the history of Israel from the creation of the world to the end of the Babylonian exile, focusing at length on the history of David and Solomon. In Jewish tradition, Chronicles is the last book in the OT, which may be due to its late acceptance into the canon or because it forms a fitting conclusion to the Hebrew Bible. Like Genesis, which opens the canon, Chronicles begins with creation (Gen. 1:1; 1 Chron. 1:1) and ends with a prophecy of a return to the land (Gen. 50:24; 2 Chron. 23) and the hope of redemption.
Authorship
Chronicles does not name anyone as its author. Some have suggested that Ezra, Haggai, Malachi, or Zechariah may have written Chronicles, but such suggestions are pure speculation. It is most common to refer to the author simply as the Chronicler (hereafter, Ch). Ch clearly had scribal training, since he was familiar with the biblical books that preceded his work and had access to archival sources. Other than these broad generalizations, the identity of the author remains anonymous, as he intended.
In the past many believed that Ch also wrote Ezra-Nehemiah because of similarities in language and how Chronicles ends by quoting the opening of Ezra (which implies that they were once connected). Common authorship is unlikely, however, since Ezra-Nehemiah stresses Abram’s election, the exodus, the conquest of the land, and the fall of northern Israel, while Chronicles does not explicitly mention any of these events. Also Ch emphasizes “immediate retribution” (obedience/disobedience brings immediate blessing/punishment), whereas Ezra-Nehemiah allows that good behavior can bring problems rather than blessing (e.g., those building the wall of Jerusalem are persecuted). Also, some differences in terminology may suggest different authors for these books (e.g., Ezra-Nehemiah calls the high priest “great priest,” whereas Chronicles uses the term “head priest”).
Ch primarily used previous OT books as sources, drawing on the Pentateuch and Joshua (for his genealogies) and on Psalms (cf. Pss. 96; 105–106 with 1 Chron. 16:7–36) and Ezra (cf. Ezra 1:1–3 with 2 Chron. 36:22–23). However, Ch relied most heavily on Samuel-Kings, as can be seen by his extensive verbatim quotation of them throughout his stories. Noncanonical sources probably also were employed (e.g., the reference to Hezekiah’s tunnel in 2 Chron. 32:30, which is unparalleled in Kings but is historically accurate), though they do not survive today.
Date
An exact date of composition is not known. However, the mention in 1 Chron. 29:7 of Persian darics (coins), which were not minted until 515 BC, makes a date after 500 BC likely (since we must allow time for the spread of darics throughout the empire). Most telling is Jehoiachin’s genealogy in 1 Chron. 3:17–24 (since the last names listed must predate or be contemporary with Ch), which extends at least six generations after Zerubbabel, making a date around 450 BC (assuming twenty years per generation) the earliest possible date for the composition of Chronicles. Also, Chronicles is likely to have been written before Alexander the Great’s conquest of Palestine in 333 BC, since there is no perceivable Greek influence in Chronicles. Therefore, the date for the composition of Chronicles is most likely between 450 and 333 BC, during the Persian period.
Audience and Historical Background
Some historical background is necessary to understand Chronicles’ purpose and to identify its original audience. In 586 BC Jerusalem was destroyed, and the bulk of the population was deported to Babylon (2 Kings 25); however, the Jewish community in Babylon retained its identity and longed to return home. When Cyrus of Persia conquered Babylon in 539 BC, he offered to send the exiles back to their homeland to rebuild Jerusalem and their temple. Those who returned faced many challenges and struggled with how to rebuild “Israel” in the land that was given to them by God but now was ruled by the Persians and settled by a mixed population. Even with their temple rebuilt and Jerusalem resettled, this community still questioned how their new life would work and what their relationship to God would be like. Chronicles was written for this beleaguered restoration community.
Genre
Chronicles is perhaps best known for its long genealogies, which open the book (1 Chron. 1–9). In addition, there are many lists in other parts of the book that seem to detract from its otherwise interesting narratives. The genre of Chronicles is “historiography” (history writing) as it presents an account of Israel’s past. The nature of the historiography that Ch wrote has been the subject of much debate due to the difficulty of explaining the considerable freedom that Ch exercised in selecting, arranging, and even changing his source material. All written histories involve creative writing, selectivity, and interpretation of sources. Ch’s selectivity can be seen in his omissions—for example, stories that deal only with northern Israel, David’s adultery with Bathsheba and murder of Uriah, and Solomon’s many wives and idolatry. Ch’s selectivity, however, should not be taken as intentional deception on his part, since he probably assumed that his audience knew the full story of David and Solomon’s sin.
Ch’s interpretation of his sources can be seen in how he rewrote 2 Sam. 24:1. The writer of 2 Samuel describes God inciting David to take a census, but Ch holds Satan responsible for inciting him (1 Chron. 21:1). Writing at a later time when it was understood that God worked through divine intermediaries, Ch interpreted his source in light of this new revelation. Just as NT writers quoted the OT interpretively, Ch felt free to make explicit what he saw as implied in his sources.
However, it must be admitted that not all the changes that Ch makes to his sources can be easily explained. It must be remembered that, unlike modern historiography, Chronicles was written with mainly theological interests in mind. If omitting certain stories or writing additions to his narrative were necessary to drive home the message that God wanted him to deliver, that is what Ch did. Such practices were standard procedure in history writing in the ancient world and were acceptable in his day. Yet Ch was constrained by his sources. Despite his desire to highlight David’s role in the establishment of the temple, he could not present David as temple builder, since history recorded that Solomon built the temple. Historiography is a creative attempt to interpret past events and bring out their significance for the present. In this way, Chronicles is definitely historiography, though not the type of historiography that would be written today.
Themes
David and the Davidic kings. The main characters in Chronicles are the Davidic kings. Although the narrative begins with Saul as Israel’s king (1 Chron. 10:1–3), he is quickly disposed of (10:4). David’s kingship is immediately established (without the long struggle to become king as described in 1 Samuel) and is for Israel’s benefit (1 Chron. 14:2). David is presented as the ideal monarch, who sought God with his whole heart and also instituted proper worship. Although Solomon builds the temple, in Chronicles David prepares for its construction (1 Chron. 22) and its administration (1 Chron. 23–25).
Presenting David as the founder of proper worship underscores Ch’s emphasis on the responsibility of Davidic kings to maintain proper worship in Israel. Some kings turned from proper worship (e.g., Manasseh), while others held true and restored it when it had been forsaken (e.g., Josiah). The Davidic king sat on God’s throne (1 Chron. 17:14; 28:5; 29:23) and represented the people in prayer to God (2 Chron. 6:18–42). When northern Israel rejected the Davidic king, they rejected God (2 Chron. 13:4–12). This elevation of the importance of the Davidic monarchy held out hope of a coming Davidic king despite the current situation of Persian rule.
The temple and the Levites. Chronicles focuses on Israel’s relationship to God, which is shown in the emphasis on the Davidic king as Israel’s representative to God but is best expressed through the focus on the temple and its institutions. Chronicles shows how Israel’s relationship to God was dependent on maintaining proper temple worship. The Levitical priesthood together with the Davidic king maintained the worship of God. The Levites even stepped in to preserve the Davidic line when it was threatened (2 Chron. 22:10–23:21), and only they could administer proper worship in the temple (26:16–18). Interestingly, this emphasis on Davidic kings and Levitical priests reflects the conditions of rule under which the original audience lived when they returned from exile (cf. Zech. 2:4).
All Israel. In Chronicles the term “all Israel” is used for northern Israel (2 Chron. 13:4), southern Judah (2 Chron. 11:3), or all the Israelites together (1 Chron. 11:1). For Ch, “Israel” indicates a people who are in a special relationship with God and accountable to him. The Davidic king and the Levitical priests are important, but the people themselves are also accountable to God (e.g., 2 Chron. 11:3–4, 16–17; 13:14; 15:9–15). This allows Ch to emphasize the responsibility of each generation to have a proper relationship with God.
Prophecy
In Chronicles there are many prophets known by the traditional titles “prophet” or “seer,” but also others who speak prophetically but are not designated by such titles. These other prophetic speakers mostly address the people rather than kings (like official prophets) and are portrayed as interpreting and applying earlier prophetic tradition to their current situation. Chronicles represents a transitional stage when the “word of the Lord” is beginning to be seen not only as oral prophecy but also as referring to written prophecies (such as those of Moses) or Scripture (e.g., 2 Chron. 34:21 rewrites 2 Kings 22:13, “the words of this book,” as “the word of the Lord”). This development to written Scripture creates the foundation for both Judaism and Christianity as text-based faiths.
Theological Message
Ch encouraged his community by retelling the old story in new ways. The old story (Samuel-Kings) taught its audience why the exile happened (their sin), but Ch’s audience needed to be assured that God was still interested in them. Chronicles reminds the restoration community of the continuity between preexilic and postexilic times and their heritage as God’s people and heirs of the promises to David. Whereas Samuel-Kings emphasized idolatry as the reason for the exile (2 Kings 17:7–18), Chronicles looks past this surface symptom to the root problem of “forsaking the Lord,” characterized by neglecting their relationship with God through proper worship. “Seeking the Lord” calls for a complete response of his people to him.
Whereas Samuel-Kings explains the exile by the cumulative buildup of the sins of the monarchy (2 Kings 23:26; 24:3), in Chronicles the fate of Israel is never sealed. Any generation can seek God wholeheartedly and thereby receive blessing. The thematic verse for Chronicles is perhaps 2 Chron. 7:14: “If my people, who are called by my name, will humble themselves and pray and seek my face and turn from their wicked ways, then will I hear from heaven, and I will forgive their sin and will heal their land.” Ch’s message demands a response in the present. In retelling the history of his people, his audience could see the cause-and-effect relationship between seeking and forsaking God and apply it to their current situation. They themselves were “all Israel” and needed to seek God wholeheartedly in proper worship. Only through faithfulness to God would Israel recapture the glory days of its past. In a message as applicable now as it was millennia ago, Chronicles calls for its readers to have a proper relationship with God and holds out expectation that blessing will follow.
Outline
I. Genealogical Prologue: Adam to the Present (1 Chron. 1–9)
II. United Monarchy: Saul, David, and Solomon (1 Chron. 10–2 Chron. 9)
III. The History of Judah: The Later Davidic Kings (2 Chron. 10–36:16)
IV. The Exile and Return (2 Chron. 36:17–23)
The second king of Israel (r. 1010–970 BC), founder of a dynasty that continued with his son Solomon (r. 970–931 BC), who ruled all of Israel; subsequently the remaining “sons of David” ruled the southern kingdom, Judah, until 586 BC.
David’s importance can be measured by the vast space devoted to the account of his life (1 Sam. 16:1–1 Kings 2:12; 1 Chron. 11:1–29:30). The titles of many psalms identify him as their author. Although there are no contemporary extrabiblical references to David due to the rarity of inscriptions in Palestine at this time, the “house of David” (or Tel Dan) inscription, dated to the eighth century BC, provides an extraordinarily early reference to his dynasty.
David and Saul
Human kingship is a late development in Israel, but a number of ancient texts anticipate the establishment of the institution (Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20) and specifically the rise of a king from Judah (Gen. 49:8–12; Num. 24:17). Thus, it is surprising that the first king of Israel is not from Judah, but from Benjamin. When the people ask Samuel for a king, he anoints Saul (1 Sam. 8–12), who proves to be a tremendous disappointment. He forfeits the establishment of his dynasty when he shows a lack of confidence in God by rashly offering prebattle sacrifices (13:13–14). God then rejects Saul as king because he does not execute God’s full judgment against the Amalekites as he knows he should (15:23).
At this point the biblical history turns its attention to David. God commands Samuel to go to Bethlehem, specifically to the household of Jesse, to anoint one of his sons as the next king (1 Sam. 16). In contrast to Saul, who is notable because of his tall, imposing physical stature (10:23), David is the youngest and smallest of all the children of Jesse, a simple shepherd. Nonetheless, he is the chosen one because God “looks at the heart” (16:7). However, David does not immediately assume the kingship. Indeed, his anointing is kept secret.
The first two accounts of David’s initial public appearance appear in 1 Sam. 16:14–17:58. Some doubt attends the question of whether these two stories are chronologically or thematically organized, but in either case they anticipate David’s later role as psalm singer and warrior. The narrative describes David’s work in Saul’s court as a harpist whose music soothes Saul’s tormented mind (16:14–23) and tells the heroic story of David’s courageous stand against Goliath, a gigantic Philistine mercenary (1 Sam. 17).
Although David never shows any signs of subversion or disloyalty, his growing popularity increases the paranoia of Saul. However, Saul cannot simply kill off such a popular figure, even though in a fit of madness he throws a spear at him (1 Sam. 18:10–11). Saul instead settles on a plan that would lead to David’s death on the battlefield. Saul offers his daughter to David in marriage. After an abortive first attempt involving his daughter Merab, Saul invites him to marry Michal, though as a bride-price he asks through his attendants for one hundred Philistine foreskins (1 Sam. 18:25). Saul assumes that David will surely die in the attempt to obtain them, but instead David kills two hundred Philistines and marries Michal. The alliance to the royal house strengthens his later bid for the throne, but for the moment it serves the purpose of making Saul even more suspicious.
While Saul’s hostility increases toward David, Saul’s son Jonathan develops an intense personal friendship with David (1 Sam. 18:1–4). Jonathan recognizes his father’s weaknesses and understands that he will not be the next king. He helps David escape his father’s wrath, and forever afterward David is kind to the descendants of Jonathan (1 Sam. 19–20).
Eventually, Saul’s murderous intentions toward David become so intense that he must leave the court and live in the hinterlands, moving from place to place, staying one step ahead of Saul and his men. He is not alone, however. With him is an army of six hundred men, a prophet (Gad), and the high priest (Abiathar). In essence, he functions as a kingdom in exile. He saves the Judean city of Keilah from the Philistines (1 Sam. 23:1–6) and protects the flocks of Judean landowners such as the aptly named Nabal (“fool”) (1 Sam. 25). The latter is not properly grateful for the help, and David is ready to avenge himself against him. Fortunately, Nabal’s wife, Abigail, wisely intercedes with David. Nabal dies of other causes, and David marries Abigail.
David is to be the next king, but he is no usurper. Two times during this period (1 Sam. 24; 26) David’s men are in a position to dispatch the king. It may even be possible to justify such a move because Saul is pursuing David to kill him. David knows, however, that it is wrong to harm the anointed of the Lord. He is not going to manipulate the situation and grasp the kingship; he will wait on the Lord’s own timing. David continues to keep out of Saul’s way, even seeking refuge with the Philistines for a period of time.
Eventually, however, Saul’s moment of judgment comes. Saul’s final battle is against the Philistines, the major foreign force still inside the borders of the promised land. Both Saul and Jonathan meet their end on Mount Gilboa, and David sings songs that express his sadness over their deaths (1 Sam. 31–2 Sam. 1).
David’s Kingship
Even with Saul out of the way, David’s rise to kingship is not easy. He is immediately crowned king of Judah (2 Sam. 2:1–7), but the northern tribes choose to follow Ish-Bosheth, the son of Saul. War erupts between the two kingdoms. Eventually, though, the powerful general Abner abandons his support of Saul’s son, sealing the end of that dynasty. Ish-Bosheth is killed by his own men, and soon David becomes king over all Israel (5:1–5).
David’s kingship leads to significant victories that, in essence, complete the conquest of Canaan by finally subduing all the internal enemies. His men take the city of Jerusalem from the Jebusites, and he makes it his capital (2 Sam. 5:6–16). He also defeats the Philistines, who have been a thorn in the side of Israel for years (5:17–25; for other victories, see 8:1–14). In celebration, David brings the ark of the covenant to Jerusalem (2 Sam. 6).
The David narrative reaches its apex when God enters into a covenant with him that establishes his dynasty (2 Sam. 7; 1 Chron. 17). After David dies, his son will succeed him, and indeed his dynasty lasts for many hundreds of years (see below).
David is a good king, but not a perfect king. A turning point in his reign comes in 2 Sam. 11. Up to this point, David has been content with what God has given him. He does not grasp for anything that does not belong to him. However, when he sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing, he sends messengers to bring her to his house, where the two have sexual intercourse and she becomes pregnant. In an attempt to conceal this sin of adultery, he orders the death of her husband, Uriah the Hittite. Thus, he adds the crime of murder to that of adultery.
David thinks that the sin is secret, but nothing is hidden from God, who sends his prophet Nathan to confront David (2 Sam. 12; cf. Ps. 51). The difference between Saul and David is not that the latter is perfect but rather that David, as opposed to Saul, repents when he sins. Thus, God allows his reign to continue. Even so, David feels the consequences of his sin. First, the son that Bathsheba bears from her illicit union with David is struck with illness and dies. And ever afterward, David’s family life is troubled, with great impact on the political life of Israel. Son is pitted against son (Amnon and Absalom [2 Sam. 13]), as well as son against father (Absalom and David [2 Sam. 15–18]). Absalom temporarily deposes his father from the throne, but David eventually regains the kingship, though at the cost of the heartbreaking loss of his son.
Even at the very end, there is conflict within David’s house. When David has grown old, another son, Adonijah, attempts to take the throne, with support from powerful people such as Joab and Abiathar. At the instigation of Bathsheba and Nathan, however, David places the son of his choosing, Solomon, on the throne (1 Kings 1). David then dies after a reign of forty-one years, seven in Hebron and the rest over all Israel (1 Kings 2:10–12).
David’s Legacy
The account in Chronicles emphasizes David’s role in the preparations for the building of the temple. He had wanted to build the structure, but God says that this task is not for the one who completes the conquest of Canaan (1 Chron. 22:8), but rather for his son Solomon, who will inherit a stable nation and whose very name means “peace.”
David’s greatest legacy is the dynasty that bears his name. Beginning with Solomon, however, his successors do not continue his spiritual legacy. Although a number of kings do some good, only Hezekiah (r. 727–698 BC) and Josiah (r. 639–609 BC) are given unqualified approval. Eventually, the Davidic rule comes to an end in Jerusalem at the hands of the Babylonians (586 BC). But God is not done with his redemptive purposes, and his promise to David is that he will have a ruler on the throne “forever” (2 Sam. 7:16). The NT recognizes that Jesus Christ is the fulfillment of this promise. He is the greater son of David, the one who is the Christ or Messiah, the anointed king. Jesus is the one who reigns forever in heaven. The life and the rule of David foreshadow the messianic rule of Jesus Christ.
The descendants of Gershon (also spelled “Gershom”) son of Levi (Gen. 46:11) were Libni (also known as Ladan) and Shimei and their descendants (Num. 3:18, 21; 1 Chron. 6:17, 43; 23:7–11). The Gershonites were counted in a census (Num. 4:22, 38–41) and received thirteen cities from Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, and Manasseh as their territorial allotment (Josh. 21:6, 27; 1 Chron. 6:62, 71 [ESV, NRSV: “Gershomites”]). During the wilderness period they were responsible for all activities concerning the tabernacle coverings, screens, and hangings (Num. 3:25–26; 4:21–28; 7:6–7). They also carried the ark of the covenant (Num. 10:17; 1 Chron. 15:7, 11–15). See also Gershon.
(1) The son of Reaiah of the Zoharite clan from the tribe of Judah, he was the father of Ahumai and Lahad (1 Chron. 4:2). (2) The son of Gershon and a grandson of Levi, forefathers of Asaph the temple musician (1 Chron. 6:43). (3) A Levite, the firstborn son of Shimei from the Gershonite clan (1 Chron. 23:10–11). (4) A Levite, a son of Shelomoth from the Izharite clan (1 Chron. 24:22). (5) A Levite descended from Merari, he and Obadiah supervised the work of repairing and restoring the temple during King Josiah’s reforms (2 Chron. 34:12).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
(1) One of the lyre-playing Levites appointed to be part of the processional that brought the ark of the covenant into Jerusalem during David’s reign (1 Chron. 15:18, 20; 16:5). (2) The son of Ladan (1 Chron. 23:8), he was a Gershonite Levite serving under King David who had custody of the temple treasury (1 Chron. 29:8) and founded a priestly family, the Jehieli (or Jehielites), who administered the temple treasuries (1 Chron. 26:21–22). (3) The son of Hakmoni, he was one of David’s overseers, in charge of caring for the king’s sons (1 Chron. 27:32). (4) One of King Jehoshaphat’s sons and a younger brother of King Jehoram (2 Chron. 21:2). (5) A Levite during Hezekiah’s reform assigned to work with the treasury. He is likely a descendant of the Jehiel in 1 Chron. 23:8 (2 Chron. 29:14 [ESV, NRSV: “Jehuel”]; 31:13). (6) A temple administrator during Josiah’s reign who was wealthy enough to give large offerings to the priests for the celebration of Passover (2 Chron. 35:8). He may be the same person as in 2 Chron. 29:14; 31:13. (7) The father of Obadiah, who is listed among the exilic returnees (Ezra 8:9). (8) The father of Shekaniah, who was involved with Ezra in the purification of the Levites from foreign wives (Ezra 10:2). (9) Two priestly descendants who put away their foreign wives (Ezra 10:21, 26).
(1) The first of three sons born to Esau and Oholibamah (Gen. 36:5, 14, 18). (2) The first of seven sons of Bilhan in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:10). (3) A warrior, the second of three sons of Eshek in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:39). (4) The third of four sons of Shimei, a Levite (1 Chron. 23:10). (5) The first of three sons born to King Rehoboam of Judah and Mahalath (2 Chron. 11:19).
As the son and successor to David, Solomon reigned forty years over the united kingdom of Israel (c. 971–931 BC). Extensive accounts of his reign are provided in 1 Kings 1–11; 2 Chron. 1–9. Solomon, the second son born to Bathsheba, was marked out at birth as “loved by the Lord” (2 Sam. 12:24–25 NIV mg.). He succeeded his father as king, even though he was not David’s oldest living son (1 Kings 2). The building of the temple is the centerpiece of the biblical accounts of Solomon’s reign.
It is common to divide Solomon’s reign into two unequal halves (1 Kings 1–10; 11), with Solomon only becoming apostate due to the influence of foreign wives (1 Kings 11). The earlier chapters, however, are not wholly commendatory. Solomon’s “wisdom” in dealing with Joab and Shimei is vengeful and ruthless (2:6, 9). In 1 Kings 3:1 his palace is mentioned before the temple (because it took precedence in Solomon’s mind?). He spent seven years on the temple but lavished thirteen years on his own house (6:38; 7:1). Behind the picture of his excessive wealth and lucrative trade in horses stand the (unheeded) prohibitions of Deut. 17:14–17. His Egyptian marriage and resort to the high places (1 Kings 3:1–4) foreshadow his overt apostasy (11:1–8). All in all, Solomon proved to be a sad disappointment.
In Chronicles the reigns of David and Solomon are viewed as complementary, such that Solomon completed what David had prepared for. Solomon needed David’s plans and provisions (1 Chron. 28–29), but David needed Solomon to actually build the temple. Just as David brought the ark to Jerusalem, Solomon transferred it to the temple (2 Chron. 5). David organized the cultic officials (1 Chron. 22–27), but Solomon installed them (2 Chron. 8:14–15). Chronicles gives a picture of Solomon’s reign that is very different from the one found in Kings. There is no competition to succeed (cf. 1 Kings 1–2), no apostasy, and no raising up of adversaries (cf. 1 Kings 11:14–40). Solomon enjoyed all Israel’s support throughout his reign. This need not, however, be viewed as whitewashing Solomon. The true explanation is that the focus in Chronicles is almost exclusively on Solomon as temple builder. The Chronicler was also aware of Solomon’s failings (as hinted at in 2 Chron. 9:29; 10:4–15).
The immediate dissolution of the united kingdom after Solomon’s death cannot be simply blamed on the inept handling of the crisis by his son Rehoboam (1 Kings 12). Solomon’s policies put an inordinate economic burden on the north (4:7–19). His conscription of forced labor (5:13–18) and sale of twenty cities in Galilee to Hiram of Tyre (9:10–14) were resented. The raising up of a series of adversaries, including Jeroboam, was a divine judgment (11:9–13). The prophet Ahijah favored Jeroboam (11:29–39). The prophet Shemaiah prevented Rehoboam’s military invasion of the north (12:21–24). The northern tribes wanted relief from Solomon’s harsh policies (“Your father put a heavy yoke on us” [12:4]). Rehoboam was unwilling (or unable?) to compromise. Solomon’s death is reported in 1 Kings 11:41–43, but frequent allusions to him follow (e.g., 12:2, 4, 6, 9), for it was his policies that precipitated the split.
Solomon was largely responsible for the book of Proverbs (Prov. 1:1; 10:1; 25:1). The superscription of the Song of Songs (Song 1:1) associates the book with Solomon, and he is referred to a number of times within it (1:5; 3:7–11; 8:11–12). He is not, however, the lover depicted. The book of Ecclesiastes sometimes is attributed to him, given that the author describes himself as “son of David, king in Jerusalem” (Eccles. 1:1). The author’s reputed wisdom, wealth, and building programs also suggest the figure of Solomon (1:12–2:11). Solomon’s marriages are used as an illustration in a sermon against foreign marriages in Neh. 13:26. In the NT, Solomon’s wealth and wisdom are alluded to in Jesus’ teaching (Matt. 6:29; 12:42). He is also mentioned in relation to the temple (John 10:23; Acts 3:11).
