(1) A Levite, son of Phineas and great-grandson of Aaron (1 Chron. 6:4, 50; Ezra 7:5). (2) A descendant of Saul (1 Chron. 8:4).

(1) Son of Meraioth, a Levite descendant of Kohath through the line of Aaron and Eleazar; the father of Ahitub (1 Chron. 6:7, 52). (2) Son of the priest who served in Solomon’s temple, Azariah, a Levite descendant of Kohath through the line of Aaron and Eleazar; the father of Ahitub (1 Chron. 6:11; see also Ezra 7:3). (3) The second son of Hebron, a Levite; Moses’ cousin (1 Chron. 23:19; 24:23). (4) The chief priest in Jerusalem during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 19:11). (5) A priest who, along with others, assisted Kore with the distribution of the contributions made to God and the consecrated gifts during the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:14–15). (6) A descendant of Binnui who agreed to divorce his foreign wife during the time of Ezra (Ezra 10:42). (7) One of the priests who sealed the covenant to keep the law during the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 10:3). (8) An ancestor of the provincial leader Athaiah, who settled in Jerusalem during the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 11:4). (9) A priest who returned to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel in the postexilic period (Neh. 12:2). (10) An ancestor of Zephaniah the prophet (Zeph. 1:1).

Artaxerxes I (Longimanus) was the fourth king of the Persian Empire (464–424 BC), after Cyrus, Cambyses (not mentioned in the Bible), and Darius. It was an appeal by provincial officials to Artaxerxes at the beginning of his reign that brought a halt to an early attempt to repair the walls of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7–23). Ezra went up to Jerusalem in the seventh year of his reign (458 BC; Ezra 7:7). The appearance of beneficence in Artaxerxes’ decree (7:11–26) was spoiled by the revelation of the self-serving political motivation behind its apparent generosity (7:23). Ezra’s nonuse of the sweeping powers given to him by Artaxerxes further suggests that Persian royal assistance might not be the kind of help really needed by God’s people. Nehemiah returned to Jerusalem in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes’ reign (445 BC; Neh. 1:1). The positive impression made on the reader by Artaxerxes’ personal favoritism toward Nehemiah, allowing him to return to rebuild the walls of his native city, Jerusalem (Neh. 2:3, 5), is undercut by Nehemiah’s disparagement of his royal master (1:11: “this man”). Nehemiah’s second mission took place sometime later than the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes’ reign (5:14; 13:6) but before the king’s death.

(1) An official in Solomon’s administration, the high priest (1 Kings 4:2). (2) A second official, son of Nathan, in Solomon’s administration, in charge of district officers (1 Kings 4:5). (3) The king of Judah around 769–733 BC (also known as Uzziah). He likely ruled as coregent with his father starting in 792 BC before he was sole ruler. The account of his rule is recorded in 2 Kings 14:21–22; 15:1–7; 2 Chron. 26:1–23. (See also Uzziah.) (4) A descendant of Judah through Ethan (1 Chron. 2:8). (5) Another descendant of Judah through Obed, whose son is also called “Azariah” (1 Chron. 2:38–39). (6) A descendant of Levi through his father, Ahimaaz, and the father of Johanan (1 Chron. 6:9). (7) A descendant of Levi through his father, Johanan. This Azariah is said to have served in Solomon’s temple and was the father of Amariah (1 Chron. 6:10–11).

(8) A descendant of Levi through his father, Hilkiah, and the father of Seraiah (1 Chron. 6:13–14). Ezra the scribe was the son of Seraiah and a descendant of this Azariah (Ezra 7:1). (9) A temple musician, a Kohathite (1 Chron. 6:36). (10) A priest, son of Hilkiah (1 Chron. 9:11), likely the same as the Azariah in 1 Chron. 6:13–14. (11) A prophet during the reign of King Asa (910–869 BC) who encouraged the king to purify the worship of Judah (2 Chron. 15:1–8). (12) Two of King Jehoshaphat’s (870–848 BC) seven sons. They were all given many gifts, but the eldest brother, Jehoram, became king of Judah (2 Chron. 21:2). The NIV differentiates by calling one son “Azariahu.” (13) Son of Jehoram, and a military commander who entered into an alliance with the priest Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chron. 23:1) in order to install Joash as king (836–798 BC).

(14) Son of Obed, and a military commander who entered into an alliance with Jehoiada against Athaliah (2 Chron. 23:1). (15) A priest who took the lead in confronting King Uzziah when he burned incense to the Lord in the sacred precincts of the temple (2 Chron. 26:17, 20). (16) Son of Jehohanan, and an Ephraimite leader who confronted the army of Samaria under Pekah (752–732 BC) and demanded that they return Judean prisoners to their homes (2 Chron. 28:12). (17) Son of Jehallelel, and a Gershonite priest from the tribe of Levi who supported Hezekiah’s (727–698 BC) religious reforms (2 Chron. 29:12). (18) The father of Joel, a Levite who supported Hezekiah’s religious reforms (2 Chron. 29:12). (19) The chief priest during the reign of Hezekiah (2 Chron. 31:10–13). (20) Son of Meraioth, a descendant of Aaron, and an ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:3). (21) Son of Maaseiah, and a builder of the wall of Jerusalem under Nehemiah (Neh. 3:23).

(22) A man who returned to Jerusalem from Babylonian captivity with Zerubbabel (Neh. 7:7). (23) A priest who aided Ezra in teaching the people the law (Neh. 8:7). (24) One of those who sealed the covenant that was proclaimed when the wall of Jerusalem was rebuilt (Neh. 10:2). (25) A leader of Judah who participated in the ceremony that dedicated the wall of Jerusalem at the time of Nehemiah (Neh. 12:33). (26) The son of Hoshaiah who, along with Johanan son of Kareah and others, rejected the word of God through Jeremiah to stay in Judah rather than flee to Egypt (Jer. 43:2). (27) One of the three friends of Daniel who experienced captivity in Babylon beginning in 605 BC; he was renamed “Abednego” (Dan. 1:7). He refused to worship Nebuchadnezzar’s golden statue and was thrown into the fiery furnace, from which God saved him (Dan. 1:6, 11, 19; 2:17).

The evidence is clear that the books of Ezra and Nehemiah originally formed a single book. It is not until the Middle Ages that manuscripts show a division between the two. Furthermore, the material in Neh. 8 (and perhaps also chaps. 9–10) is a continuation of the material that follows the story of Ezra begun in Ezra 7–10. Thus, some of the discussion that follows is also relevant for the book of Nehemiah.

The book of Ezra is named after Ezra, a self-described priest and teacher (7:11) of the Lord. This man was commissioned by the Persian king Artaxerxes I (r. 464–424 BC) to reestablish the law of the Lord in the land of Judah.

Author and Date

The issue of the author and date of Ezra must include the evidence of Nehemiah, since they were originally a single composition. These books are unique among the theological histories of the OT in that they contain large portions that are written in the form of memoirs, first-person accounts of people who participated in the events that are narrated. Ezra, for instance, speaks in the first person in parts of Ezra 7–10. However, the memoir is set within the framework of a form more typical to the histories of the OT: third-person omniscient narration. So, although traditionally the authorship of Ezra is associated with Ezra, there is no claim that the book as a whole was written by him; thus, this book, like so many of the histories of Israel, is anonymous.

As for the date of composition, we need to differentiate the memoirs, which come from the time of Ezra (his ministry begins in 458 BC) and the time of Nehemiah (his work begins in 445 BC), and the time of the third-person narrative that incorporates these memoirs. The latter contains no date, but none of the events narrated took place after around 400 BC, and perhaps the final composition of the book took place around this time and no later than 300 BC.

Genre and Structure

The book of Ezra is a theological history, a book that intends to communicate what actually happened in space and time but is selective, with the purpose of showing how God was working among the people of God in the postexilic period. As a theological history in the OT, however, Ezra and Nehemiah are unique in that they contain the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah (as detailed by the first outline below). The structure of the book of Ezra makes sense only when paired with Nehemiah, since, again, they were an original unity. The structure may be explained on the basis of its sources as follows:

I. A Historical Review (Ezra 1–6)

II. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Ezra 7–10)

III. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Neh. 1–7)

IV. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 8–10)

V. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 11–13)

Or on the basis of the contents as follows:

I. Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar Lead the People in Rebuilding the Temple (Ezra 1–6)

II. Ezra Leads the People by Reestablishing the Law (Ezra 7–10)

III. Nehemiah Leads the People in Rebuilding the Wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 1:1–7:3)

IV. Renewal, Celebration, Remaining Problems (Neh. 7:4–13:31)

Theological Message

The book of Ezra begins where Chronicles ends, with the decree by King Cyrus of Persia that the Jews be allowed to return to the land. The first six chapters narrate the events of the first phase of that return, from 539 until 515 BC. Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar are the leaders of the people at this time, and their initial goal is to rebuild the temple. Once they start, however, opposition sets in, and the work stops. However, motivated in large part, as we know, by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the people finish the work, and the second temple becomes functional.

Nonetheless, over fifty years later, when the story of Ezra begins (Ezra 7–10), the condition of the people of God is not promising. King Artaxerxes of Persia allows Ezra, a priest and teacher, to lead a return back to Judah with the express purpose of reestablishing the law in the land. When he arrives, he finds that there are sinful practices such as illegitimate intermarriage between Jews and Gentiles, and he works to reestablish the purity of the people. The story of Ezra continues in the book of Nehemiah, where he is seen leading the people in a great renewal of the covenant as they reaffirm their commitment to obey God’s law (Neh. 8–10).

Contemporary Significance

The book of Ezra narrates two periods of return to the promised land from exile with two different primary purposes. The first group, led by Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar, has as its main purpose the rebuilding of the temple. The primacy of the temple building is an indication of the importance of worship. The second group returns under the leadership of Ezra, whose purpose is to reestablish the observance of the law among God’s people. God’s word plays a central role in Ezra’s reform, and reading about his ancient ministry reminds God’s people today of the importance of Scripture.

Ezra’s style of leadership also provides a model for contemporary leadership. Ezra is sensitive and empathetic. He takes the shortcomings and failures of God’s people on himself. When the people sin, he tears out his own hair and sheds tears of disappointment. That this is not the only possible style of leadership is seen in the next book as we observe Nehemiah at work.

The work of Zerubbabel and Ezra (as well as Nehemiah) also illustrates that at times separation from pagan influences is necessary. Granted, Jesus breaks down the barrier between Jews and Gentiles (Gal. 3:28), but his followers should be distinguished by their new life in him (Gal. 4:8–11; 5:16–26).

(1) A tribal leader of Dan assigned to help in the allotment of Canaan under the direction of Joshua and Eleazar (Num. 34:22). (2) Son of the Levite Abishua, a descendant of Aaron through the line of Eleazar (1 Chron. 6:5, 51). Bukki and his son, Uzzi, are also mentioned in the lineage of Ezra (Ezra 7:4).

A priest and scribe of pivotal importance in the late postexilic period (Ezra 7:1–10:44; Neh. 8:1–18; 12:36).

The Babylonian exile ended in 539 BC, and due to a decree by Cyrus, many exiles returned to Jerusalem under the leadership of Sheshbazzar and Zerubbabel. The temple was rebuilt at that time (515 BC), though now, many decades later, Jerusalem was still largely ruined, and the people were in a state of spiritual depression.

The Persian king of the time, Artaxerxes I, gave Ezra permission to return to Jerusalem in order to restore the law of Moses as the law of the land. Ezra left in that king’s seventh year (458 BC). Artaxerxes was guided by a Persian state policy dictating that the empire’s vassals would be best ordered if allowed to restore their own native laws. God used this self-serving impulse for his own purposes.

Ezra brought a number of Levites along with him for the task of instructing the people in the law of God. As part of Ezra’s work, he also confronted sin in the community, the most notable of which was marriage between Jewish men and pagan wives. Such sins led to Israel and Judah’s problems in the first place, as foreign women led their husbands to adopt pagan religious practices. One need only think of Jezebel and Ahab and the Egyptian princess and Solomon. When he confronted these sinners, Ezra wept and tore his clothes, demonstrating his zeal that the people obey God.

The account of Ezra’s ministry is told in conjunction with that of Nehemiah, who arrived in 445 BC, commissioned to rebuild the wall, yet rarely is their work described together. They were together on the day that the people reaffirmed their intention to obey God’s law (Neh. 8:1, 9–10).

Ezra plays a significant role in the Jewish literature of the intertestamental period. He is remembered as the one who closes the OT canon, bringing all the books to completion and in a collection.

For Christians, God is the creator of the cosmos and the redeemer of humanity. He has revealed himself in historical acts—namely, in creation, in the history of Israel, and especially in the person and work of Jesus Christ. There is only one God (Deut. 6:4); “there is no other” (Isa. 45:5). Because “God is spirit” (John 4:24), he must reveal himself through various images and metaphors.

Imagery of God

God’s character and attributes are revealed primarily through the use of imagery, the best and most understandable way to describe the mysterious nature of God. Scripture employs many images to describe God’s being and character. Some examples follow here.

God is compared to the father who shows compassion and love to his children (Ps. 103:13; Rom. 8:15). The father image is also used by the prophets to reveal God’s creatorship (Isa. 64:8). Jesus predominantly uses the language of “Father” in reference to God (Mark 8:38; 13:32; 14:36), revealing his close relationship with the Father. God is also identified as the king of Israel even before the Israelites have a human king (1 Sam. 10:19).

The Psalter exalts Yahweh as the king, acknowledging God’s sovereignty and preeminence (Pss. 5:2; 44:4; 47:6–7; 68:24; 74:12; 84:3; 95:3; 145:1). God is metaphorically identified as the shepherd who takes care of his sheep, his people, to depict his nature of provision and protection (Ps. 23:1–4). The image of the potter is also employed to describe the nature of God, who creates his creatures according to his will (Jer. 18:6; Rom. 9:20–23). In Hos. 2:4–3:5 God is identified as the long-suffering husband of the adulterous wife Israel. In the setting of war, God is depicted as the divine warrior who fights against his enemy (Exod. 15:3).

God is also referred to as advocate (Isa. 1:18), judge (Gen. 18:25), and lawgiver (Deut. 5:1–22). The image of the farmer is also frequently adopted to describe God’s nature of compassionate care, creation, providence, justice, redemption, sanctification, and more (e.g., Isa. 5:1–7; John 15:1–12). God is often referred to as the teacher (Exod. 4:15) who teaches what to do, as does the Holy Spirit in the NT (John 14:26). The Holy Spirit is identified as the counselor, the helper, the witness, and the guide (John 14:16, 26; 15:26). God is often metaphorically compared to various things in nature, such as rock (Ps. 18:2, 31, 46), light (Ps. 27:1), fire (Deut. 4:24; 9:3), lion (Hos. 11:10), and eagle (Deut. 32:11–12). In particular, the Davidic psalms employ many images in nature—rock, fortress, shield, horn, and stronghold (e.g., Ps. 18:2)—to describe God’s perfect protection.

Last, anthropomorphism often is employed to describe God’s activities. Numerous parts of the human body are used to speak of God: face (Num. 6:25–26), eyes (2 Chron. 16:9), mouth (Deut. 8:3), ears (Neh. 1:6), nostrils (Exod. 15:8), hands (Ezra 7:9), arms (Deut. 33:27), fingers (Ps. 8:3), voice (Exod. 15:26), shoulders (Deut. 33:12), feet (Ps. 18:9), and back (Exod. 33:21–22).

Names and Attributes of God

The OT refers to God by many names. One of the general terms used for God, ’el (which probably means “ultimate supremacy”), often appears in a compound form with a qualifying word, as in ’el ’elyon (“God Most High”), ’el shadday (“God Almighty”), and ’el ro’i (“the God who sees me” or “God of my seeing”). These descriptive names reveal important attributes of God and usually were derived from the personal experiences of the people of God in real-life settings; thus, they do not describe an abstract concept of God.

The most prominent personal name of God is yahweh (YHWH), which is translated as “the Lord” in most English Bibles. At the burning bush in the wilderness of Horeb, God first revealed to Moses his personal name in sentence form: “I am who I am” (Exod. 3:13–15). Though debated, the divine name “YHWH” seems to originate from an abbreviated form of this sentence. Yahweh, who was with Moses and his people at the time of exodus, is the God who was with Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. According to Jesus’ testimony, “the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob” is identified as the God “of the living” (Matt. 22:32). Hence, the name “Yahweh” is closely tied to God’s self-revelation as the God of presence and life. (See also Names of God.)

Many of God’s attributes are summarized in Exod. 34:6–7: “The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.” Below are further explanations of some of the representative attributes of God.

Holiness. The moral excellence of God is the attribute that underlies all other attributes. Thus, all God’s attributes can be modified by the adjective holy: holy love, holy justice, holy mercy, holy righteousness, holy compassion, holy wisdom, and so forth. God is the only supremely holy one (1 Sam. 2:2; Rev. 15:4). God’s name is also holy; those who profane God’s name are condemned as guilty (Exod. 20:7; Lev. 22:32). God is depicted as the one who has concern for his holy name, which the Israelites profaned among the nations; God actively seeks to restore the holiness of his defiled name (Ezek. 36:21–23). God’s holiness is revealed by his righteous action (Isa. 5:16). Not only is God holy, but also he expects his people to be holy (Lev. 11:45; 19:2). All the sacrificial codes of Leviticus represent the moral requirements of holiness for the worshipers. Because of God’s character of holiness, he cannot tolerate sin in the lives of people, and he brings judgment to those who do not repent (Hab. 1:13).

Love and justice. Because “God is love,” no one reaches the true knowledge of God without having love (1 John 4:8). Images of the father and the faithful husband are frequently employed to portray God’s love (Deut. 1:31; Jer. 31:32; Hos. 2:14–20; 11:1–4). God’s love was supremely demonstrated by the giving of his only Son Jesus Christ for his people (John 3:16; Rom. 5:7–8; 1 John 4:9–10). God expects his people to follow the model of Christ’s sacrificial love (1 John 3:16).

God’s justice is the foundation of his moral law and his ways (Deut. 32:4; Job 34:12; Ps. 9:16; Rev. 15:3). It is also seen in his will (Ps. 99:4). God loves justice and acts with justice (Ps. 33:5). God’s justice is demonstrated in judging people according to their deeds—punishing wickedness and rewarding righteousness (Ezek. 18:20; Ps. 58:11; Rev. 20:12–13). God establishes justice by upholding the cause of the oppressed (Ps. 103:6) and by vindicating those afflicted (1 Sam. 25:39). God is completely impartial in implementing justice (Job 34:18–19). As with holiness, God requires his people to reflect his justice (Prov. 21:3).

God keeps a perfect balance between the attributes of love and justice. God’s love never infringes upon his justice, and vice versa. The cross of Jesus Christ perfectly shows these two attributes in one act. Because of his love, God gave his only Son for his people; because of his justice, God punished his Son for the sake of their sins. The good news is that God’s justice was satisfied by the work of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:25–26).

Righteousness and mercy. God’s righteousness shows his unique moral perfection. God’s nature, actions, and laws display his character of righteousness (Pss. 19:8–9; 119:137; Dan. 9:14). “Righteousness and justice” are the foundation of God’s throne (Ps. 89:14). God’s righteousness was especially demonstrated in the work of Jesus Christ (Rom. 3:21–22). God’s righteousness will ultimately be revealed in his final judgment (Rev. 19:2; 20–22; cf. Ps. 7:11).

The English word “mercy” renders various words in the original languages: in Hebrew, khesed, khanan, rakham; in Greek, charis, eleos, oiktirmos, splanchnon. English Bibles translate these variously as “mercy,” “compassion,” “grace,” “kindness,” or “love.” The word “mercy” is chosen here as a representative concept (cf. Ps. 86:15). God’s mercy is most clearly seen in his act of forgiving sinners. In the Psalter, “Have mercy on me” is the most common form of expression when the psalmist entreats God’s forgiveness (Pss. 41:4, 10; 51:1). God’s mercy is shown abundantly to his chosen people (Eph. 2:4–8). Because of his mercy, their sins are forgiven (Mic. 7:18), their punishments are withheld (Ezra 9:13), and even sinners’ prayers are heard (Ps. 51:1; Luke 18:13–14). God is “the Father of mercies” (2 Cor. 1:3 NRSV).

God keeps a perfect balance between righteousness and mercy. His righteousness and mercy never infringe upon each other, nor does one operate at the expense of the other. God’s abundant mercy is shown to sinners through Jesus Christ, but if they do not repent of their sins, his righteous judgment will be brought upon them.

Faithfulness. God’s faithfulness is revealed in keeping the covenant that he made with his people. God “is the faithful God, keeping his covenant of love to a thousand generations of those who love him and keep his commandments” (Deut. 7:9). God is faithful to his character, his name, and his word (Neh. 9:8; Ps. 106:8; 2 Tim. 2:13; Heb. 6:13–18). God’s faithfulness is clearly seen in fulfilling his promise (Josh. 23:14). God showed his faithfulness by fulfilling all the promises that he made to Abraham (Gen. 12:2–3; Rom. 9:9; Gal. 4:28; Heb. 6:13–15), by having Solomon build the temple that he promised to David (2 Sam. 7:12–13; 1 Kings 8:17–21), and by sending his people into exile in Babylon and returning them to their homeland (Jer. 25:8–11; Dan. 9:2–3). God’s faithfulness was ultimately demonstrated by sending Jesus Christ, as was promised in the OT (Luke 24:44; Acts 13:32–33; 1 Cor. 15:3–8).

Goodness. Jesus said, “No one is good—except God alone” (Mark 10:18). God demonstrates his goodness in his actions (Ps. 119:68), in his work of creation (1 Tim. 4:4), in his love (Ps. 86:5), and in his promises (Josh. 23:14–15).

Patience. God is “slow to anger” (Exod. 34:6; Num. 14:18), which is a favorite expression for his patience (Neh. 9:17; Pss. 86:15; 103:8; Joel 2:13). God is patient with sinful people for a long time (Acts 13:18). Because of his patient character, he delays punishment (Isa. 42:14). For instance, God was patient with his disobedient prophet Jonah and also with the sinful people of Nineveh (Jon. 3:1–10). The purpose of God’s patience is to lead people toward repentance (Rom. 2:4).

God of the Trinity

The Christian God of the Bible is the triune God. God is one but exists in three persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (Matt. 28:19). The Son is one with the Father (John 10:30); the Holy Spirit is one with God (2 Sam. 23:2–3). All three share the same divine nature; they are all-knowing, holy, glorious, and called “Lord” and “God” (Matt. 11:25; John 1:1; 20:28; Acts 3:22; 5:3–4; 10:36; 1 Cor. 8:6; 2 Cor. 3:17–18; 2 Pet. 1:1). All three share in the same work of creation (Gen. 1:1–3), salvation (1 Pet. 1:2), indwelling (John 14:23), and directing the church’s mission (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 16:6–10; 14:27; 13:2–4).

(1) The father of Eliakim the official of Hezekiah (2 Kings 18:18–37; Isa. 22:20; 36:3). (2) The son of Shallum (1 Chron. 6:13; Ezra 7:1–2), he was the high priest during Josiah’s reign who found the law book (2 Kings 22:4–23:24; 2 Chron. 34:9–22). (3) A Levite, the son of Amzi (1 Chron. 6:45–46). (4) A gatekeeper, a son of Hosah (1 Chron. 26:11). (5) One of twelve men standing with Ezra as he read the law (Neh. 8:4). (6) A leader of the priests who returned from exile with Zerubbabel (Neh. 12:7). (7) A priest of Anathoth and the father of Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. 1:1). (8) The father of Gemariah, who delivered Jeremiah’s letter to the Babylonian exiles (Jer. 29:1–3).

(1) A priest who was an ancestor of Azariah, who served as chief priest in Solomon’s temple (1 Chron. 6:6–10). He is also an ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:3). (2) A priest who was the son of Ahitub and the father of Zadok (1 Chron. 9:11; Neh. 11:11). (3) A priestly family of the second temple during the high priesthood of Joiakim in the fifth century BC (Neh. 12:15).

An individual with the ability to read and write who uses these skills in a professional manner. The scribe was highly esteemed in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. Most scribes were royal secretaries (2 Sam. 8:17; 20:25). Early scribal activities included writing official records, drafting letters, and preparing royal decrees, deeds, and other things (2 Kings 12:10; 25:19; 2 Chron. 26:11). The scribes also read to the king (Jer. 36:21). As a result, scribes often became counselors to the king in matters of state (1 Chron. 27:32). After the exile, scribes became experts in the law of Moses (Ezra 7:6). By NT times, scribes were associated with the Pharisees as professional teachers of the law (Mark 2:16). Along with the chief priests, scribes conspired to kill Jesus (Luke 19:47).

(1) A royal secretary in the court of David (2 Sam. 8:17; he is called “Sheva” in 2 Sam. 20:25, “Shavsha” in 1 Chron. 18:16, and “Shisha” in 1 Kings 4:3). (2) The son of Tanhumeth the Netophathite, he was one of the Judean army officers who joined the Babylonian-appointed governor Gedaliah at Mizpah (2 Kings 25:23; Jer. 40:8). (3) The second son of Kenaz and the brother of Othniel, his son was Joab, “the father of Ge Harashim” (1 Chron. 4:13–14). See Ge Harashim. (4) A Simeonite, the son of Asiel and the grandfather of Jehu (1 Chron. 4:35). (5) The son of Azariah and the father of Jozadak, a descendant of Aaron (1 Chron. 6:14). A high priest executed at Riblah by Nebuchadnezzar (2 Kings 25:18–21; Jer. 52:24–27). (6) An ancestor of Ezra the scribe (Ezra 7:1). (7) One of the returnees to Jerusalem with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:2). (8) One of the priests who sealed the postexilic covenant renewal with Nehemiah (Neh. 10:2). (9) A priest and a descendant of Hilkiah, he was a supervisor in the house of God (Neh. 11:11). (10) One of the twenty-two “leaders of the priests” (Neh. 12:7) who accompanied Zerubbabel and Jeshua out of exile (Neh. 12:1). (11) The son of Azriel, he was one of the officers of King Jehoiakim sent to arrest Jeremiah and Baruch (Jer. 36:26). (12) The son of Neriah and the brother of Baruch (cf. Jer. 32:12), he was an official who went with King Zedekiah into exile in Babylon. Jeremiah gave him a scroll containing his prophecy of destruction upon Babylon and commanded him to read it aloud and then sink it with a stone in the Euphrates, symbolizing the fall of Babylon (Jer. 51:59–64).

(1) A descendant of Judah through Sismai (1 Chron. 2:40–41). (2) A descendant of Simeon (1 Chron. 4:25). (3) A descendant of Levi through Zadok (1 Chron. 6:12–13). He is the ancestor of Ezra (Ezra 7:2). (4) A son of Naphtali (1 Chron. 7:13 [in some MT and LXX manuscripts “Shillem,” as rendered in the NIV]). (5) A Korahite, the chief gatekeeper under David (1 Chron. 9:17–19, 31). After the Babylonian exile, his descendants continued in the role of gatekeeper (Ezra 2:42; Neh. 7:45). (6) The son of Jabesh, he conspired against King Zechariah, last of the line of Jehu, and assassinated him, fulfilling prophecy. Shallum took the throne and ruled over Israel for one month (2 Kings 15:10–15).

(7) The husband of the prophetess Huldah, he was keeper of the temple vestments (2 Kings 22:14–20). (8) A son of King Josiah (1 Chron. 3:15), he ruled by the name “Jehoahaz” for three months until deposed by Pharaoh Necho (2 Kings 23:31–34). Jeremiah prophesied that Shallum would die in exile because he failed to uphold the cause of the needy and to continue his father’s reforms (Jer. 22:11–17). (9) An uncle of Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. 32:7). (10) A gatekeeper known by Jeremiah the prophet (Jer. 35:4). (11) A gatekeeper who married a foreign wife and pledged to put her away when confronted by Ezra (Ezra 10:24).

(12) A descendant of Binnui who married a foreign wife and pledged to put her away when confronted by Ezra (Ezra 10:42). (13) The father of Jehizkiah, a leader in Ephraim (2 Chron. 28:12). (14) The son of Hallohesh, he was the ruler of a half-district of Jerusalem who, with assistance from his daughters, helped to rebuild the Jerusalem wall after the return from exile (Neh. 3:12). (15) The son of Kol-Hozeh, he was the “ruler of the district of Mizpah” and helped to rebuild the Jerusalem wall after the return from exile (Neh. 3:15 [most manuscripts have “Shallun,” as rendered in the NIV]).

(1) The son of Bukki and the father of Zerahiah, listed in Aaron’s and Ezra’s genealogies (1 Chron. 6:6–7; Ezra 7:4). (2) A son of Tola, he was one of the family heads in the tribe of Issachar (1 Chron. 7:2–3). (3) A son of Bela, he was one of the family heads in the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 7:7). (4) The son of Mikri, he was a Benjamite among the returning Babylonian exiles (1 Chron. 9:8). (5) A Levitical chief officer chosen to live in Jerusalem (Neh. 11:22). (6) The head of the priestly family of Jedaiah (Neh. 12:19). He may be the same person as the Uzzi of Neh. 11:22. (7) One of the leaders who participated in the dedication of the Jerusalem wall (Neh. 12:42). He may be the same person as the Uzzi of Neh. 11:22; 12:19.

(1) The son of Uzzi, he was a descendant of Aaron and an ancestor of Ezra (1 Chron. 6:6, 51; Ezra 7:4). (2) The father of Eliehoenai, who returned from exile with Ezra and two hundred men of the descendants of Pahath-Moab (Ezra 8:4).

Nehemiah son of Hakaliah is one of the most colorful figures in OT history. He is passionate and aggressive; he works hard to achieve the goals that God has set for him. He does not tolerate the sins of others and fights his way through the obstacles that people set in his path. In many ways, he is a study in contrasts with Ezra, his near contemporary. When Ezra discovers sin among his fellow Judeans, he pulls his hair out. When Nehemiah encounters the same problem, he pulls out the hair of the sinners.

The books of Ezra and Nehemiah were originally a single composition, not broken into two parts until the Middle Ages. Thus, many issues, such as date and authorship, are discussed in the introduction to the article on the book of Ezra. Here, the conclusions will be stated for ease of reference, but the evidence is presented in the article on Ezra. The additional details to follow are particularly relevant to the study of Nehemiah.

Literary Considerations

Author and date. Ezra-Nehemiah is an anonymous composition that reached its present form sometime between 400 and 300 BC.

Genre and structure. Ezra-Nehemiah is a theological history, a book that intends to communicate what actually happened in space and time but is selective, with the purpose of showing how God was working among his people in the postexilic period. As a theological history in the OT, however, Ezra (and Nehemiah) are unique in that they contain the memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah as detailed by the first outline below. The structure of the book of Ezra makes sense only when paired with the book of Nehemiah, again since they were originally a unit. The structure may be explained on the basis of its sources, as follows:

I. A Historical Review (Ezra 1–6)

II. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Ezra 7–10)

III. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 1 (Neh. 1–7)

IV. Ezra’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 8–10)

V. Nehemiah’s Memoirs, Part 2 (Neh. 11–13)

Or it may be explained on the basis of its content:

I. Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar Lead the People in Rebuilding the Temple (Ezra 1–6)

II. Ezra Leads the People by Reestablishing the Law (Ezra 7–10)

III. Nehemiah Leads the People in Rebuilding the Wall of Jerusalem (Neh. 1:1–7:3)

IV. Renewal, Celebration, Remaining Problems (Neh. 7:4–13:31)

Theological Message

The book begins with Nehemiah serving as the cupbearer of King Artaxerxes of Persia. Nehemiah hears a distressing report from his ancestral homeland in Judah and feels called to return to Jerusalem. Receiving permission from Artaxerxes to go back to Judah, he arrives intent on building the walls of the city, thus completing the physical reconstruction of the city. In spite of the efforts of neighboring groups and provinces to block their efforts, the Jews under Nehemiah’s leadership are remarkably successful at accomplishing their task. In this, the postexilic people of God surely must have recognized that the prophecies of salvation in Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel were coming to fulfillment.

The book of Nehemiah also records Ezra’s leadership in guiding the people to reaffirm their commitment to Yahweh and his law. They confess their sin. One might think of the physical wall that Nehemiah built not only as protection but also as a means of physical separation from the Gentiles. Also, then, Ezra’s reestablishment of the law of God would serve as a spiritual separation from the lawless Gentiles.

Even with all the success, the book of Nehemiah ends in chapter 13 on a note of disappointment. Nehemiah recounts the strenuous efforts that the faithful under his leadership have made to get right with God, but many people persisted in their sin.

Contemporary Significance

Ezra narrates two returns: first under Zerubbabel and Sheshbazzar to rebuild the temple, and second under Ezra to reestablish the law. In the first part, the book of Nehemiah focuses on a third return under Nehemiah to build the walls and thus complete the physical reconstruction of the city. Nehemiah’s leadership provides an alternative model of leadership to that of Ezra. Nehemiah is more assertive and demanding. It is not that one mode of leadership is right or wrong; the contemporary Christian leader looking to Ezra and Nehemiah for a model of leadership should read the situation to know what will best accomplish God’s purposes. Also, the purpose of building the walls was a matter of military defense, but it was also a matter of separation. True, Christ breaks down the wall of separation between Jews and Gentiles (Eph. 2:14–18), but the NT also recognizes that Christians (whether from a Jewish or a Gentile background) must lead holy and distinct lives.

Surprisingly, the book of Nehemiah does not end with a sense of completion, a feeling of mission accomplished. The last chapter finds Nehemiah in prayer for the continuing sin of the people, reminding contemporary readers that repentance is not a onetime act, but a lifestyle.

A biblical genealogy is a listing of names showing the interrelationships of individuals, clans, or nations. They are found mainly, though not exclusively, in the Pentateuch, Ezra-Nehemiah, and Chronicles. The arrangement of names in such listings is most often forward in time, from ancestor to descendant (e.g., Ruth 4:18–22, tracing a family line down to David), and this is the genealogy proper. At other times, names are listed in the opposite direction, backward in time, from the individual to ancestor (e.g., Ezra 7:1–5, where Ezra’s ancestry is traced back to Aaron “the chief priest”), and this is, strictly speaking, a pedigree. The unusually lengthy pedigree (even by biblical standards) of Ezra “the priest” is an effective way to highlight his temple interest when he is first introduced to the reader. The pedigree of 1 Chron. 6:33–47 shows the impeccable Levitical credentials of Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, who served before the ark of the covenant under the leadership of David. Genealogical information is always supplied for a reason.

Types of Genealogies

The two main terms used in the OT are toledot (“genealogical history”; e.g., Gen. 2:4; 5:1; 6:9; NIV: “account”) and yakhas (“genealogical record”; only in Neh. 7:5, but the related verb, “to register by genealogy,” occurs in Ezra 2 // Neh. 7 and elsewhere). In Ezra-Nehemiah the supplying of a credible genealogy is necessary for acceptance as an Israelite (Ezra 2:59–60) or for securing priestly privileges (Ezra 2:61–63). The concern is not racial purity as such, but rather Israel’s theological integrity (Ezra 9:1–2). The pejorative references to “genealogies” in 1 Tim. 1:4 and Titus 3:9 do not condemn the OT lists but instead reject the concocted genealogies in the mythic speculations of Jewish intertestamental books such as Jubilees.

Lineage is almost invariably traced through the male line. Most often in biblical narrative an individual is supplied only with a patronym (e.g., “Isaiah son of Amoz” [Isa. 1:1]), or sometimes three generations are specified (e.g., “Bezalel son of Uri, the son of Hur” [Exod. 35:30]). In Exod. 6:16–20 the foreshortened genealogy of Aaron and Moses is not to be understood as saying that there were only four generations between them and Levi.

Some genealogies involve ethnic and geographical relations—for example, between the nations of the ancient world in Gen. 11, and between Israel and surrounding peoples in Gen. 19:37–38; 25:1–4. In lists, the father-son relation can be broader than immediate descent and may refer to remote ancestors (grandson, great-grandson, etc.) (e.g., Ezra 5:1; cf. Zech. 1:1).

The Importance of Genealogies

Genealogies are an important feature of biblical storytelling. The modern reader should not simply leap over them, and the works of J. R. R. Tolkien show that genealogy is not dead in literary terms. When a biblical genealogy is supplied, it has a narratorial role. It contributes something essential to the presentation of the biblical writer. For example, 1 Chron. 1 is not a bare listing of names but rather, beginning with Adam, provides a world context for the history of Israel that follows; and 1 Chron. 2–9 emphasizes the twelve-tribal structure of God’s people, thus preventing the misapprehension that Chronicles is just a history of the southern kingdom of Judah. Also, lists are usually not just names; they include thematically significant material contributing to the overall message of the particular book—for example, the technological advances of Cain’s descendants told in Gen. 4:17–22 and the military exploits recounted in 1 Chron. 5:18–22.

The ten-generation genealogy of Gen. 5 bridges the antediluvian and the deluge eras. The repeated refrain “and he died” depicts the reign of death over the human race. Another ten-generation genealogy joins the flood generation to Abram (Gen. 11:10–26). In this case, the deleterious effect of sin on humans is shown by the gradual decrease in human life span. There is often an element of schema in biblical genealogies (e.g., the limitation of generations to ten). Genesis 5 displays the convention of the seventh generation, which is deemed worthy of special attention (Enoch). There is also the Bible’s delight in multiples of seven—for example, the seventy nations in Gen. 10, the 3 × 14 generational schema in Matt. 1, and the seventy members in the pedigree of Christ in Luke 3:23–38. Hence, none of these genealogies should be understood as comprehensive in scope; rather, they are highly selective and stylized. Their purpose is to support and underscore the writer’s theological message.

Because it is rare for females to be mentioned in biblical genealogies, when they are there is special significance—for example, Sarai in Gen. 11:29: though barren, she will become the mother of the line of promise; Rebekah in Gen. 22:23: she will become the wife of Isaac; the daughters of Zelophehad in Num. 26:33: their story will be elaborated in Num. 27; 36; the five women in the genealogy of Jesus (Matt. 1): several of them are non-Israelites, suggesting that Jesus comes as the Savior of the world.