Big Idea: Phoebe, Paul’s patron, will deliver Paul’s covenant letter and have it read to the Roman Christians. Phoebe’s authority as patron and deaconess will reinforce the reading’s solemnity. The Roman Christians should respond to Paul’s letter by providing hospitality for Phoebe and joining their resources with hers to launch Paul’s mission to Spain.
Understanding the Text
Romans 16:1–2 continues the document clause of Paul’s covenant letter to the Roman Christians (15:14–16:27). Romans 16:1–27 divides into five units:
- Phoebe and Paul’s mission to Spain (16:1–2)
- Paul’s greetings to some thirty-six Roman Christians (16:3–16)
- Paul’s warning about false teaching (16:17–20)
- Greetings to the Roman Christians from Paul’s coworkers (16:21–23)
- Paul’s concluding doxology (16:25–27)1
Historical and Cultural Background
1. Thomas Schreiner observes that letters of commendation were common in the ancient world because travelers often were unknown and needed hospitality and thereby support to carry on their business or ministry (cf. Acts 18:27; 2 Cor. 3:1; 4:2; 5:12; 10:12; 12:11; 3 John 9–10; 1 Macc. 12:43; 2 Macc. 9:25).2 From the Greco-Roman literature, Robert Jewett supplies the following example:
So-and-so, who is conveying this letter to you, has been tested by us and is loved on account of his trustworthiness. You will do well if you deem him worthy of approval both for my sake and his, and indeed for your own. For you will not be sorry if you entrust to him, in any manner you wish, either confidential words or matters. Indeed, you will also praise him to others when you notice how useful he can be in everything.3
Chan-Hie Kim shows that these letters of commendation include an introduction and a listing of credentials of the bearer, and the desired action on the part of the recipient.4 These three components occur in Romans 16:1–2: introduction of Phoebe (v. 1a); Phoebe’s credentials (vv. 1b, 2b); Phoebe’s (and Paul’s) desired action on the part of the Roman Christian recipients of the letter (v. 2a). In my analysis of 16:1–2 to follow I will use this three-point outline.
2. It is widely agreed that the word prostatis, describing Phoebe’s role in 16:2b, is a technical term for “patron.”5 A patron was a wealthy person from the upper class of Roman society who gave of his or her means to a cause for a city or people, including civic buildings, humanitarian efforts, and religious causes. In return, the recipients of such benefaction would dedicate, for example, a building to that patron in thanks for the contribution.6 Both men and women functioned as patrons in the Roman world.7 It is clear from this that Phoebe acted as patron for Paul and for others as well (16:2b). Most likely, Phoebe helped Paul at the very least by paying Tertius, Paul’s professional scribe (16:22), to copy the letter to the Romans, travel to Rome, and read it to them, with Phoebe’s presence at the reading as Paul’s imprimatur on the occasion. More specifically, Phoebe’s task of delivering the letter of Romans and having it read was intended to garner support from the Roman Christians for Paul’s upcoming mission to Spain.
3. In 16:1 Phoebe is called a “deacon” (diakonos), which prompts me to discuss, quite briefly, the leadership structure of the early church. Although some say that diakonos in 16:1 is simply the general term for “servant,” most commentators see the term as indicating the office of deacon (cf. Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:8, 12; see also Ign. Eph. 2.1; Ign. Magn. 6.1). Schreiner lists three reasons for this: (a) 1 Timothy 3:11 probably identifies women as deacons; (b) the designation “deacon of the church in Cenchreae” (Rom. 16:1) indicates that an office is intended; as does (c) the usage of the masculine word diakonos.8 Thus, the office of the deacon in the early church seems to have included both men and women. The latter came to be known later as deaconesses. The other leadership office in the early church was that of elder (see, e.g., 1 Tim. 3:1–7; 1 Pet. 5:1–4).
Philippians 1:1–2 mentions the offices of elder and deacon in the early church. Moreover, it is clear that the elder was also called “bishop/overseer” (Phil. 1:1; 1 Tim. 3:1), and that some elders were teaching elders/pastors (Acts 20:17–31; 1 Pet. 5:1–4). In other words, in the early church “elder,” “bishop,” and “pastor” were one and the same. It was not until the second century that the monarchial episcopate (a bishop presiding over several churches in a region) emerged in the later notion of apostolic succession. It is debated whether or not women served as elders in the early church, though Romans 16:7 may shed light on that subject, as we will see later.
4. In 16:1 Paul uses the word “church” for the first time in Romans. The New Testament word for “church” is ekklēsia, which means “gathering, congregation, assembly.” In classical Greek the term was used almost exclusively for political gatherings. In particular, in Athens the word signified the assembling of the citizens for the purpose of conducting the affairs of the city. Moreover, ekklēsia referred only to the actual meeting, not to the citizens themselves. When the people were not assembled, they were not considered to be the ekkl?sia. The New Testament records a couple of instances of this secular usage of the term (Acts 19:32, 41). The most important background of the term ekkl?sia is the LXX, which uses the word in a religious sense about one hundred times, almost always as a translation of the Hebrew word qahal. In Deuteronomy, qahal especially refers to Israel’s sacred meetings since it is linked with the covenant. Likewise, ekkl?sia, though carrying a secular connotation in Greek, has a strong religious sense in light of the LXX.
In the New Testament, ekklēsia is used to refer to the community of God’s people 109 times (out of 114 occurrences of the term). Although the word occurs in only two Gospel passages (Matt. 16:18; 18:17), it is of special importance in Acts (23x) and the Pauline writings (46x). It is found twenty times in Revelation and in isolated instances in James and Hebrews. Three general conclusions can be drawn from this usage. First, ekklēsia (both in the singular and plural) applies predominantly to a local assembly of those who profess faith in and allegiance to Christ. Second, ekkl?sia designates the universal church (Acts 8:3; 9:31; 1 Cor. 12:28; 15:9; especially in the later Pauline letters, Eph. 1:22–23; Col. 1:18). Third, the ekkl?sia is God’s congregation (e.g., 1 Cor. 1:2; 2 Cor. 1:1). We probably are to gather from these first two points that the universal church is manifested in the local congregation.
Interpretive Insights
16:1–2 I commend to you our sister Phoebe, a deacon of the church . . . I ask you to receive her. We follow the three components of an ancient letter of recommendation noted above: introduction, credentials, desired action. First, Paul introduces Phoebe (16:1a), the probable bearer of the letter to the Romans. Phoebe no doubt was a Gentile; her namesake is the Greek goddess Phoebe, grandmother of Apollo and Artemis. But, unlike the goddess, Phoebe is a sister in the Lord. Second, Paul provides Phoebe’s credentials. She is a deacon (deaconess) in the church of Cenchreae (16:1b). Cenchreae was a port city for Corinth on the Saronic Gulf. This is an indication that Paul wrote the letter of Romans from Corinth. Also, this is the first time Paul uses the word “church” (ekklēsia) in Romans. Thus, Phoebe should be well received by the Roman Christians whom she serves in an authoritative office of the church. Phoebe also was a patron of Paul and others (16:2b). So she was a woman of the upper class who used her resources to benefit Paul and others. Third, the desired action that Paul and Phoebe intended was that the believers in Rome give her a gracious Christian welcome and provide her with whatever assistance she needed as she (and later Paul upon his arrival in Rome) ministered to the Roman church and prepared for Paul’s future mission to Spain (16:2a).
Theological Insights
Two truths grip the reader of Romans 16:1–2. First, the gospel values women and men equally. Indeed, Jesus elevated the status of women compared to Greco-Roman society and even the Jewish religion. Second, every church should be involved with missions, both nationally and internationally.
Teaching the Text
If one is going to devote a whole lesson or sermon to such a short unit as Romans 16:1–2, the three-point outline given above could be used. One could also make use of the historical-background material to talk about letters of recommendation, patronage, and leadership structure of the early church. And I think the title of this unit, “Paul, Phoebe, Patronage, and Spain,” works well. But here I offer some background material from the New Testament to help the reader get a grasp on the possible structure of leadership in the early church, since Phoebe served in such a capacity in the church at Cenchreae. As I mentioned before, we learn from Philippians 1:2 and the Pastoral Epistles that there were mainly two offices of leadership in the early church: elder and deacon. (Apostles apparently were not confined to one church.) Of the first position, one may gather from texts such as Acts 20:17, 28; 1 Peter 5:1–5 that “bishop,” “pastor,” and “elder” likely referred to the same person. The office of the monarchial episcopate (one bishop presiding over several churches) did not arise until early in the second century. According to the Pastoral Epistles, apparently several elders led a local church, and those elders seem to have been divided into “teaching” and “ruling” elders. We also learn from these texts that more than one deacon served in a local church. It is also possible that deaconesses (the deacons’ wives?) assisted deacons as servant leaders in the church as well (besides Rom. 16:1, see 1 Tim. 3:8–13).
We might also note here the order of worship in the early church, especially since it seems to have borrowed the order of worship from the synagogue service. This is shown in table 1.9
Illustrating the Text
The gospel values men and women equally.
Church History: Catherine Booth (1829–90), cofounder of the Salvation Army, had a powerful preaching ministry in England at a time when women did not speak at adult meetings. She said, “If the Word of God forbids female ministry, we would ask how it happens that so many of the most devoted handmaidens of the Lord have felt constrained by the Holy Ghost to exercise it? . . . The Word and the Spirit cannot contradict each other.” Booth’s book Female Ministry is not merely a reflection of the feminist ideas of the time. Instead, she based her argument on what she believed the Bible said about the absolute equality of men and women before God.10
Church History: Catherine of Siena (1347–80), a Catholic nun, theologian, and philosopher, began an active ministry to the poor, the sick, and the imprisoned of Siena. When a wave of the plague struck her hometown in 1374, most people fled, but she and her followers stayed to care for the sick and bury the dead. She was said to work tirelessly day and night, healing all those whom the physicians considered hopeless; some even claimed that she raised the dead. Later she sought to root out corruption from the church, even writing to the pope to exhort him to return to Rome from France and address problems: “Respond to the Holy Spirit, who is calling you! I tell you: Come! Come! Come! Do not wait for time, because time is not waiting for you.”11
Every church should be involved with missions, both national and international.
Church Missions: Here are some questions that churches should be asking: (1) Are mission resources used to maintain local churches or to plant new ones? (2) Does support create unhealthy dependence or encourage national church initiative? (3) Are national church leaders ethically, morally, and spiritually responsible to other national church leaders who understand their culture? (4) Are missionaries ethically, morally, and spiritually responsible to teammates on the field, national church leaders, and church leaders of their sending congregation or agency? (5) Do supported national leaders expect to be supported by their own people in the near future? (6) Are national leaders supported on a level consistent with the local economy or on the economic level of members of the supporting church?12
True Story: People have always tried to find a variety of ways in which to fulfill Jesus’ command that we love our neighbors. One couple, Saji and Priya Mathi, dug toilets for HIV-infected patients, individuals who are seen as beyond hope in the city of Hyderabad, India, where the couple works. “We consider these actions of love as one of the best opportunities to show God’s love to them,” the husband said. He reported that in time the people want to know about the God he worships. “Some say it is a dirty job, but isn’t it a wonderful dirty job.” Toilets are an imperative because of HIV’s relationship to the immune system; each one costs about $217 US to construct.13
Paul’s Greetings to the Roman Churches
Big Idea: Romans 16:3–16 is no anticlimactic conclusion to Paul’s covenant letter to the Roman Christians. The thirty-six people whom Paul greets here reveal a treasure trove of information about early Christianity in Rome: socioeconomic levels, places of worship, egalitarianism, and unity in Christ. Thus, Paul’s greetings in these verses are no small matter.
Understanding the Text
Romans 16:3–16 is similar to other greetings that conclude Paul’s letters (see 1 Cor. 16:15–20; Phil. 4:21–22; Col. 4:10–17; Philem. 23–24), except that Romans contains the greatest number of personal names.
Romans 16:3–16 falls into three divisions: greetings to Paul’s missional coworkers in the past who now reside in Rome (vv. 3–10a, 12–13); greetings to those Roman Christians whom Paul does not know (vv. 10b–11, 14–15); greetings with the holy kiss (v. 16).
Historical and Cultural Background
1. Classical scholars have worked to uncover the socioeconomic structure of Roman Christianity.1 John Gager identified five levels of Roman socioeconomic structure, listed here from the lowest to the highest class: slaves, freedmen and freedwomen (those born slaves who later obtained freedom), plebians (freeborn Roman citizens), equestrian class (knights; Roman political figures, military leaders, etc.), and senators (the Roman aristocracy) (see table 1 below).2 Drawing on Robert Jewett’s superb analysis of the thirty-six names that Paul mentions in 16:3–16 (including himself), we can classify them this way: Paul was a nonwealthy, freeborn Roman citizen, as probably was Rufus; Phoebe and Priscilla probably were wealthy (patrons), freeborn Roman citizens; the rest were either slaves or freedmen and freedwomen, including Aquila. It seems difficult to distinguish whether these names were those of slaves or freedmen and freedwomen, but either way, they stood on the lower rungs of the ladder of Roman society.3 This evidence does seem to confirm what New Testament scholars have said for years: early Christianity was a movement mainly of the lower classes of Roman society, though there were important exceptions.
2. Early Christians in Rome and throughout the empire met in house churches.4 Those Christians who could afford houses opened their homes to worship. From the house church excavated at Dura-Europos, we learn that a typical house church could accommodate about fifty worshipers. So those hosts of house churches, such as Priscilla and Aquila, probably were wealthy patrons of the Christian movement. Jewett has provided a masterful analysis of the five congregations in first-century Rome to which Paul wrote, showing that only Priscilla and Aquila’s worship place was located in the wealthier section of Rome; the other four were tenement churches located in the poorer sections. These were apartment complexes above businesses. According to Jewett, the five congregations met as follows: (1) in the house church of Priscilla and Aquila (16:5a) and in the tenement churches of (2) those among the slaves of Adronicus (16:10b), (3) those among the slaves of Narcissus (16:11b), (4) the brothers with Asyncritus (16:14b), and (5) the saints with Philologus (16:15b).5 This too shows that Roman Christianity at the time of Paul was mostly of the lower classes.
3. Paul’s greetings to women in the churches of Rome (Priscilla [Prisca], Mary [Miriam], Junia,6 Tryphena and Tryphosa [sisters?], Persis, Rufus’s mother, and Julia) reveal that females were deeply involved in the ministry.
Interpretive Insights
16:3–5a Greet Priscilla and Aquila . . . also the church that meets at their house. Paul makes four comments about the husband-and-wife team of Priscilla and Aquila. (1) They are coworkers with Paul in Christ (16:3). “Coworker” (synergos) signifies that they were involved in the ministry with Paul. So the couple became Christians before meeting Paul, but they joined him in proclaiming the gospel. (2) They risked their lives for Paul (16:4). Paul never specifies how they did so, but perhaps they interceded for him when the riot broke out in Ephesus (see Acts 19:23–41; 1 Cor. 15:32; 2 Cor. 1:8–11). (3) Both Paul and his Gentile churches are indebted to the couple (16:4). This detail may have been due to the couple’s resourcing Paul’s ministry to the Gentiles. (4) They host a house church in Rome (16:5a).
16:5b Greet my dear friend Epenetus. Next, Paul greets Epenetus. Epenetus most likely was a freedman who was one of the first converted to Christ in Asia, perhaps in connection with the ministry of Priscilla, Aquila, and Paul in Ephesus (see Acts 18:18–19:20). Jewett contends that Epenetus became associated with the family of Priscilla and Aquila, moving to Rome with them and joining their house church.7
16:6–7 Greet Mary . . . Andronicus and Junia . . . They are outstanding among the apostles. The three people mentioned in these verses were Jewish: Mary (Miriam), Andronicus, and Junia(s). The last two Paul call his “relatives” (syngenesis), meaning “fellow Jews” (NIV) or “compatriots.” “Mary/Miriam” (v. 6) was the name of Moses’ sister (Exod. 15:20). Since the Jewish community in Rome began primarily as enslaved prisoners of war brought from Judea to Rome in 62 BC, Miriam was either a slave or freedwoman. The technical phase “labored [kopia?] for you” indicates that she labored as a missionary.8
There has been a huge debate as to whether Junia(s) was a man or a woman. But the case for “Junia,” a female name, is far stronger than that for “Junias,” a male name. Those opting for the latter argue that “Junias” is a contraction of “Junianus.” However, “Junias” as a contraction for “Junianus” is nowhere to be found in Greek literature, and until the thirteenth century the dominant view of the church was that the person in question was a woman. Thus, Junia and Adronicus most likely were a husband-and-wife team for the gospel, who either were slaves or had obtained their freedom. These two Paul calls “outstanding among the apostles.” Moreover, they had become Christians before Paul was converted.
The meaning of “apostles” is also much debated. Thomas Schreiner and Douglas Moo argue that the term is not the technical one for the twelve apostles.9 James Dunn and Robert Jewett do not necessarily disagree, arguing that Paul, Andronicus, and Junia belonged to the group of apostles (larger than twelve disciples/apostles) who were appointed apostles by the risen Christ (see 1 Cor. 15:7). Therefore, this couple had a high spiritual status, as did Paul, in preaching the gospel.10 Dunn and Jewett apparently are correct, for in Romans 16:7a Paul commends Andronicus and Junia for being imprisoned with him. This was likely so because they, like him, preached the gospel as eyewitnesses of the risen Jesus.
16:8–10a Greet Ampliatus, my dear friend in the Lord . . . Greet Urbanus . . . Stachys . . . Apelles. Here Paul greets additional persons at Rome. Ampliatus, most agree, is Ampliatus the slave of Domitilla whose name appears twice in the Domitilla catacombs in Rome. Domitilla came from a senatorial family but was exiled as a Christian during Domitian’s reign (AD 81–96). Urbanus probably was a freedman of Roman origin who was also a coworker with Paul in the past. Stachys no doubt was of slave origin, perhaps now a freedman. His Greek name suggests this, since both Jews and Greeks first appeared in Rome as slaves. He too was dear to Paul in the ministry.
Apelles also has a Greek name, suggesting his status as a slave or freedman. The fact that Paul knows that Apelles is honored because he was obedient to the Lord during a time of testing suggests that the two men also served the Lord together in the past.
16:10b–11 Greet . . . the household of Aristobulus . . . Herodion . . . the household of Narcissus. In 16:10b Paul greets those in the house of Aristobulus. Aristobulus may well have been the grandson of Herod the Great (d. 4 BC). Aristobulus was brought as a hostage with his brother Herod Agrippa to Rome. This Aristobulus was trained with the future emperor Claudius. Aristobulus later protested the action of the then-emperor Caligula, who decreed that his statue should be placed in the Jerusalem temple (Josephus, Ant. 18.273–76). After Aristobulus’s death (ca. AD 45), his household was absorbed into the household of his friend Claudius, now emperor. Thus, those of the household of Aristobulus probably were Christian slaves or freedmen who constituted a tenement church.11
Paul greets Herodion, a fellow Jewish Christian. If Aristobulus was of the Herodian family, so too was the man called “Herodion.” It may be that Paul mentions him on the heels of his reference to the household of Aristobulus because Herodion is also a slave or freedman who worships in that same tenement church.
In 16:11b Paul greets those of the household of Narcissus who are in the Lord. Like Aristobulus, Narcissus is not said to be a Christian; rather, those of their households are Christians. Narcissus may well have been the influential freedman of Emperor Claudius (Suetonius, Claudius 28). So those Christian slaves or freedmen and freedwomen of Narcissus seemed to constitute a third church in Rome, another tenement church. These Christians and other believers like them demonstrate that the gospel made deep inroads into Caesar’s household (cf. Phil. 4:22).
16:12 Greet Tryphena and Tryphosa . . . Persis. In 16:12 Paul greets three Christian women. Tryphena and Tryphosa probably were sisters, given their similar names and the close union between them reflected in “and.” They, along with Persis, another Christian woman, likely were of slave origin. Paul’s praise for their work in the Lord probably stemmed from their ministry with him in the eastern provinces.
16:13 Greet Rufus . . . and his mother. Rufus and his mother were Jewish Christians. Long ago, J. B. Lightfoot defended the plausible theory that Rufus and his brother (see Mark 15:21) were sons of Simon of Cyrene, who was forced to carry Jesus’ cross.12 That Paul calls Rufus “chosen in the Lord” may be because his father helped Jesus carry the cross. This Rufus had a direct link to the historical Jesus. Moreover, Rufus’s mother treated Paul as a son in the faith. For their faithful service to the Lord and to him, Paul honors them.
16:14–15 Greet Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas . . . Philologus, Julia, Nereus . . . Olympas. Verses 14–15 contain greetings from Paul to the last two tenement churches. Paul greets five individuals who apparently were the leaders of another tenement church: Asyncritus, Phlegon, Hermes, Patrobas, Hermas, and the brothers with them. Paul does not greet these individuals personally. Jewett observes that all five of these men had slave names and may have become freedmen. This is because their names are Greek.13 Therefore, it is likely that they led a congregation of slaves who met in a tenement apartment.
Verse 15 contains Paul’s greeting to a fifth congregation in Rome (the fourth tenement church), the “saints” (hagioi) with Philologus and Julia (perhaps another husband-and-wife team) and Nereus and his sister. These individuals were presumably the leaders of the congregation and were undoubtedly slaves or freedmen and freedwomen.14 Interestingly, two of these leaders were women—Julia and Nereus’s sister—again showing the egalitarian nature of the early church. Even though Paul called Jewish Christians “saints” (hagioi [NIV: “the Lord’s people”]) in Romans 15:25; 1 Corinthians 16:1; 2 Corinthians 8:4; and 9:12, the term can include Gentile Christians as well (as in Romans 1:7, a reference to all Christians, Gentile and Jew alike). The Greek names here in v. 15 might also point in that direction.
16:16 Greet one another with a holy kiss. Paul instructs the Roman Christians to greet one another with a holy kiss. Greeting others with a nonromantic kiss was customary in the Greco-Roman world (see, e.g., Euripides, Andr. 416–17; Pseudo-Lucian, Asin. 17) and in Judaism (see Gen. 27:26; Luke 7:45; Acts 20:37). But Jewett observes that nowhere in Greco-Roman tradition or Judaism is holiness connected with a kiss, as Paul states of the Christian kiss here.15 The holy kiss among Christians was a sign of family affection and unity in Christ.
Theological Insights
Several theological insights surface in Romans 16:3–16. First, Paul’s egalitarian principle—the equality of Christians because they are in Christ—so beautifully stated in Galatians 3:28 is displayed concretely here. In Christ, Jew and Gentile, slave and free, male and female are one. Second, Paul was no loner in his ministry. He had many coworkers in the spreading of the gospel. Third, Christians should honor and build up other Christians, as Paul did, because all are coworkers in the gospel.
Teaching the Text
In teaching this text, one could divide it according to the five Roman congregations, commenting on each of them. But perhaps a more detailed discussion of the five Roman orders of society might be put to good use in teaching the background of these verses. These are displayed in table 1.
Illustrating the Text
Christians must affirm each other in the unity of Christ.
Culture: College culture, especially the worldviews held by professors, influences young minds. Kenneth Badley, professor at George Fox University, says,
Students live in a vulnerable position. They must face the challenges of the world of thought while assuming no conflict exists between the truth therein and the truth of Scripture. Presumably they do so with God’s help, but, as I have described it, they will do so without any supporting social structure. . . . We can aid our students by coming alongside them in the midst of their tensions. When we do, we shift the locus of integration by implicitly inviting them to continue their struggles, not alone, but within the relative safety of the faith community.16
The body metaphor used by Paul indicates a unity of community, and the church is one of the best places “to receive the kind of teaching that encourages and deepens faith.”17
Christians should unite all ethnicities, genders, and socioeconomic groups.
Personal Testimony: I (Marvin) recently attended the funeral of the father of one of my student advisees. The service was both touching and triumphant. It was obvious that Jeff had lived a Christian life in view of the diversity of the body of Christ. Over five hundred people attended his memorial service. They represented different ethnic groups: men and women, haves and have nots, highly educated and not. During his life Jeff had touched each of those present at the service with his witness for the Lord. I felt like I was in heaven joining the worship of “every nation, tribe, people and language” (Rev. 7:9). I left that day thinking how much the church should emulate Jeff’s example of reaching out to others.
Curses on the False Teachers, Blessings on the Roman Christians
Big Idea: As Paul nears the conclusion of his letter to the Romans, he both issues a warning about the false teachers who might invade the Roman congregations and praises the Roman Christians for their obedience to the gospel. To the former belong the covenant curses, but to the latter belong the covenant blessings.
Understanding the Text
Romans 16:17–20 abruptly punctuates Paul’s warm greetings to the Roman churches. This has led some to theorize that these verses are a later interpolation added to Romans after Paul’s death. Robert Jewett, for example, suggests that the school that produced the Pastoral Epistles (with their emphasis on strong doctrine as the remedy for false teaching) placed these verses in their present location.1 Yet those of us who accept the Pauline authorship of the Pastoral Epistles have no problem with the emphasis in 16:17–20 on sound doctrine as the preventative to being tricked by false teaching.
Moreover, Paul issues similar abrupt warnings toward the end of some of his other letters (1 Cor. 16:22; Gal. 6:12–17; Phil. 3:2–4:1).2 Furthermore, as we will see, 16:17–20 once again taps into the theme of the covenant curses and blessings that has governed much of the letter to the Romans. The former applies to the Judaizers, and the latter to the Roman Christians.
Verses 17–20 easily divide into two points, both, I suggest, influenced by the covenant theme:
1. Covenant curses on the Judaizers (16:17–18)
2. Covenant blessings on the Roman Christians (16:19–20)
Historical and Cultural Background
1. Commentators identify the false teachers in 16:17–20 with either Gentile libertines or Judaizers. The key word in this discussion is koilia (“belly” [NIV: “appetites”]) in 16:18. A generation ago it was popular to point to the referent of this word as gnostic libertines whose loose morals and appetites governed their lifestyles. Gnosticism (from gn?sis, “knowledge”) offered the “special insight” that the body is evil and only the soul is good; one therefore can give one’s body over to licentiousness because the physical does not impact the soul. Today, most scholars reject the claim that gnosticism had developed in the first century; rather, Pauline scholars today believe gnosticism did not arise as a fully developed religious system until the second century, long after the writing of Romans.
A much better case can be made that the false teachers’ focus on their “belly” (koilia) is a reference to the Judaizers, those professing Christians who propagated the notion that salvation is based on faith in Christ plus works of the law. Indeed, this group dogged Paul’s footsteps (see 2 Corinthians; Galatians; Phil. 3; cf. Acts 15:1–35). The “belly,” then, is an allusion to the Judaizers’ emphasis on the dietary laws as the means to be ritually clean before God. Indeed, we have met these Judaizers throughout Romans.3 Thus, the false teachers whom Paul has in mind in 16:17–19 most likely are the Judaizers.
2. The Old Testament background to 16:20, “The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet,” is Genesis 3:15, known as the protoevangelion—that is, the first occurrence of the gospel. There, God promises that the seed of the woman will crush the head of the serpent. Two comments are in order here. First, this promise of Genesis 3:15 becomes in Judaism and Christianity apocalyptic in orientation: the Messiah will come and crush Satan in the end time (see, e.g., T. Levi 18.12 for Judaism; Rev. 12:17 for Christianity). For Paul, Jesus is the Messiah, and he will soon crush Satan at the parousia. Second, Genesis 3:15 is Deuteronomic in perspective. Thus, the covenant curses of Deuteronomy 28:15–68 inform Genesis 3:15. Just as God cursed the serpent and exiled Adam and Eve from the garden, so God will curse Israel for breaking their covenant and will send them into exile. (We assume here that the author of the Pentateuch [Moses] knew the end of the Pentateuch from its beginning and thus perceived that the earlier story of Genesis was influenced by the later story of Deuteronomy.)
So, for Paul, the false teachers, inspired by the serpent/Satan, are under the covenant curses. But, by way of contrast, the obedient Roman Christians are under the blessings of the new covenant of the Messiah. Indeed, the two diverse paths delineated in 16:17–20, the one of obedience and blessing (the “good”) and the other of disobedience and curse (the “evil”) (16:19), distinctly bring to mind the “two ways” tradition beginning in Deuteronomy 30:15–20. The way of disobedience leads to the covenant curses; the way of obedience leads to the covenant blessings.
Interpretive Insights
16:17–18 watch out for those who cause divisions and put obstacles in your way. Paul “urges” (parakale? [cf. 12:1]) the Roman Christians to “watch out” (skope?) for the false teachers (the Judaizers). Paul then offers four characteristics of these individuals. First, they cause divisions (a work of the flesh [see Gal. 5:20]) in the church (16:17a). Second, the false teachers put “obstacles” (skandalon [cf. 9:33; 11:9; 14:13]) in the way of the teaching that the Roman Christians have learned. The “teaching” (didach?) is the truth of the gospel that the Roman believers had received long before Paul wrote his letter to them (16:17b). Third, the false teachers serve not Jesus the Lord, but rather their own appetites (16:18a). We noted above that koilia (“appetites” or “belly”) probably alludes to the Judaizers’ message that Christians should keep the whole law of Moses, including the dietary laws (cf. Col. 2:16–17, 20–23; Phil. 3:18–19). Fourth, the Judaizers persuade the unsuspecting by smooth speech and flattery (16:18b). Such “deceit” (exapata? is an intensive form of the word used of Satan in Gen. 3:13 LXX [cf. Rom. 7:11]) is inspired by Satan.
16:19–20 The God of peace will soon crush Satan under your feet. By way of contrast to the false teachers, Paul asserts in 16:19 that the Roman Christians are well known for their obedience to the gospel (cf. 1:5; 16:26). And Paul wants them to persist in such obedience to the gospel (the “good”) and not be hoodwinked by the false teachers (the “evil”). Indeed, God will soon conquer Satan’s emissaries at the parousia of Christ, and the Roman Christians will share in that victory. Verse 20 summarizes 16:17–20: the Roman believers enjoy peace now and victory later (covenant blessings) because they are obedient to the gospel; but the false teachers, who disobey the stipulation of faith by adding the law to salvation, are under the curses of the covenant.
Theological Insights
Two truths confront the reader of Romans 16:17–20. First, false teaching is an ever-present reality. Satan is a master at “tweaking” the truth of the gospel, adding the law here, subtracting holiness there. But such “adjustment” corrupts the gospel. Therefore, Christians must be vigilant to resist any inroad of false doctrine into the church. Second, the best way for Christians to resist false teaching is to know well the truth of the gospel.
Teaching the Text
A sermon or lesson based on Romans 16:17–20 could be entitled “Stay the Course” and make reference to being faithful to the truth of the gospel. The twofold outline above could be followed using these two captions: (1) Distortion of the gospel by false teachers (vv. 17–18); (2) Faithfulness to the gospel by true Christians (vv. 19–20).
Regarding the first point, a poem and two powerful illustrations come to mind regarding the distortion of the gospel that false teachers bring about. The first, a rhyme:
Johnny was a chemist’s son, but Johnny is no more.
What Johnny thought was H2O was H2SO4!
Johnny thought he was drinking water, when in fact he drank sulfuric acid, a deadly chemical! Johnny was sincerely wrong. One thinks here of the followers of Jim Jones in the late 1970s, who were led astray by the distortion of the gospel preached by that minister. Jones’s followers—about one thousand of them—relocated from California with the dynamic speaker to the jungles of Guyana, where they drank deadly poison at his command rather than face the authorities. That congregation was sincerely wrong, being deceived by a false teacher.
The second point of the lesson would be to encourage listeners to be true to the gospel. As Paul put it, we should fight the good fight, finish the race, and keep the faith (2 Tim. 4:7). The result for Paul, and for all believers who are faithful to sound biblical doctrine, is a crown of righteousness at the Lord’s return (2 Tim. 4:8). When I think of modern faithful preachers of the gospel, the late W. A. Criswell comes to mind. Criswell will always be remembered as a faithful preacher of the gospel and the Bible. He did expository preaching when biblical exposition was not in vogue, as it is in many evangelical circles today. When Criswell started his ministry at the First Baptist Church of Dallas, he decided to preach through books of the Bible. It took him many years (1948–63), but Criswell finished “the Book” cover to cover. He loved telling people that the members of his church could refer to the time that they joined the church not by the date but by the book of the Bible Criswell was preaching at the time.
Criswell’s scholarship was pounded out in his preaching ministry. He gave the best efforts of his intellectual capacities to making a thorough study and presentation of the text of Scripture to his people for over seventy years. Criswell always counseled young pastors to do what he did: to reserve their mornings for deep study of God’s Word. He used the afternoons and evenings to do the work of the church, but his mornings were always reserved for time with God. Criswell studied Scripture in the original languages and utilized a vast library that included theological works, biblical commentaries, theological dictionaries, volumes of word studies, biographies and historical books, works of poetry and well-known literature, dissertations and theses, and much more. Preachers and teachers of this generation could learn much from Dr. Criswell’s faithfulness to the gospel.
Illustrating the Text
False teaching is an ever-present reality.
Quote: George Orwell. In his unpublished preface to Animal Farm (1945) Orwell wrote,
At any given moment there is an orthodoxy, a body of ideas which it is assumed that all right-thinking people will accept without question. It is not exactly forbidden to say this, that, or the other, but it is ‘not done’ to say it. . . . Anyone who challenges the prevailing orthodoxy finds himself silenced with surprising effectiveness. A genuinely unfashionable opinion is almost never given a fair hearing, either in the popular press or in the high-brow periodicals.4
This little novel is a satiric parable that shows the subtle way in which people are deceived and then deceive others.
Quote: Irenaeus. The church father Irenaeus (ca. AD 115–202?) wrote, “Error, indeed, is never set forth in its naked deformity, lest, being thus exposed, it should at once be detected. But it is craftily decked out in an attractive dress, so as, by its outward form, to make it appear to the inexperienced . . . more true than truth itself” (Haer. 1.2).5
The best way to resist false teaching is to know well the truth of the gospel.
Quote: Franz Kafka. Essayist and educator George Steiner (b. 1929) wants to read books that operate on his affections: “To read great literature as if it did not have upon us an urgent design . . . is to do little more than make entries in a librarian’s catalog.” He then quotes from a letter that the renowned novelist Franz Kafka (1883–1924) wrote at twenty years of age:
If the book we are reading does not wake us, as with a fist hammering on our skull, why then do we read it? . . . What we must have are those books which come upon us like ill-fortune, and distress us deeply, like the death of one we love. . . . A book must be an ice-axe to break the sea frozen inside us.6
Kafka was not writing about the Bible, but this certainly is a powerful description of how the Word of God operates on us when we know it.
Quote: Michel de Montaigne. A highly influential Renaissance essayist, Montaigne (1533–92) wrote, “To hunt after truth is properly our business, and we are inexcusable if we carry on the chase impertinently and ill; to fail of catching it is another thing, for we are born to inquire after truth: it belongs to a greater power to possess it; it is not, as Democritus said, hid in the bottom of the deeps, but rather elevated to an infinite height in the divine knowledge.”7
Greetings to Roman Christians from Paul’s Coworkers in Corinth
Big Idea: Paul concludes the greetings section of his letter by sending warm regards from his coworkers in Corinth to the Roman congregations. No doubt some of those coworkers had gathered in Corinth to accompany Paul as he took the collection from Gentiles to the Jerusalem church. Moreover, their greetings to Rome constituted their approval of the upcoming Pauline mission to Rome and Spain.
Understanding the Text
Romans 16:21–23 resumes Paul’s greetings after the warning issued in 16:17–20. Therefore, these verses form the closing of the letter to the Romans. My summary of these verses will look at Paul’s coworkers who send greetings to the Roman Christians, beginning with Timothy, then Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater, and finally Tertius, Gaius, Erastus, and Quartus.
Historical and Cultural Background
1. The proverb “All roads lead to Rome” was no exaggeration. The Romans built roads (called viae [plural of via]) that have lasted to this very day, roads that greatly facilitated the spreading of the gospel. At its peak, the Roman road system spanned fifty-three thousand miles and contained approximately 372 links. These roads served Rome’s military, commercial, and political purposes. The roads, built by Roman engineers, consisted of rubble, gravel, and stone as the bottom layer (designed to allow water to pass through without turning into mud), another layer of stone, and then concrete as the surface layer. Milestones were placed every 1,620 yards. Way stations dotted the Roman roads every fifteen to eighteen miles. Augustus founded the postal system. The mail was delivered by cart and horse, but also by horse and rider for special delivery. Maps were hard to come by, so travelers followed an itinerary listing the cities on a given road. But such roads were not free. Tolls and import and export taxes helped to fund the construction and maintenance of Roman roads. Paul would have traveled one of the most famous thoroughfares in the empire, the Via Egnatia, the road that connected Asia Minor, Europe, and Italy. Paul utilized that road in his trips to Macedonia and Achaia. On his journey to Rome, when he arrived in Italy, Paul took another famous road, the Via Appia.
2. Romans 16:22 records that Paul used a secretary—an amanuensis—to write down the letter to the Romans. Tertius was a professional scribe (probably paid by Phoebe). One author writes of the ancient secretary,
Evidently, secretaries were used up and down the spectrum of public life, from royal secretaries to the marketplace secretaries. They were a vital part of the administrative structure of the Greco-Roman world, as can be seen by the bureaucracy in Roman Egypt. From the “central office” in Alexandria, with its hordes of secretaries who kept the main accounting and recordkeeping, there was a hierarchical structure of secretaries that reached all the way down to the local village secretary. Secretaries were critical to the functioning of the Roman government. They were the record keepers for the massive bureaucracy.1
E. Randolph Richards’s study of ancient letter writing shows that there was a continuum of how much input amanuenses had in the composition of a letter, moving from little control (dictation), to some control (shorthand), to complete control (composer).2 Given the importance of Paul’s letter to the Romans, no doubt he dictated it, leaving Tertius very little control over its composition.
What materials were utilized in ancient letters? Pen and ink were staples of ancient writing. Pens often were cut from a small reed plant that flourished on the banks of the Nile River. One end of the reed was cut to a point. The point was cut with a small split, resembling a quill pen of more recent times. Ink was basically standardized by the first century AD. There were two types of ink: red and black. Red ink was prepared by mixing ochre with gelatin, gum, and beeswax. Black ink was prepared from lamp black or ground charcoal mixed with gum arabic. The weakness of black ink was that it was not waterproof. Consequently, writing in black ink could be erased by contact with water.
Various writing materials were used by the ancients: ostraca (broken pottery), clay, wooden tablets, parchment (animal skin), and papyrus (made from reed plants, the inner pith of which was extracted and cut into strips, which were layered side by side and then at right angles), rolls or scrolls (individual parchment or papyrus sheets sewn together).3
Richards provides three intriguing details about Paul’s letter to the Romans: it would have cost approximately $2,275 (in modern currency); the travel time to deliver a letter from Corinth to Rome by sea would have been about ten days; the same letter would have taken about two months to travel by land from Corinth to Rome.4
3. The last occurrence in Romans of the word “church” (ekkl?sia), in 16:23, gives us the opportunity for a glance at the trinitarian content of worship in the early church:
1. Messianic—the Son
a. Jesus is the Messiah (2 Sam. 7; Ps. 110; Isa. 53)
b. Jesus is God (christological hymns, Rom. 1:3–4; Phil. 2:5–11; Col. 1:15–20; 1 Tim. 3:16; Rev. 5, probably sung to Jesus in worship)
2. Charismatic—the Holy Spirit
a. The Spirit as eschatological gift (Acts 2)
b. Worship led by Spirit (1 Cor. 14; 1 Thess. 5:16–20)
3. Prophetic—the Father
a. Worship in response to God’s saving act in Christ’s death and resurrection (Rom. 1:3–4)
b. Worship as the anticipation of heaven (Rev. 1)
Interpretive Insights
16:21–23 Timothy . . . Lucius, Jason and Sosipater . . . Tertius . . . Gaius . . . Erastus . . . Quartus send you their greetings.5 Paul sends greetings to the Roman churches from some eight of his coworkers who have gathered at Corinth. Timothy became part of Paul’s mission team on his second journey (Acts 16:1–3) and was Paul’s closest colleague (cf. Acts 19:22; 1 Cor. 4:17; 16:10; 2 Cor. 1:1, 19; Phil. 1:1; 2:19–24; Col. 1:1; 1 Thess. 1:1; 3:2, 6; 2 Thess. 1:1; 1 Tim. 1:2, 18; 6:20; 2 Tim. 1:2; Philem. 1). Timothy’s mother was Jewish, but his father was Greek (Acts 16:1).
Lucius, Jason, and Sosipater were Jewish Christians who served with Paul (he calls them his “relatives” [syngenesis], meaning “fellow Jews” [NIV] or “compatriots”). Lucius (Loukios) does not seem to be Lucius of Cyrene (Acts 13:1), nor is he Luke (whose name Paul spells as Loukas; and Luke was a Gentile [see Col. 4:10–14]). Jason probably is the man named in Acts 17:5–7, 9, and Sosipater is probably the Sopater of Berea mentioned in Acts 20:4. No doubt these three coworkers rendezvoused at Corinth to assist Paul in taking the collection of the Gentiles to Jerusalem.
Tertius was the secretary to whom Paul dictated Romans, and probably he was Phoebe’s amanuensis. Moreover, Tertius’s greeting, “I, Tertius, . . . greet you in the Lord,” indicates that he was a Christian.
Gaius may well have been the Gaius of 1 Corinthians 1:14. Gaius provided hospitality to Paul and many other Christian itinerant missionaries. Some think that Gaius hosted the church of Corinth in his home.
Erastus may well be the one mentioned in Acts 19:22 and 2 Timothy 4:20. Here, Paul identifies him as the director of public works in Corinth. An inscription found in Corinth by archaeologists in 1929 reads, “Erastus, in return for the aedileship, laid the pavement at his own expense” (see photo). This inscription reflects the ancient custom of an elected public official expressing his appreciation to the citizens of his city by contributing something back to that town, in this case paving a street. An aedile was a public director who was in charge of the city’s building projects. The Greek oikonomos was an equivalent of the Latin aediles.6
Robert Jewett plausibly argues that Quartus was Erastus’s brother (most translations render Kouartos ho adelphos as “our brother Quartus” or “Quartus, a brother”). If so, Paul will have started and concluded his greetings to the Roman Christians with the names of high-society people (Phoebe [16:1], and Erastus and Quartus [16:23]).7
Three key themes, as we noted above, govern Romans 16:21–23. First, Paul was well networked in his ministry, as the eight names in these verses indicate (not to mention the thirty-six he named earlier). Second, some of the eight men no doubt were in Corinth for the purpose of assisting Paul as he took the offering from the Gentiles to Jerusalem. This gesture of Jewish Christians taking the Gentiles’ offering to Jerusalem was a symbol of Christian unity that Paul wanted the Romans to emulate. Third, Paul’s coworkers from the east supported him in his plans to visit Rome and to evangelize Spain. Their social clout and spiritual authority, Paul hoped, would add weight to his request to the Roman congregations to also support his preaching of the gospel there and abroad. And if Clement of Rome (1 Clem. 5), Actus Petri Vercellenses (chaps. 1–3), and the Muratorian Canon (lines 34–39) are correct, Paul did indeed realize his dream to preach the gospel in Spain.
Theological Insights
Two simple truths are striking concerning Romans 16:21–23. First, the gospel was cross-cultural. It encompassed Jew and Gentile, Roman and Greek, barbarian and civilized. It does the same today in our pluralistic world, regardless of the culture. Second, the gospel was countercultural. It unified slaves and free, rich and poor, male and female, powerful and weak. Roman culture, in which birth determined status and left very little room for social mobility, was no match for the egalitarian gospel of Jesus Christ.
Teaching the Text
Perhaps the best way to teach/preach Romans 16:21–23 is simply to expound upon each of the eight names that Paul mentions and then conclude with the two theological insights that I just presented. But here I think that it might be illuminating to provide an itinerary of Paul’s mission after his first captivity in Rome. Those who assume Pauline authorship in some measure for the Pastoral Epistles (1–2 Timothy and Titus) typically envision the following scenario. After his house arrest in Rome (Acts 28), Paul was released (AD 62). After that, he most likely began a fourth missionary journey, which looked something like the following:
Years 62-64
Location: Spain
Rom. 15:24, 28 (cf. 1 Clem. 5; Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 2.22.1-3; Muratorian Canon, lines 34-39)
Years 64-65
Location: Crete
Titus 1:5 – Paul left Titus here as his representative at the church
Year 65
Location: Miletus
2 Tim. 4:20
Year 66
Location: Colossae
Philem. 22
Year 66
Location: Ephesus
1 Tim 1:3 – Paul put Timothy in charge of the church here
Year 66
Location: Philippi
Phil 2:23-24; 1 Tim. 1:3 – Paul wrote 1 Timothy and Titus here
Years 66-67
Location: Nicopolis
Titus 3:12
Years 67-68
Location: Rome
Here Paul was imprisoned in 67 and martyred in 67/68, before which he wrote 2 Timothy. Luke may have helped Paul to write 2 Timothy (see 2 Tim. 4:11), since the apostle was confined in prison.
Illustrating the Text
The gospel was and is cross-cultural.
Quote: Tom Cruise. Film star Tom Cruise discussed human unity in what he learned while filming The Last Samurai, an ode to Japan’s ancient class of warriors. He said,
One of the great things about being an actor and what I do is that I get to travel to all these places. I get to learn about the people, and that is the most enjoyable thing for me, to learn the history of other people and how they live in their daily lives. Also, you find a common ground, even though the language is different and their culture is different. You find that common ground of joy, happiness, pain. And it’s the humanity that really gives you a sense of—Whoa, we’re all in this thing together.8
Theological Book: Cross-Cultural Servanthood, by Elmer. In this book, missionary Duane Elmer notes the differences between countries and emphasizes for Christians that cross-cultural communication and contextualization need to find common ground. He writes, “Many missionaries may be like me: well intentioned, dedicated and wanting to serve, but also naïve and in some denial about what it means to serve in another culture. The reality is that many of us want to serve from our own cultural context. That is, we believe that servanthood everywhere else probably looks like it does in our own culture.”9
The gospel was and is countercultural.
Theological Book: Same Kind of Different as Me, by Ron Hall and Denver Moore, with Lynn Vincent. This book can make one laugh and cry, rekindling the fire for serving others in Christ’s name. It tells the stories of a most unlikely friendship between Ron Hall, a wealthy art dealer, and Denver Moore, an impoverished homeless man, and Debbie Hall, who brought them together. The two men become friends through the message of the gospel, helping one another to help others. In a follow-up volume, What Difference Do It Make?, the two men tell more stories about Christians bringing hope and healing as they make a difference in their world for Christ.
Quote: Timothy Keller. In his book Counterfeit Gods, pastor and author Keller says,
Religion [in the ancient Near Eastern world] was a form of social control. The operating principle of religion is: If you live a good life, then the gods or God will have to bless you and give you prosperity. It was natural, then, to assume that the most successful people in society were those closest to God. They would be the ones who could get whatever they wanted from God. That is why traditional religion always expects that the gods will be working through the successful, not through the outsider and the failures.10
Literature: The Idiot, by Fyodor Dostoevsky. Ranked as one of Dostoevsky’s brilliant achievements in Russia’s golden age of literature, this novel (1869) presents us with Prince Myshkin, intended to be a picture of a good man, having a Christlikeness seen in his utter humility and goodness to people. He is countercultural, an irony and paradox to modern society so twisted that acts of simple goodness are looked down upon as acts of idiocy. In Myshkin’s willingness to suffer for the sake of others, he is literally a “fool for Christ.” In one particularly evocative scene from the novel, the story of Marie, Prince Myshkin quietly accepts the ridicule that he is an idiot. Myshkin dominates the novel, showing a desire to offer people an alternative to the violent passions and conflicts of nineteenth-century Russia. The novel has been adapted into films, operas, and stage plays, and the book itself also has appeared in movies throughout the years on coffee tables, referred to and being read by various characters in the films.
The Doxology
Big Idea: This doxology concludes Paul’s new-covenant letter to the Roman churches. Paul praises God for giving him the gospel of Jesus Christ, which proclaims the mystery of the end-time conversion of the nations.
Understanding the Text
Many scholars believe that Romans 16:25–27 was not written by Paul but rather was added to Romans after Paul’s death. They point to four major reasons for this interpolation theory.1 First, Paul nowhere else closes his letters with a doxology. Second, there are words in 16:25–27 that Paul does not use elsewhere: “proclamation of Jesus Christ” and “command of the eternal God.” Third, the doxology in 16:25–27 seems to be supersessionist. Only the Gentiles are mentioned, indicating that Israel is no longer in God’s plan of salvation. Fourth, the doxology occurs in some Greek manuscripts after 14:23, in others after 15:32, and in still others after 16:23.
However, these arguments can be answered in favor of the authenticity of the doxology. To the first and fourth arguments it can be said that the manuscripts containing this doxology at this point are very strong (Papyrus 46, Codex Sinaiticus, Codex Vaticanus). To the second argument it may be said that the supposedly non-Pauline language of the Romans doxology is similar to Ephesians, Colossians, and the Pastoral Epistles. To the third argument it can be said that 16:25–27 forms an inclusio with 1:1–7; both of them focus on Paul’s ministry to the Gentiles but need not exclude God’s future plans for the salvation of Israel. Therefore, I believe that the doxology was placed in its present location by Paul.
As we just noted, 16:25–27 forms an inclusio with 1:1–7, centering on three themes:
1. The gospel is about Jesus Christ (compare 16:25a with 1:1–4).
2. This gospel is proclaimed in the Old Testament Scriptures (compare 16:25b–26 with 1:2).
3. This gospel given to Paul reveals the mystery of the end-time conversion of the Gentiles (compare 1:5–7 with 16:26b).
Historical and Cultural Background
The following pieces of background information for interpreting 16:25–27 could also be applied to the letter as a whole.
1. The latest research on Romans reveals that Paul’s letter contains an anti-imperial message. Of the numerous things that could be said about this, I mention three. First, the term “gospel” early on was applied to Caesar Augustus as the savior of the world. Thus, the famous Priene inscription (dated ca. 9 BC) about Augustus reads,
Providence . . . created . . . the most perfect good for our lives . . . filling him [Augustus] with virtue for the benefit of mankind, sending us and those after us a saviour who put an end to war and established all things . . . and whereas the birthday of the god [i.e., Augustus] marked for the world the beginning of good tidings [euangelion]through his coming . . .2
Paul counters with the assertion that the true gospel concerns Jesus Christ.
Second, imperial worship (confessing that Caesar is a god) was on the rise in the Roman provinces in the first century due to Gaius (AD 37–41), Nero (AD 54–68), and later Domitian (AD 81–96). But Paul challenges the Roman Christians to confess that Jesus, not Caesar, is Lord (Rom. 10:9).
Third, Paul is, after all, writing to the churches in Rome, the capital of the empire. And Paul could hope that his letter to the Romans would ultimately spell the demise of the anti-Christian sentiment of the Roman Empire, in an ironic way. The support that Paul needed from the Roman Christians to launch his mission to Spain would bring about the conversion of the full number of the Gentiles, the restoration of Israel, and the parousia. The actual impact of Paul’s letter to Rome no doubt contributed to Emperor Constantine’s decision to adopt Christianity.3
2. Paul’s language in 16:25–27 about the mystery of old being revealed to him in the prophetic writings is very similar to the pesher method of interpretation used in the Dead Sea Scrolls. The pesharim (e.g., Pesher Isaiah, Pesher Hosea, Pesher Habakkuk) claim that God revealed the mystery of the Old Testament Scripture to the Teacher of Righteousness, who then founded the Essene Community, the new-covenant community of the end time.
3. Speaking of the new covenant, the liturgical closing to Paul’s doxology in 16:25–27 requires the audience hearing the reading of Romans to respond “Amen.” That is, “We agree and we accept the terms of the new covenant.”4
Interpretive Insights
16:25–27 Now to him . . . the only wise God be glory forever through Jesus Christ! Amen. Paul makes three points in 16:25–27, which correspond with the three points made in 1:1–7.
First, the content of the gospel is Jesus Christ (taking Iēsou Christou as an objective genitive). Paul defines this gospel as the “proclamation” (kē) of Jesus Christ (compare 16:25a with 1:1–4). C. H. Dodd long ago identified the components of the kērygma from the book of Acts. He noted that there were at least five end-time aspects of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection: (1) in Jesus the messianic age has dawned (Acts 2:16; 3:18, 24), in his ministry, death, and resurrection (Acts 2:23); (2) by his resurrection, Jesus has been exalted to the right hand of God as the messianic head of the new people of God (Acts 2:33–36; 3:13); (3) the Holy Spirit is the sign of the presence of the eschaton as well as the proof that Jesus currently reigns in heaven in power and glory (Acts 2:33); (4) the messianic age will shortly reach its consummation in the return of Christ (Acts 3:21); (5) an invitation is always extended for people to receive Christ and the life of the age to come (Acts. 2:38–39).5 Paul no doubt knew and concurred with these components, but, as we will see, he added one more item to the kērygma as revealed to him by God.
Second, this gospel of Jesus Christ was proclaimed in the Old Testament (“the prophetic writings” [compare 16:25b–26a with 1:2). As I mentioned above, Paul saw himself as an apocalyptic seer to whom God had revealed the mysteries in the Old Testament heretofore unknown. Indeed, “revelation” (apokalypsis) and “mystery” (mystērion) are eschatological terms. Mysteries of the end time couched in Old Testament prophecies were now being brought to light by God through the apocalyptic seer, in this case Paul. Recall the pesher hermeneutic employed by the Teacher of Righteousness in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Two similar words are used by Paul: “reveal” (phaneroō?) and “make known” (gnōrizō?). This spiritual illumination came from God.
Third, 16:26b spells out the content of the mystery God revealed to Paul. Gentiles, through Christ, are a part of the people of God. This truth was not clear in the Old Testament (cf. Eph. 3:3–6, 9; Col. 1:26–27). But two Old Testament prophecies envisioned in some sense the end-time conversion of the Gentiles. These are the Abrahamic covenant (Gen. 12:1–3) and the prophets’ predictions of the nations streaming into Jerusalem to worship God (e.g., Isa. 45:15; 60:15–17; Mic. 4:13). Paul began Romans with exactly that hope (1:5–7). This is the added detail to the kērygma that Paul contributes to the gospel of Jesus Christ. With this, Paul has come full circle in his letter to the Romans. He is the apostle of grace whose eschatological mission was to win the Gentile world to Christ and thereby be the catalyst for the parousia. For this reason, Paul exclaims, “To the only wise God be glory forever through Jesus Christ!” We, like the Roman Christians, should respond, “Amen!”
Theological Insights
Several truths meet us in Romans 16:25–27. First, history is “his story.” God’s plan of salvation can be traced in the Old Testament; it piqued the interest of Jews in Second Temple Judaism and was fully revealed in the New Testament in the gospel of Jesus Christ. And that plan will culminate in Christ’s return. Second, the gospel is for all—Jew and Gentile alike. Where would we be in the West without Paul’s message of the gospel? There is a strong possibility that without Paul’s mission to Gentiles, the gospel could have been largely restricted to Jews in Palestine. Third, on the one hand, Paul’s timetable of reaching Spain (which, I believe, he did) and winning the Gentiles to precipitate the parousia was not met; but, on the other hand, Paul’s gospel reached Gentiles far beyond Spain, and one day that will stir the Jews to accept Jesus as the Messiah and thus bring about the second coming of Christ.
Teaching the Text
A good way to approach Romans 16:25–27 is to cover the three points that I identified therein, comparing them with Romans 1:1–7. This can be done by way of a chart, as shown in table 1, and a summary of that material. This will bring a sense of closure to this marvelous message of Paul’s letter to the Romans.
First, Paul preached the good news (gospel) of the true restoration of Israel, which is that Jesus the Messiah provides the correct way to being at peace with God—justification by faith. Such a restoration is not restricted to the land of Israel or to the Jewish people but is open to the whole world and to all people groups. In other words, God through Christ reigns in the hearts of his people. Second, this good news of restoration was predicted in the Old Testament but has now become clear in Paul’s proclamation of Christ. One finds here the tie that binds together the Old and New Testaments. That is, the new covenant promised in the former is fulfilled in the latter. Third, Gentiles especially have accepted the gospel. Their commitment to Christ is the end-time obedience of the nations hoped for in the Old Testament. Together with Jewish Christians they form the one people of God based on faith.
Illustrating the Text
History is his story.
Church History: Because of his desire to see the Bible translated into the language of his people, John Wycliffe is generally considered the first great English Reformer. This, and his denunciation of the Catholic Church of his day, led to his expulsion from his post at Oxford in 1381. He died after a stroke in 1384 and was buried, but not for long. At the Council of Constance in 1415, Wycliffe was condemned by Pope Martin V, and it was ordered that Wycliffe’s remains be exhumed and burned. But it was Wycliffe who had the last laugh. Church historian Thomas Fuller wrote, “To city of Lutterworth they come, . . . take what was left out of the grave, and burnt them to ashes, and cast them into the Swift, a neighbouring brook running hard by. Thus this brook hath conveyed his ashes into Avon, Avon into Severn, Severn into the narrow seas, they into the main ocean; and thus the ashes of Wicliffe are the emblem of his doctrine, which now is dispersed all the world over.”6
The gospel is for all—Jew, Gentile, anyone.
Quote: John Stott.
It is he who opens the eyes of our hearts and those eyes and hearts belong to young and old, Latin and Anglo-Saxon, African, Asian and American, male and female, poetic and prosaic. It is this “magnificent and intricate mosaic of mankind” (to borrow a phrase of Dr. Donald McGavran’s) which the Holy Spirit uses to disclose from Scripture ever more of the many-coloured wisdom of God.7
The gospel reached far beyond Spain, Paul’s specific interest.
Biography: James Yen (1893–1990) came to know the Lord in rural China through the influence of China Inland Mission. He was discipled by a Christian YMCA worker and profoundly affected by the plight of the poor, illiterate Chinese people. Yen got his undergraduate degree at Yale then his Master’s at Princeton. Upon his return to China in 1921, Yen became a leader of the Mass Education Movement, in which thousands of Chinese intellectuals, many of them Christians, taught literacy to the masses in rural areas. He founded the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, and in 1950 Life Magazine listed him as one of the ten most significant people in the world at the time. He died in 1990 in New York City, having affected the lives of 50 million Chinese and millions around the world, though he was virtually unknown in other parts of the world.8
