The word “apocrypha” is derived from a Greek word
meaning “secret” or “hidden” and refers to
texts regarded by some Jews and Christians as religiously valuable
but not meeting the criteria of canonicity. The more specific title
“New Testament Apocrypha” distinguishes certain writings
from those commonly referred to as “the Apocrypha,” a
collection of works written by Jews (with later Christian editing in
places) between approx. 200 BC and AD 90, recognized as Scripture by
Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches but generally rejected by
Protestants (see Apocrypha, Old Testament). What is loosely called
New Testament Apocrypha is no single collection but actually a vast,
amorphous corpus that can only be selectively discussed here. (The
Apostolic Fathers, texts written mainly in the late first century and
second century, and later church fathers are not considered here as
part of this grouping.) In broadest terms, these texts concern
themselves with Jesus Christ and his apostles, but often from a
perspective that differs from the NT portraits. Nevertheless, many of
the works appear to be either dependent upon or influenced by the
genres and characters of the NT, principally gospels, letters,
apostolic acts, and apocalypse.
These
writings remain outside of the Christian canon for the following
reasons. First, the texts, at least in their final form, were
published in the postapostolic period (the second century), whereas
all of the NT writings were believed to have been written by an
apostle (Matthew, John, Paul, Peter) or an apostolic associate (Mark,
Luke). Some apocryphal writings (e.g., Gospel of Thomas) may simply
adapt earlier, apostolic tradition. Second, the point of view in
these writings does not represent a broad constituency in the early
church. Some appear to reflect the ideology of various gnostic
groups, which became prominent in the second century throughout the
Mediterranean, with centers in Antioch in Syria and Alexandria in
Egypt. Although a diverse phenomenon, gnosticism generally embraced
secret knowledge as a vehicle for salvation from the material world,
a development of extreme Platonism. Therefore, Jesus saves through an
esoteric teaching, not his atoning death. The diminution of the cross
led to the orthodox rejection of this perspective. In attempting to
refute gnostics, Irenaeus of Lyons (died c. AD 195) appropriates what
he calls the “rule of faith” (regula fidei), which was
passed on by the apostles and everywhere accepted by the churches
(Haer. 1.8.1; 1.9.4). Other apocryphal texts appear to represent a
conservative Jewish-Christian perspective. The church gradually
shifted from being primarily a Jewish religious group that accepted
non-Jews to what Christians themselves described as a “third
race” in distinction from Jews and pagans. Relationships
between Jews and Christians continued to sour because of mutual
persecution, competition, and misunderstanding. By the second
century, some Christian writers claimed God had rejected Israel
(e.g., the author of Epistle of Barnabas). Many texts emphasize
celibacy, fasting, and other rigorously ascetic practices, which go
beyond the moderate guidelines in the NT. These factors contributed
to the marginalization of Jewish believers in Jesus, making their
writings suspect. Like the gnostic texts, the primary concern was a
diminished Christology. Consequently, many of these writings were not
copied (and therefore preserved) by Christian copyists and thus
eventually were lost. However, many texts were discovered at Nag
Hammadi in Egypt in 1945. Scraps of papyri have also been recovered
from various sites in the dry sands of the desert. But many of the
apocryphal writings survive only in fragments (e.g., Acts of Paul ).
The
New Testament Apocrypha provide a window into the various ways
Christians attempted to live out their faith in Jesus Christ, the
rise of ascetic monasticism, and why orthodox Christianity ultimately
parted ways with both rabbinic Judaism and gnosticism. The diversity
of the church’s past may provide context and insight for the
challenges of the present.
Gospels
The
apocryphal Gospels often amplify or add to material that is more
limited in the canonical Gospels. This is especially the case with
Jesus’ youth and the passion narrative. The Infancy Gospel of
Thomas depicts, among other things, the child Jesus making sparrows
out of clay and then bringing them to life. The Gospel of Peter,
which dates probably from the middle of the second century and is
likely dependent on Mark’s Gospel, begins with Jesus’
trial and breaks off in what is presumably a resurrection appearance
to a group of disciples. According to some scholars, the Gospel of
Peter is cited by Origen (c. AD 185–255) as evidence that
Jesus’ purported brothers were Joseph’s from an earlier
marriage, thereby protecting the perpetual virginity of Mary (Comm.
ser. Matt. 10.17). This gospel reflects a strong anti-Jewish bias.
The Protevangelium of James relates the miraculous birth of Jesus’
mother, Mary.
Other
apocryphal Gospels single out a particular apostle who alone is given
special revelation. A complete version of the Gospel of Thomas was
discovered among the Nag Hammadi writings and is perhaps the earliest
apocryphal gospel. The emphasis on Thomas suggests a Syrian
provenance. Containing little narrative, the text is primarily a
collection of Jesus’ sayings (loosely grouped according to
theme), some of which are dependent on the Gospel of Luke (e.g., 47,
104). James, the brother of the Lord, is given prominence (12), but
there are also polemics against traditional Jewish piety: prayer,
fasting, alms, and circumcision (6, 14, 53, 104). The Gospel of
Judas, which is dated to around the middle of the second century and
survives in one or two copies, consists primarily of dialogues
between Judas Iscariot and Jesus during his passion. Judas is
presented as the only disciple to recognize Jesus’ true origin
and identity. In response, Jesus praises him: “You will exceed
all of [the other apostles]. For you will sacrifice the man that
clothes me” (43). This text reflects a gnostic point of view
(probably Sethian, representing a group that venerated the biblical
figure of Seth and viewed Jesus as his reincarnation, as in the
Apocryphon of John, the Gospel of the Egyptians, and the Apocalypse
of Paul ). Whereas Peter makes a confession of faith in
the canonical Gospels, Judas says, “I know who you are and
where you have come from. You are from the immortal realm of Barbelo”
(35). (In gnostic mythology, Barbelo [Coptic for “Great
Emission”] is the divine Mother of all, who is often described
as the “Forethought of the Father,” the “Infinite
One.”) The Gospel of Judas has Jesus reject the God of Israel
(21) and attack the Christian church and its leadership (26–27).
The
church fathers often mention Jewish gospels (Gospel of the Hebrews,
Gospel of the Nazarenes, Gospel of the Ebionites), including a Hebrew
version of Matthew (Irenaeus, Haer. 3.1.1; Eusebius, Hist. eccl.
6.25.4). Clement of Alexandria (c. AD 150–215) cites a saying
of Jesus from the Gospel of the Hebrews: “He that marvels shall
reign, and he that has reigned shall rest” (Strom. 2.9.45;
5.14.96). Epiphanius (c. AD 310/320–403) preserves part of the
Gospel of the Ebionites: “It came to pass that John was
baptizing, and Pharisees and all Jerusalem went out to him and were
baptized. And John had a garment of camel’s hair and a leather
girdle about his waist, and his food, it is said, was wild honey, the
taste of which was that of manna, as a cake dipped in oil”
(Pan. 30.13.4–5). The Ebionites (the “poor”) were a
Jewish-Christian group. The wording may reflect a vegetarian
perspective, a popular form of asceticism, which annoyed Epiphanius,
who claimed that the Ebionites “were resolved to make the word
of truth into a lie and to put a cake in the place of locusts.”
However, the text only claims that the wild honey had the taste of
manna, “as a cake dipped in oil.” The discovery of papyri
in Egypt has also provided agrapha (unwritten sayings) of Jesus.
Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 840 depicts a debate between Jesus and a
Pharisaic chief priest over viewing the holy utensils in the temple
in an impure state.
Apostolic
Acts
This
subgenre typically involves a narrative of an apostle’s
missionary activity (e.g., Andrew, Peter, John, Paul, Philip) from
the time of Jesus’ resurrection to his own martyrdom (or, in
the case of John, simply his death). Books of acts also feature other
important individuals in the early history of the church, such as
Barnabas and even Pilate. Some function to explain how the Christian
faith reached a community. The Acts of Thomas, which originates
probably in Syrian Christianity, depicts his missionary activity in
India. They are partly dependent on Luke’s book of Acts, but
they reflect a greater interest in biographical detail. The Acts of
Paul and Thecla provides a physical description of the apostle: “a
man of small stature, with a bald head and crooked legs, in a good
state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, full
of friendliness.” Contrary to popular assumption and the
impression that one gets from Paul’s letters (2 Cor.
10:10), the depiction in its cultural context is flattering. Thecla
is presented as a young, engaged woman from a prominent family in
Iconium. She believes Paul’s gospel, which emphasizes sexual
abstinence (see 1 Cor. 7:1–16). She breaks off her
engagement, and the apostle permits her to become a teacher. The
details may be a reaction against developments in the early church,
which struggled over sexuality and women’s roles in leadership.
In the Acts of Peter, Luke’s presentation of a conflict between
Simon Magus and Simon Peter is greatly expanded; this version
describes, among other things, Simon Magus levitating over Rome, only
to be grounded by the prayers of Peter (4, 6, 9, 11–18, 23,
31).
Letters
The
letter genre was not especially popular for those writing Christian
apocryphal literature. In one letter, Abgar, king of Edessa, writes
Jesus, inviting him to visit his city. Jesus responds with a
courteous letter relating that he must fulfill his mission but,
following his ascension, will send a disciple (see Eusebius, Hist.
eccl. 1.13). There are also fourteen letters between Paul and the
Stoic philosopher Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65). No one treats these
letters as authentic, but they do provide insight into early
Christian curiosities. Paul mentions a letter to the Laodiceans,
which has not survived (Col. 4:16), so someone in the fourth century
or earlier patched together phrases mainly from Philippians and
Galatians to provide such a letter. The work known as
3 Corinthians, which contains a letter from the Corinthian
church and Paul’s reply, probably serves the same purpose.
Apocalypses
An
apocalypse features a seer who receives revelation from a
supernatural revealer. Apocalypses are attributed to, among others,
Paul, Peter, Thomas, Stephen, and James. They typically feature
revelations made by Jesus to his disciples in the period between his
resurrection and ascension. The book of Revelation appears to have
had little influence on these works. Many of them are gnostic. But
the Apocalypse of Peter, which most likely originated in Palestinian
Jewish Christianity during the Bar Kokhba Revolt (AD 132–135),
was highly valued, particularly for its depiction of hell, in which
twenty-one sinners suffer in ways appropriate to their sin.
Apocrypha,
Old Testament–The Greek word apokrypha means “hidden”
or “concealed,” and later it came to refer to religious
books considered to be of inferior quality to the OT and the NT.
During the third century, several church fathers (e.g., Origen [d.
253], Irenaeus [d. c. 200], Tertullian [d. 220]) used this term to
distinguish these works from canonical works. Currently, the phrase
“Old Testament Apocrypha” refers to Jewish literary works
written between approximately 200 BC and AD 90 that were included in
the earliest Greek codices of the LXX.
The
Apocrypha and the Development of the Canon
By
the first century AD, many Jews believed that prophecy continued only
until about the time of Ezra, around the end of the fifth century BC,
and thus several of the apocryphal works were associated with famous
biblical characters such as Jeremiah, Baruch, or Solomon, most likely
in order to give them credibility. In Matt. 23:34–35; Luke
11:49–51 Jesus appears to limit the OT canon to the books known
to be in the Jewish canon. Both passages record Jesus stating that
the Jewish nation will be held responsible for the blood of the
prophets from “the blood of Abel” (see Gen. 4:8–10),
the first recorded murder, “to the blood of Zechariah”
(see 2 Chron. 24:20–22), the last recorded murder. The
implication is that biblical history spans from Genesis to Chronicles
(most likely the last book in the order of the Hebrew Bible at the
time of Jesus), which is equivalent to saying from Genesis to Malachi
in the English Bible.
Based
upon this evidence, it is doubtful that the early Jews ever
considered the apocryphal works part of their canon. In reality, the
early Greek codices were Christian collections from the fourth to
fifth centuries AD. Apparently, by that time there were significant
questions concerning which books made up the OT canon. By the end of
the first century AD, Christians had been dispersed all over the
Roman Empire, so it is more than likely that few Christians would
have had contact with Jews or exposure to their scriptural canon. It
is reasonable to assume that during this period of uncertainty, the
apocryphal books were thought by some to be part of the Jewish OT
canon. A major turning point occurred in the fourth century AD when
Jerome (c. 345–420) was asked to write a standardized
translation of the Latin Bible. Jerome used original Greek and Hebrew
texts to correct his Latin translation. He did not believe that the
apocryphal books were part of the OT since they were not included in
the Hebrew manuscripts. Nevertheless, some argue that he was coerced
into adding them to the Latin Vulgate by Augustine of Hippo
(354–430), who believed that at least part of the apocryphal
books were to be included in the OT canon. The Latin Vulgate became
the standard translation of the Roman Catholic Church for well over a
thousand years, and thus the Old Testament Apocrypha were gradually
accepted in the church. Another major turning point occurred during
the Protestant Reformation when Luther’s views were argued at
the Council of Trent (convened three times between 1545 and 1563)
that the Apocrypha were not part of the OT canon. The Roman Catholic
Church had used 2 Macc. 12:43–45 to substantiate its
doctrines of purgatory and praying for the dead; likewise Tobit and
other apocryphal works were used to substantiate works of
righteousness (i.e, not faith alone for salvation). On April 8, 1546,
at the Council of Trent, the Roman Catholic Church decreed that the
Apocrypha were indeed part of the Christian canon and pronounced
anathema upon those who disagreed.
Since
the time of Luther, Protestants have rejected the canonicity of the
Apocrypha. However, the Roman Catholic Church has argued that fifteen
apocryphal works are part of their authoritative Scriptures. The
Greek Orthodox Church includes two additional works (3 Maccabees;
Psalm 151) in its authoritative canon.
Arguments
against including Apocryphal Books in the Canon
There
are significant arguments for not including these books in the
church’s authoritative canon.
1. The
NT never cites any apocryphal books as inspired; Jesus’ usage
of Scripture suggests that only the books in the Hebrew Bible were
authoritative (Matt. 23:34–35; Luke 11:50–51).
2. None
of the apocryphal books claims to be the word of the Lord, as do many
OT books (Num. 35:1, 9; Josh. 1:1; Isa. 1:10, 18, 24; Jer. 1:2; Ezek.
1:3; Hos. 1:1; Joel 1:1).
3. The
OT canon is confirmed by many sources: 2 Esd. 14:45 (twenty-four
books); Josephus, Ag. Ap. 1.37–42 (twenty-two books);
Melito (all OT books except perhaps Esther); the Jerusalem List (all
thirty-nine books); Origen (twenty-two books). All of these sources
list the same thirty-nine OT books except that they are grouped
differently (with the exception of Melito, who may omit Esther).
4. There
is little evidence to suggest that there were two different OT
canons, one that developed in Palestine and one in Egypt. In fact,
Philo, a Jew from Alexandria, never quotes from an apocryphal book as
authoritative.
5. There
are significant historical inaccuracies in the Apocrypha. For
example, the events in the book of Tobit (1:3–5) are
chronologically incompatible: Tobit is said to live in Nineveh about
722 BC and yet also to have seen the division of the united kingdom
in about 931 BC.
6. There
are theological inconsistencies. For example, 2 Macc. 12:43–45
espouses praying for the dead, but canonical books maintain that
decisions about one’s eternal destiny can be made only before
death (Heb. 9:27). Eleven out of fifteen apocryphal books contain
some type of inaccuracies. Those that do not either are very short
(i.e., Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men; Prayer of
Manasseh) or their content makes it difficult to determine if they
contain errors (i.e., Wisdom of Solomon; Susanna).
7. Many
early church fathers spoke against the canonicity of much or all of
the Apocrypha (Melito, Origen, Cyril of Jerusalem, Athanasius,
Jerome); no major church father accepted all of the apocryphal books
until Augustine. The apocryphal books have never been universally
accepted by the church.
8. The
earliest list of OT canon by Melito (c. AD 170) does not include
them.
9. During
the Council of Trent, Martin Luther’s views against the
canonicity of the Apocrypha were discussed, citing the NT, early
church fathers, and Jewish teachers in support. The Roman Catholic
Church responded by canonizing the Apocrypha.
The
Books of the Old Testament Apocrypha
Even
though the apocryphal books should not be considered part of the
authoritative canon, they are useful for understanding Jewish thought
and interests in the intertestamental period and the development of
certain concepts during this period (e.g., the importance of the
Torah, the apocalyptic view of history, the kingdom of God).
Traditionally,
the Apocrypha consisted of fifteen books that were included in Roman
Catholic Bibles and were usually identified as deuterocanonical
(i.e., second canon) works. However, more recently this number has
been reduced to thirteen since 4 Ezra (sometimes called 2 Esdras
or Apocalypse of Ezra) and the Prayer of Manasseh were never found in
the oldest Greek codices of the LXX: Vaticanus (c. AD 350),
Sinaiticus (c. AD 400), and Alexandrinus (c. AD 450). These two works
are now correctly considered pseudepigraphal books (i.e., false
writings that were never thought to be part of the biblical canon).
The
list below follows the Roman Catholic canon. In addition to these
texts, several other writings are included in the Greek Orthodox,
Armenian, Georgian, Syriac, and Ethiopian canons: 3 Maccabees,
4 Maccabees, Psalm 151, Psalms 152–55, 1 Enoch, Jubilees,
2 Baruch (Letter of Baruch), 3 Baruch (Apocalypse of
Baruch), 4 Baruch (Paralipomena of Jeremiah), and 1–3
Megabyan (Ethiopic Maccabees).
Books
included in the Old Testament Apocrypha.
The
following thirteen books are included in the Old Testament Apocrypha.
• Wisdom
of Solomon (latter part of the first century BC): This work contains
Jewish wisdom traditions and describes the benefits of wisdom and the
joys that accompany righteous living, as well as punishments for the
wicked.
• Sirach
(or Ecclesiasticus; c. 180 BC): This book is very similar to the
biblical book of Proverbs, also containing Jewish wisdom traditions.
It includes moral and ethical maxims, proverbs, songs of praise,
theological and philosophical reflections on life, and customs of the
day.
• Tobit
(c. 180 BC): A romantic story teaching that God comes to the aid of
those who remain faithful to his laws. Tobit, a righteous Israelite
living in Nineveh, is an example to the rest of the captives even in
the midst of great adversities. Tobit becomes blind and prays to God
to restore his sight. At the same time in Media, Sarah, Tobit’s
niece, who had lost seven bridegrooms in succession, prays to God for
deliverance from the demon Asmodeus. God sends the angel Raphael to
deliver them both.
• Judith
(c. 150 BC): Nebuchadnezzar sends Holofernes to punish the people
west of Babylon for their insubordination. The author exhorts the
Jews to remain obedient to the law amid foreign occupation by the
Babylonians. The people of Judea pray to God for help; in answer,
Judith beguiles Holofernes, gets him thoroughly drunk, and then
decapitates him.
• 1 Esdras
(or 3 Ezra; c. second to first century BC): This book is a
retelling of parts of Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah. It begins
abruptly describing the reinstitution of the Passover by King Josiah
in Jerusalem about 622/621 BC and continues to Ezra’s reforms
about 458 BC. The majority of the book emphasizes Ezra’s
reforms.
• 1 Maccabees
(c. latter part of the second century BC): This book describes Judean
history and especially the military campaigns of the Maccabees from
the accession of Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) in about 175 BC to the
reign of John Hyrcanus I (134–104 BC). This work is a very
accurate history and is the primary source of recorded events during
this period.
• 2 Maccabees
(c. end of second century to beginning of first century BC): This
book is much more theologically oriented than 1 Maccabees in
recording events of Jewish history from the time of the high priest
Onias III and the Syrian king Seleucus IV (c. 180 BC) to
the defeat of Nicanor’s army (c. 161 BC). It appears to adopt
an anti-Hasmonean viewpoint by highlighting concepts such as the
resurrection of the body and the efficacious nature of martyrdom.
• Baruch
(c. second to first century BC): This claims to be a letter from
Baruch to those living in Jerusalem. It begins with a confirmation
that Jerusalem was destroyed because of Israel’s sinfulness and
was to be read on a feast day as a confession of their sin (1:14).
• Epistle
of Jeremiah (third to first century BC): The date of this work is now
confirmed by a first-century BC Greek manuscript from Cave 7 of
Qumran. The text contains 72 or 73 verses and is most likely
influenced by Jer. 10:1–16. This letter, supposedly from
Jeremiah to Jewish captives soon to be taken to Babylon, describes
the folly of worshiping idols.
• Additions
to Esther (c. second to first century BC): These six additions (e.g.,
Mordecai’s dream and its interpretation, prayers of Mordecai
and Esther) to the Greek text of Esther apparently were introduced to
highlight the religious aspect of the story that the author felt was
lacking.
• Susanna
(c. second to first century BC): This work and the next two were
added to the book of Daniel sometime during the first century BC.
Susanna is tried and found guilty because of the lies that two elders
of Israel told about her after she refused their sexual advances.
Daniel, however, inspired by God, cross-examines the two men, proves
that they have lied, and exonerates Susanna.
• Bel
and the Dragon (c. second to first century BC): This work contains
two stories demonstrating the wisdom of Daniel. In the first, he
outwits the priests of Bel who go each night through a secret
entrance to eat the offerings left for Bel. Daniel reveals their
deception and proves their great statue of Bel, the patron deity of
Babylon, to be a worthless idol. In the second story, Daniel is
thrown into the lions’ den for killing a dragon that the
Babylonians believed to be a god. However, the angel of the Lord
protects Daniel and brings Habakkuk from Judea with food for him. On
the seventh day, Daniel is removed from the lions’ den and his
enemies are thrown in.
• Prayer
of Azariah and Song of the Three Young Men (c. second to first
century BC): Before being thrown into the fiery furnace (cf. Dan.
3:23), Abednego (“Azariah” in Hebrew) prays, asking God
to bring glory to his name through this ordeal. Then follows the song
of the three young men (Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego), who sing
praise and glory to God.
Books
no longer in the Old Testament Apocrypha. The
following two books are no longer included in the Old Testament
Apocrypha.
• 2 Esdras
(or 4 Ezra, Apocalypse of Ezra; c. first century AD): An
apocalyptic book dealing with the problem of evil in the world, or
more specifically why an all-powerful, loving God allows such great
evils to befall humankind. The reason why turns out to be human
sinfulness.
• Prayer
of Manasseh (c. second to first century BC): According to 2 Chron.
33:10–13, Manasseh prayed to God while in captivity and asked
for forgiveness for his many sins. God responds by forgiving him and
allowing him to return to Israel. This work purports to record this
amazing prayer.
