The biblical corpus known as the Pentateuch consists of the
first five books of the OT: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and
Deuteronomy. The word “Pentateuch” comes from two Greek
words (penta [“five”] and teuchos [“scroll case,
book”]) and is a designation attested in the early church
fathers. The collection is also commonly known as the “Five
Books of Moses,” “the Law of Moses,” or simply the
“Law,” reflecting the traditional Jewish name “Torah,”
meaning “law” or “instruction.” The Torah is
the first of three major sections that comprise the Hebrew Bible
(Torah, Nebiim, Ketubim [Law, Prophets, Writings]); thus for both
Jewish and Christian traditions it represents the introduction to the
Bible as a whole as well as its interpretive foundation.
The
English names for the books of the Pentateuch came from the Latin
Vulgate, based on the Greek Septuagint. These appellations are mainly
descriptive of their content. Genesis derives from “generations”
or “origin,” Exodus means “going out,”
Leviticus represents priestly (Levitical) service, Numbers refers to
the censuses taken in the book, and Deuteronomy indicates “second
law” because of Moses’ rehearsal of God’s commands
(see Deut. 17:18). The Hebrew designations derive from opening words
in each book. Bereshit (Genesis) means “in the beginning”;
Shemot (Exodus), “[these are] the names”; Wayyiqra’
(Leviticus), “and he called”; Bemidbar (Numbers), “in
the desert”; and Debarim (Deuteronomy), “[these are] the
words.”
Referring
to the Pentateuch as “Torah” or the “Law”
reflects the climactic reception of God’s commands at Mount
Sinai, which were to govern Israel’s life and worship in the
promised land, including their journey to get there. However, calling
the Pentateuch the “Law” can be a bit misleading because
there are relatively few passages that simply list a set of commands,
and all law passages are set within a broad narrative. The Pentateuch
is a grand story that begins on a universal scale with the creation
of the cosmos and ends on the plains of Moab as the reader
anticipates the fulfillment of God’s plan to redeem a fallen
world through his chosen people. The books offer distinct qualities
and content, but they are also inherently dependent upon one another,
as the narrative remains unbroken through the five volumes. Genesis
ends with Jacob’s family in Egypt, and, though many years have
passed, this is where Exodus begins. Leviticus outlines cultic life
at the tabernacle (constructed at the end of Exodus) and even begins
without a clear subject (“And he called . . .”),
which requires the reader to supply “the Lord” from the
last verse of Exodus. Numbers begins with an account of Israel’s
fighting men as the nation prepares to leave Sinai, and Deuteronomy
is Moses’ farewell address to the nation on the cusp of the
promised land.
Authorship
and Composition
Although
the Pentateuch is technically an anonymous work, Jewish and Christian
tradition attributes its authorship to Moses, the main figure of the
story from Exodus to Deuteronomy. The arguments for attributing the
authorship of the Pentateuch to Moses come from internal evidence
within both Testaments. That Moses is responsible for at least
portions of the Pentateuch is suggested by references to his explicit
literary activity reflected within the narrative itself (Exod. 17:14;
24:4; 34:28; Num. 33:2; Deut. 31:9, 22, 24), if not implied in
various literary formulas such as “the Lord said to Moses”
(e.g., Exod. 39:1, 7, 21; Lev. 4:1; 11:1; 13:1; Num. 1:1; 2:1).
Mosaic authorship receives support from the historical books, which
use terms such as “the Book of the Law of Moses” in
various forms and references in the preexilic history (Josh. 8:30–35;
23:6; 2 Kings 14:6) as well as the postexilic history (e.g.,
2 Chron. 25:4; Ezra 6:18; Neh. 13:1). The same titles are used
by NT authors (e.g., Mark 12:26; Luke 24:44; John 1:45), even
referring to the Pentateuch simply by the name “Moses” at
various points (e.g., Luke 16:29; 24:27; 2 Cor. 3:15).
Even
with these examples, nowhere does the text explicitly state that
Moses is responsible for the entire compilation of the Pentateuch or
that he penned it with his own hand. Rather, a number of factors
point to a later hand at work: Moses’ death and burial are
referenced (Deut. 34), the conquest of Canaan is referred to as past
(Deut. 2:12), and there is evidence that the names of people and
places were updated and explained for later generations (e.g., “Dan”
in Gen. 14:14; cf. Josh. 19:47; Judg. 18:28b–29). Based on
these factors, it is reasonable to believe that the Pentateuch
underwent editorial alteration as it was preserved within Jewish life
and took its final shape after Moses’ lifetime.
Over
the last century, the Documentary Hypothesis has dominated academic
discussion of the Pentateuch’s composition. This theory was
crystallized by Julius Wellhausen in his Prolegomena to the History
of Israel in the late nineteenth century and posits that the
Pentateuch originated from a variety of ancient sources derived from
distinct authors and time periods that have been transmitted and
joined through a long and complex process. Traditionally these
documents are identified as J, E, D, and P. The J source is a
document authored by the “Yahwist” (German, Jahwist) in
Judah around 840 BC and is so called because the name “Yahweh”
is used frequently in its text. The E source stands for “Elohist”
because of its preference for the divine title “Elohim”
and was composed in Israel around 700 BC. The D source stands for
“Deuteronomy” because it reflects material found in that
book; it was composed sometime around Josiah’s reform in 621
BC. The P document reflects material that priests would be concerned
with in the postexilic time period, approximately 500 BC. This theory
and its related forms stem from the scholarly concern over various
literary characteristics such as the use of divine names; doublets
and duplications in the text; observable patterns of style,
terminology, and themes; and alleged discrepancies in facts,
descriptions, and geographic or historical perspective.
Various
documentary theories of composition have flourished over the last
century of pentateuchal scholarship and still have many adherents.
However, lack of scholarly agreement about the dating and character
of the sources and the rise of other literary approaches to the text
have many conservative and liberal scholars calling into question the
accuracy and even interpretive benefit of the source theories.
Moreover, if the literary observations used to create source
distinctions can be explained in other ways, then the Documentary
Hypothesis is significantly undermined.
In
its canonical form, the pentateuchal narrative combines artistic
prose, poetry, and law to tell a dramatic history spanning thousands
of years. One could divide the story into six major sections:
primeval history (Gen. 1–11), the patriarchs (Gen. 12–50),
liberation from Egypt (Exod. 1–18), Sinai (Exod. 19:1–Num.
10:10), wilderness journey (Num. 10:11–36:13), and Moses’
farewell (Deuteronomy).
Primeval
History (Gen. 1–11)
It
is possible to divide Genesis into two parts based upon subject
matter: the origin of creation and humankind’s call, fall, and
punishment (chaps 1–11), and the origin of a family that would
become God’s conduit of salvation and blessing for the world
(chaps. 12–50).
The
primeval history comprises essentially the first eleven chapters of
Genesis, ending with the genealogy of Abraham in 11:26. Strictly
speaking, 11:27 begins the patriarchal section with the sixth
instance of the toledot formula found in Genesis, referencing
Abraham’s father, Terah. The Hebrew phrase ’elleh toledot
(“these are the generations of”) occurs in eleven places
in Genesis and reflects a deliberate structural marker that one may
use to divide the book into distinct episodes (2:4; 5:1; 6:9; 10:1;
11:10; 11:27; 25:12; 25:19; 36:1; 36:9; 37:2).
Genesis
as we know it exhibits two distinct creation accounts in its first
two chapters. Although critical scholars contend that the differing
accounts reflect contradictory stories and different authors, it is
just as convenient to recognize that the two stories vary in style
and some content because they attempt to accomplish different aims.
The first account, 1:1–2:3, is an artistic, poetic,
symmetrical, and “heavenly” view of creation by a
transcendent God, who spoke creation into being. In the second
account, 2:4–25, God is immanently involved with creation as he
is present in a garden, breathes life into Adam’s nostrils,
dialogues and problem-solves, fashions Eve from Adam’s side,
and bestows warnings and commands. Both perspectives are foundational
for providing an accurate view of God’s interaction with
creation in the rest of Scripture.
As
one progresses through chapters 1–11, the story quickly changes
from what God has established as “very good” to discord,
sin, and shame. Chapter 3 reflects the “fall” of humanity
as Adam and Eve sin in eating from the forbidden tree in direct
disobedience to God. The serpent shrewdly deceives the first couple,
and thus all three incur God’s curses, which extend to
unlimited generations. Sin that breaks the vertical relationship
between God and humanity intrinsically leads to horizontal strife
between humans. Sin and disunity on the earth only intensify as one
moves from the murder story of Cain and Abel in chapter 4 to the
flood in chapters 5–9. Violence, evil, and disorder have so
pervaded the earth that God sends a deluge to wipe out all living
things, save one righteous man and his family, along with an ark full
of animals. God makes the first covenant recorded in the biblical
narrative with Noah (6:18), promising to save him from the flood as
he commands Noah to build an ark and gather food for survival. Noah
fulfills all that God has commanded (6:22; 7:5), and God remembers
his promise (8:1). This is the prototypical salvation story for the
rest of Scripture.
Chapter
9 reflects a new start for humanity and all living things as the
creation mandate to “be fruitful and increase in number; fill
the earth and subdue it,” first introduced in 1:28, is restated
along with the reminder that humankind is made in God’s image
(1:27). Bearing the image involves new responsibilities and
stipulations in the postdiluvian era (9:2–6). There will be
enmity between humans and animals, animals are now appropriate food,
and yet lifeblood will be specially revered. God still requires
accountability for just and discriminate shedding of blood and
orderly relationships, as he has proved in the deluge, but now he
relinquishes this responsibility to humankind. In return, God
promises never to destroy all flesh again, and he will set the
rainbow in the sky as a personal reminder. Like the covenant with
Noah in 6:18, the postdiluvian covenant involves humankind fulfilling
commands (9:1–7) and God remembering his covenant (9:8–17),
specially termed “everlasting” (9:16).
The
primeval commentary on humankind’s unabating sinful condition
(e.g., 6:5; 8:21) proves true as Noah becomes drunk and naked and his
son Ham (father of Canaan) shames him by failing to conceal his
father’s negligence. Instead of multiplying, filling, and
subduing the earth as God has intended, humankind collaborates to
make a name for itself by building a sort of stairway to heaven
within a special city (11:4). God foils such haughty plans by
scattering the people across the earth and confusing their language.
Expressed in an orderly chiastic structure, the story of the tower of
Babel demonstrates that God condescends (11:5) to set things straight
with humanity.
Patriarchs
(Gen. 12–50)
Although
the primeval history is foundational for understanding the rest of
the Bible, more space in Genesis is devoted to the patriarchal
figures Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. In general, the Abrahamic
narrative spans chapters 12–25, the story of Isaac serves as a
transition to the Jacob cycle of chapters 25–37, and the Joseph
narrative finishes the book of Genesis in chapters 37–50.
The
transition from the primeval history to the patriarchs (11:27–32)
reveals how Abraham, the father of Israel, moves from the east and
settles in Harran as the family ventures to settle in Canaan. In
Harran, Abraham receives the call of God’s redemptive plan,
which reverberates through Scripture. God will bless him with land,
make him a great nation, grant him special favor, and use him as a
conduit of blessings to the world (12:1–3). In 11:30 is the
indication that the barrenness of Abraham’s wife (Sarah)
relates to the essence of God’s magnificent promises. How one
becomes great in name and number, secures enemy territory, and is to
bless all peoples without a descendant becomes the compelling
question of the Abrahamic narrative. The interchange between
Abraham’s faith in God and his attempts to contrive covenant
fulfillment colors the entire narrative leading up to chapter 22. It
is there that Abraham’s faith is ultimately put to the test as
God asks him to sacrifice the promised son, Isaac. Abraham passes
God’s faith test, and a ram is provided to take Isaac’s
place. This everlasting covenant that was previously sealed by the
sign of circumcision is climactically procured for future generations
through Abraham’s exemplary obedience (22:16–18; cf.
15:1–21; 17:1–27).
The
patriarchal stories that follow show that the Abrahamic promises are
renewed with subsequent generations (see 26:3–4; 28:13–14)
and survive various threats to fulfillment. The story of Isaac serves
mainly as a bridge to the Jacob cycle, as he exists primarily as a
passive character in relation to Abraham and Jacob.
Deception,
struggle, rivalry, and favoritism characterize the Jacob narrative,
as first exemplified in the jostling of twin boys in Rebekah’s
womb (25:22). Jacob supplants his twin brother, Esau, for the
firstborn’s blessing and birthright. He flees to Paddan Aram
(northern Mesopotamia), marries two sisters, takes their maidservants
as concubines, and has eleven children, followed by a falling-out
with his father-in-law. Jacob’s struggle for God’s
blessing that began with Esau comes to a head in his wrestling
encounter with God at Peniel. Ultimately, Jacob emerges victorious
and receives God’s blessing and a name change, “Israel”
(“one who struggles with God”). Throughout the Jacob
story, God demonstrates his faithfulness to the Abrahamic covenant
and reiterates the promises to Jacob, most notably at Bethel (chaps.
28; 35). The interpersonal strife of Jacob’s life is thus
enveloped within a message of reconciliation not just with Esau
(chap. 33) but ultimately with God. The reader learns from the
episodes in Jacob’s life that although God works through the
lives of weak and failing people, his promises for Israel remain
secure.
Although
Jacob and his family are already living in Canaan, God intends for
them to move to Egypt and grow into a powerful nation before
fulfilling their conquest of the promised land (see 15:13–16).
The story of Joseph explains how the family ends up in Egypt at the
close of Genesis. Joseph is specially loved by his father, which
elicits significant jealousy from his brothers, who sell him off to
some nomads and fabricate the alibi that he has been killed by a wild
beast. Joseph winds up in Pharaoh’s household and eventually
becomes his top official. When famine strikes Canaan years later,
Joseph’s brothers go to Egypt to purchase food from the royal
court, and Joseph reveals his identity to them in an emotional
reunion. Jacob’s entire family moves to Egypt to live for a
time in prosperity under Joseph’s care. The Joseph story
illustrates the mysterious relationship of human decision and divine
sovereignty (50:20).
Liberation
from Egypt (Exod. 1–18)
Genesis
shows how Abraham develops into a large family. Exodus shows how this
family becomes a nation—enslaved, freed, and then taught the
ways of God. Although it appears that Exodus continues a riveting
story of God’s chosen people, it is actually the identity and
power of God that take center stage.
Many
years have passed since Joseph’s family arrived in Egypt. The
Hebrews’ good standing in Egypt has also diminished as their
multiplication and fruitfulness during the intervening period—just
as God had promised Abraham (Gen. 17:4–8)—became a
national threat to the Egyptians. Abraham’s family will spend
time in Egyptian slavery before being liberated with many possessions
in hand (cf. Gen. 15:13–14).
In
the book of Exodus the drama of suffering and salvation serves as the
vehicle for God’s self-disclosure to a single man, Moses. Moses
is an Israelite of destiny even from birth, as he providentially
avoids infant death and rises to power and influence in Pharaoh’s
household. Moses never loses his passion for his own people, and he
kills an Egyptian who was beating a fellow Hebrew. Moses flees to
obscurity in the desert, where he meets God and his call to lead his
people out of Egypt and to the promised land (3:7–8; 6:8). Like
the days of Noah’s salvation, God has remembered his covenant
with the patriarchs and responded to the groans of his people in
Egypt (2:24; 6:4–5; cf. Gen. 8:1). God reveals himself, and his
personal name “Yahweh” (“I am”), to Moses in
the great theophany of the burning bush at Mount Horeb (Sinai), the
same place where later he will receive God’s law. Moses doubts
his own ability to carry out the task of confronting Pharaoh and
leading the exodus, but God foretells that many amazing signs and
wonders not only will make the escape possible but also will
ultimately reveal the mighty nature of God to the Hebrews, Egypt, and
presumably the world (6:7; 7:5).
This
promise of creating a nation of his people through deliverance is
succinctly conveyed in the classic covenant formula that finds
significance in the rest of the OT: “I will take you as my own
people, and I will be your God” (6:7). Wielding great power
over nature and at times even human decision, God “hardens”
Pharaoh’s heart and sends ten plagues to demonstrate his favor
for his own people and wrath against their enemy nation. The tenth
plague on the firstborn of all in Egypt provides the context for the
Passover as God spares the firstborn of Israel in response to the
placement of sacrificial blood on the doorposts of their homes.
Pharaoh persists in the attempt to overtake the Israelites in the
desert, where the power of God climaxes in parting the Red Sea (or
Sea of Reeds). The Israelites successfully pass through, but
the Egyptian army drowns in pursuit. This is the great salvation
event of the OT.
The
song of praise for God’s deliverance (15:1–21) quickly
turns to cries of groaning in the seventy days following the exodus
as the people of the nation, grumbling about their circumstances in
the desert, quickly demonstrate their fleeting trust in the one who
has saved them (Exod. 15:22–18:27). When a shortage of water
and food confronts the people, their faith in God’s care proves
shallow, and they turn on Moses. Even though the special marks of
God’s protection have been evident in the wilderness through
the pillars of cloud and fire, the angel of God, the provision of
manna and quail, water from the rock, and the leadership of Moses,
the nation continually fails God’s tests of trust and obedience
(16:4; cf. 17:2; 20:20). Yet God continues to endure with his people
through the leadership of Moses.
Sinai
(Exod. 19:1–Num. 10:10)
Most
of the pentateuchal narrative takes place at Mount Sinai. It is there
that Israel receives national legislation and prescriptions for the
tabernacle, the priesthood, feasts and festivals, and other
covenantal demands for living as God’s chosen people. The
eleven-month stay at Sinai takes the biblical reader through the
center of the Pentateuch, covering approximately the last half of
Exodus, all of Leviticus, and the first third of Numbers, before the
nation leaves this sacred site and sojourns in the wilderness.
Several key sections of the Pentateuch fall within the Sinai
story: the Decalogue (Exod. 20:1–17), the Book of the Covenant
(Exod. 20:22–23:33), the tabernacle prescriptions (Exod.
25–31), the tabernacle construction (Exod. 35–40), the
manual on ritual worship (Lev. 1–7), and the Holiness Code
(Lev. 17–27).
The
events and instruction at Sinai are central to the Israelite
religious experience and reflect the third eternal covenant that God
establishes in the Pentateuch—this time with Israel, whereby
the Sabbath is the sign (Exod. 31:16; cf. Noahic/rainbow covenant
[Gen. 9:16] and the Abrahamic/circumcision covenant [Gen. 17:7, 13,
19]). The offices of prophet and priest develop into clear view in
this portion of the Pentateuch. Moses exemplifies the dual prophetic
function of representing the people when speaking with God and, in
turn, God when speaking to the people. The priesthood is bestowed
upon Aaron and his descendants in Exodus and inaugurated within one
of the few narrative sections of Leviticus (Lev. 8–10). The
giving of the law, the ark, the tabernacle, the priesthood, and the
Sabbath are all a part of God’s making himself “known”
to Israel and the world, which is a constant theme in Exodus (see,
e.g., 25:22; 29:43, 46; 31:13).
The
Israelites’ stay at Sinai opens with one of the greatest
theophanies of the Bible: God speaks aloud to the people (Exod.
19–20) and then is envisioned as a consuming fire (Exod. 24).
After communicating the Ten Commandments (“ten words”)
directly to the people (Exod. 34:28; Deut. 4:13; 10:4), Moses
mediates the rest of the detailed obligations that will govern the
future life of the nation. The covenant is ratified in ceremonial
fashion (Exod. 24), and the Israelites vow to fulfill all that has
been spoken. God expects Israel to be a holy nation (Exod. 19:6) with
whom he may dwell, but Moses descends Sinai only to find that the
Israelites have already violated the essence of the Decalogue by
fashioning a golden calf to worship as that which delivered them from
Egypt (Exod. 32). This places Israel’s future and calling in
jeopardy, but Moses intercedes for his people, and God graciously
promises to preserve the nation and abide with it in his mercy, even
while punishing the guilty. This becomes prototypical of God’s
relationship with his people in the future (Exod. 34:6–7).
Exodus
ends with the consecration of the tabernacle and the descent of God’s
presence there. With the tent of worship in order, the priesthood and
its rituals can be officially established. Leviticus reflects divine
instructions for how a sinful people may live safely in close
proximity to God. Holy living involves dealing with sin and
minimizing the need for atonement, purification, and restitution. The
sacrificial and worship system established in Leviticus is based on a
worldview of order, perfection, and purity, which should characterize
a people who are commanded, “Be holy because I, the Lord your
God, am holy’ (Lev. 19:2; cf. 11:44–45; 20:26). With
these rules in place, the Israelites can make final preparations to
depart Sinai and move forward on their journey. Numbers 1–10
spans a nineteen-day period of such activities as the Israelites
begin to focus on dispossessing their enemies. These chapters reflect
a census of fighting men, the priority of purity, the dedication of
the tabernacle, and the observance of the Passover before commencing
the quest to Canaan.
Wilderness
Journey (Num. 10:11–36:13)
The
rest of the book of Numbers covers the remainder of a forty-year
stretch of great peaks and valleys in the faith and future of the
nation. Chapters 11–25 recount the various events that show the
exodus generation’s lack of trust in God. Chapters 26–36
reveal a more positive section whereby a new generation prepares for
the conquest. With the third section of Numbers framed by episodes
involving the inheritance rights of Zelophehad’s daughters
(27:1–11; 36:1–13), it is clear that the story has turned
to the future possession of the land.
After
the departure from Sinai, the narrative consists of a number of
Israelite complaints in the desert. The Israelites have grown tired
of manna and ironically crave the food of Egypt, which they recall as
free fish, fruits, and vegetables. Having forgotten the hardship of
life in slavery, about which they had cried out to God, now the
nation is crying out for a lifestyle of old. Moses becomes so
overwhelmed with the complaints of the people that God provides
seventy elders, who, to help shoulder the leadership burden, will
receive the same prophetic spirit given to Moses.
In
chapters 13–14 twelve spies are sent out from Kadesh Barnea to
peruse Canaan, but the people’s lack of faith to procure the
land from the mighty people there proves costly. This final example
of distrust moves God to punish and purify the nation. The
unbelieving generation will die in the wilderness during a forty-year
period of wandering.
The
discontent in the desert involves not only food and water but also
leadership status. Moses’ own brother and sister resent his
special relationship with God and challenge his exclusive authority.
Later, Aaron’s special high priesthood is threatened as another
Levitical family (Korah) vies for preeminence. Through a sequence of
signs and wonders, God makes it clear that Moses and Aaron have
exclusive roles in God’s economy. Due to the deaths related to
Korah’s rebellion and the fruitless staffs that represent the
tribes of Israel, the nation’s concern about sudden extinction
in the presence of a holy God is appeased through the eternal
covenant of priesthood granted to Aaron’s family (chap. 18). He
and the Levites, at the potential expense of their own lives and as
part of their priestly service, will be held accountable for keeping
the tabernacle pure of encroachers.
Even
after the people’s significant rebellion and punishment, God
continues to prove his faithfulness to his word. Hope is restored for
the nation as the Abrahamic promises of blessing are rehearsed from
the mouth of Balaam, a Mesopotamian seer. The Israelites will indeed
one day be numerous (23:10), enjoy the presence of God (23:21), be
blessed and protected (24:9), and have a kingly leader (24:17). This
wonderful mountaintop experience of hope for the exodus generation is
tragically countered by an even greater event of apostasy in the
subsequent scene. Reminiscent of the incident of the golden calf,
when pagan revelry in the camp had foiled Moses’ interaction
with God on Sinai, apostasy at the tabernacle undermines Balaam’s
oracles of covenant fulfillment. Fornication with Moabite women not
only joins the nation to a foreign god but also betrays God’s
holiness at his place of dwelling. If not for the zeal of Aaron’s
grandson Phinehas, who puts an end to the sin, the ensuing plague
could have finished the nation. For his righteous action, Phinehas is
awarded an eternal priesthood and ensures a future for the nation and
Aaron’s priestly lineage.
In
chapter 26 a second census of fighting men indicates that the old,
unbelieving exodus generation has officially died off (except for
Joshua and Caleb), and God is proceeding with a new people. God
dispossesses the enemies of the new generation; reinstates the tribal
boundaries of the land; reinstates rules concerning worship, service,
and bloodshed; and places Joshua at the helm of leadership. Chapters
26–36 mention no deaths or rebellions as the nation
optimistically ends its journey in Moab, just east of the promised
land.
Moses’
Farewell (Deuteronomy)
Although
one could reasonably move into the historical books at the end of
Numbers, much would be lost in overstepping Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy
presents Moses’ farewell speeches as his final words to a
nation on the verge of Caanan. Moses’ speeches are best viewed
as sermons motivating his people to embrace the Sinai covenant, love
their God, and choose life over death and blessings over cursings
(30:19). Moses reviews the desert experience since Mount Horeb/Sinai
(chaps. 1–4) and recapitulates God’s expectations for
lawful living in the land (chaps. 5–26). The covenant code is
recorded on a scroll, is designated the “Book of the Law”
(31:24–26), and is to be read and revered by the future king.
Finally, Moses leads the nation in covenant renewal (chaps. 29–32)
before the book finishes with an account of his death (chaps. 33–34),
including tributes such as “since then, no prophet has risen in
Israel like Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face” (34:10).
Deuteronomy
reflects that true covenant faithfulness is achieved from a right
heart for God. If there were any previous doubts about the essence of
covenant keeping, Moses eliminates such in Deuteronomy with the
frequent use of emotive terms. Loving God involves committing to him
alone and spurning idols and foreign gods. The Ten Commandments
(chap. 5) are not a list of stale requirements; they reflect the
great Shema with the words “Love the Lord your God with all
your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength. These
commandments that I give you today are to be upon your hearts”
(6:5–6). God desires an unrivaled love from the nation, not
cold and superficial religiosity.
Obedience
by the Israelites will incur material and spiritual blessing, whereas
disobedience ends in the loss of both. Although Moses strongly
commends covenant obedience, and the nation participates in a
covenant-renewal ceremony (chap. 27), it is clear that in the future
the Israelites will fail to uphold their covenant obligations and
will suffer the consequences (29:23; 30:1–4; 31:16–17).
Yet Moses looks to a day when the command for circumcised hearts
(10:16) will be fulfilled by the power of God himself (30:6). In the
future a new king will arise from the nation (17:14–20) as well
as a prophet like Moses (18:15–22). Deuteronomy thus
underscores the extent of God’s own devotion to his patriarchal
promises despite the sinful nature of his people.
For
much of the middle and end of the twentieth century, Deuteronomy has
received a significant amount of attention for its apparent
resemblance in structure and content to ancient Hittite and Assyrian
treaties. Scholars debate the extent of similarity, but it is
possible that Deuteronomy reflects a suzerain-vassal treaty form
between Israel and God much like the common format between nations in
the ancient Near East. Although comparative investigation of this
type can be profitable for interpretation, it is prudent to be
conservative when outlining direct parallels, since Deuteronomy is
not a legal document but rather a dramatic narrative of God’s
redemptive interaction with the world.
