(1) A son of Joktan in the line of Shem (Gen. 10:29; 1 Chron. 1:23). (2) The son of Zerah, he was a king of Edom, successor to Bela (Gen. 36:33–34; 1 Chron. 1:44–45). (3) A king of Madon who joined forces with other Canaanite kings to fight the Israelites led by Joshua and was subsequently defeated (Josh. 11:1). (4) A leader in the tribe of Benjamin, he was the first of seven sons born in Moab to Shaharaim and his wife Hodesh, after Shaharaim had divorced Hushim and Baara (1 Chron. 8:9). (5) The last of the seven sons of Elpaal of the tribe of Benjamin (1 Chron. 8:18).

The second of Abraham’s six sons with Keturah (Gen. 25:1–2), he was the ancestor of the Sabeans (descendants of Sheba) and the Dedanites (descendants of Dedan) (Gen. 25:3), who later lived in the city Raamah (Gen. 10:7).

A great-great-grandson of Noah’s son Shem, he was the son of Eber, the brother of Peleg, and the father of thirteen children (Gen. 10:25–30).

The Jordan River flows over one hundred miles and is the most important source of water for both Israel and Jordan today, as it was in biblical times. Scholars are divided over what the name means: some suggest it comes from the Hebrew root yrd (“to go down”) or from a combination of “Jor” (meaning “river”) and “Dan” the tribe; or perhaps it simply means “river.” Initially it was the dividing line between western Israel (Cisjordan) and the area of the eastern tribes (Transjordan).

The Jordan River begins at the base of Mount Hermon and descends about 2,380 feet to the Dead Sea. While the distance from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea is a little over seventy miles, the meandering path of the river measures longer than that distance. It has four different sources: the Hasbani and the Iyon (from Lebanon), and the Banias and the Dan (from the base of Mount Hermon). These merge and flow through the Great Rift Valley to empty into the Dead Sea. Initially the river is fast moving and falls to about seven hundred feet above sea level in twenty-five miles into the marshy area known as the Hulah Basin. After exiting the Hulah Basin, it drops to just under sea level in the Sea of Galilee in about eight miles. It then exits the Sea of Galilee and drops about six hundred feet as it meanders gradually through the Jordan Valley to empty into the Dead Sea about 150 feet below sea level. The depth of the Dead Sea reaches to about 1,378 feet below sea level, which makes it the deepest hypersaline lake in the world. Because this lake has no outlet, it has become a major source of salt and other minerals that remain after the water evaporates. The Dead Sea is the second saltiest lake in the world, with about 31 percent salt as well as high levels of potash, bromine, and magnesium.

Much wildlife can be found in and along the river. Of the thirty species of fish, sixteen are unique to it. Similarly, of the forty-five species of birds, twenty-three are found only here. The Jordan River has two major tributaries, the Yarmuk River and the Jabbok River, flowing from the Jordan highlands. For the last several years the water level of the Jordan has continued to decline for two reasons: lack of rainfall and human consumption (70 to 90 percent of its water is used by humans). Water rights have become a major source of contention between Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and the Palestinians. In 2007 the Jordan River was placed on a list of the one hundred most endangered rivers by an environmentalist group, the Friends of the Earth.

The Jordan River is referred to 197 times in the Bible, but few passages describe it. Genesis 13:10 mentions that the Jordan Valley was well watered and luxuriant. Most of the time it is mentioned as a crossing point (e.g., Gen. 32:10; Josh. 3:15–17; 2 Kings 2:8, 14) or as a demarcation or boundary between areas (e.g., Num. 34:15; Josh. 13:7; Judg. 7:24). Jephthah killed many Ephraimites at a major ford of the Jordan opposite Jericho (see Judg. 12:5–6). Elijah told Naaman to go wash in the Jordan River and he would be cleansed (2 Kings 5:14). In the NT, Jesus and others were baptized by John in the Jordan River (Matt. 3:13).

(1) The eleventh son of Judah and the first by Jacob’s beloved wife, Rachel (Gen. 30:24; 35:24). The name comes from a Hebrew verb meaning “to add,” and the significance of his name is explained in Gen. 30:24: “May the Lord add to me another son.” His story begins in Gen. 37 and continues to Gen. 50, the end of the book.

Joseph was Jacob’s favorite, and so Jacob “made an ornate robe for him” (37:3), although the precise meaning of the Hebrew is unclear. While shepherding with his brothers, Joseph had a dream indicating that he would one day rise to prominence over them. This was too much for his brothers to bear, and so they decided, after some deliberation, to throw him into a cistern and, rather than kill him, sell him to passing Ishmaelite/Midianite merchants (37:25–28).

Upon arriving in Egypt, Joseph was sold to Potiphar, an official of Pharaoh, and then thrown in jail after Potiphar’s wife falsely accused him of making sexual advances (chap. 39). While in jail, he accurately interpreted the dreams of Pharaoh’s cupbearer and baker (chap. 40). Two years later, he was called upon to interpret Pharaoh’s dreams (chap. 41). Joseph’s ability to interpret dreams plus his administrative skills saved Egypt from famine, which resulted in his elevation to being “in charge of the whole land of Egypt” (41:41).

It was the famine that brought Joseph’s family to Egypt to find food, which eventually led to their warm reunion, though not without some testing on Joseph’s part (chaps. 42–45). After Joseph made himself known to his brothers, they reconciled and sent for the elderly Jacob, who was awaiting news in Canaan. Thus, Jacob and his twelve sons lived in Egypt, and their descendants were eventually enslaved by a king “to whom Joseph meant nothing” (Exod. 1:8).

Joseph died in Egypt and was embalmed (Gen. 50:20–26). The exodus generation took his bones out of Egypt (Exod. 13:19), and he was later buried in Shechem (Josh. 24:32).

Although Joseph was a son of Jacob, his descendants did not become one of the twelve tribes of Israel. Instead, Jacob blessed Joseph’s two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, and he blessed the younger Ephraim over the older Manasseh just as Jacob himself had been blessed over his older brother Esau. The OT still refers occasionally to the house or tribe of Joseph as a general designation for Israel (e.g., Pss. 80:1; 81:5).

(2) The husband of Mary, mentioned only by name in Jesus’ birth stories in Matthew and Luke. According to Matt. 1:16, Joseph is a descendant of David, which establishes Jesus’ royal bloodline. Luke’s genealogy (3:23–38) downplays Jesus’ relationship to Joseph. In Matthew, Joseph is a recipient of several divine communications by means of dreams, announcing Mary’s conception (1:18–25) and commanding the flight to Egypt (2:13) and the return to Nazareth (2:19–23). In Luke, Joseph takes Mary to Bethlehem to give birth (2:4–7), presents Jesus in the temple for consecration (2:21–24), and brings Mary and Jesus to Jerusalem for the Passover feast when Jesus is twelve (2:41–52).

(3) The second brother to Jesus, after James (Matt. 13:55; Mark 6:3). In some manuscripts, the name appears as “Joses” (so KJV). (4) The son of one of the women who witnessed the crucifixion, Mary the mother of James the younger and Joseph (Matt. 27:56; Mark 15:40; cf. 15:47; KJV: “Joses”). John 19:25 may refer to this same woman as Mary the wife of Clopas and the sister of Mary the mother of Jesus. If this is the case (the Greek is ambiguous), then this Joseph could be a cousin to Jesus.

(5) A Jew from Arimathea, a secret follower of Jesus and member of the Sanhedrin who did not agree to put Jesus to death (Luke 23:50–51; John 19:38). He asked Pilate for Jesus’ body, wrapped it in linen, and placed it in his own tomb (Matt. 27:57–60). (6) Also known as Bar-sab-bas or Justus, he was one of the two men proposed to take Judas Iscariot’s place among the disciples (Acts 1:23). (7) Also known as Barnabas, he was a Levite from Cyprus who sold his field and brought the money to the apostles (Acts 4:36).

One of two sons born to Lamech by his wife Adah (Gen. 4:21). He is referred to as “father of all who play stringed instruments and pipes,” which probably designates him both as the instruments’ inventor and as the founder of the musical arts.

(1) The fourth son of Jacob (Gen. 35:23). The meaning of his name is debated, but his mother, Leah, links it to “praise” (29:35). He persuaded his brothers to sell Joseph instead of killing him (37:26–27). He also guaranteed the safety of Benjamin when the brothers returned to Egypt to purchase food (43:1–10). In spite of his despicable behavior with his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen. 38), his father’s blessing included the promise of kingship (49:10). (2) A Levite and the ancestor of a family that worked on the postexilic temple (Ezra 3:9; cf. 2:40 KJV, ESV, NASB; NIV: “Hodaviah”). (3) A Levite among those who married a foreign woman (Ezra 10:23). (4) The son of Hassenuah, he was in charge of the second district in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh. 11:9). (5) A Levite who had returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and was in charge of the songs of thanksgiving (Neh. 12:8). (6) An official of Judah who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:34). (7) A musician and priest who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:36). (8) An ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:30). See also Judah, Kingdom of; Judah, Tribe of.

(1) The fourth son of Jacob (Gen. 35:23). The meaning of his name is debated, but his mother, Leah, links it to “praise” (29:35). He persuaded his brothers to sell Joseph instead of killing him (37:26–27). He also guaranteed the safety of Benjamin when the brothers returned to Egypt to purchase food (43:1–10). In spite of his despicable behavior with his daughter-in-law Tamar (Gen. 38), his father’s blessing included the promise of kingship (49:10). (2) A Levite and the ancestor of a family that worked on the postexilic temple (Ezra 3:9; cf. 2:40 KJV, ESV, NASB; NIV: “Hodaviah”). (3) A Levite among those who married a foreign woman (Ezra 10:23). (4) The son of Hassenuah, he was in charge of the second district in postexilic Jerusalem (Neh. 11:9). (5) A Levite who had returned from the exile with Zerubbabel and was in charge of the songs of thanksgiving (Neh. 12:8). (6) An official of Judah who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:34). (7) A musician and priest who participated in the dedication of the walls of Jerusalem (Neh. 12:36). (8) An ancestor of Jesus (Luke 3:30). See also Judah, Kingdom of; Judah, Tribe of.

The Hebrew term shopet, often translated “judge,” refers to officials granted various forms of authority over the people. In many instances it is judicial authority employed to arbitrate in legal disputes (e.g., Exod. 2:14; Deut. 17:9, 12; Isa. 3:2). However, the Hebrew word, together with corresponding words in related ancient languages such as Ugaritic and Akkadian, is less restrictive than the English and legitimately refers to those whose function expands beyond the dispensation of justice to those with more full-fledged roles as governors or rulers over the people (e.g., Amos 2:3; Mic. 4:14; and in particular throughout the book of Judges).

In the OT, as the ultimate judge (Gen. 18:25; Isa. 33:22; James 4:12) God delegated the administration of justice to the appointed leader of the people of Israel—initially Moses (Exod. 18:13–16); then, during the monarchy, the ruling king (e.g., 1 Kings 3:16–28); and later, Ezra. However, the task of adjudicating every matter was too onerous for a single leader, and thus a judicial hierarchy was established to alleviate the burden of the ruler (Exod. 18:21–23; cf. Num. 11:16–17; Deut. 1:12–17; 16:18–20; Ezra 7:25). Surprisingly, the rulers (or “judges”) who governed Israel during the period recounted in the book of Judges are almost never shown as passing judgment in disputes (the one exception is Judg. 4:4). Rather, they are generally depicted as overcoming foreign threats (Judg. 2:16).

Although civil courts were available for resolving disputes in NT times, Paul encourages believers to avoid making recourse to them in favor of resolving disputes within the church with the assistance of a member of the church recognized as having sufficient wisdom to adjudicate (1 Cor. 6:1–8).

Old Testament. Of several Hebrew words for “judgment,” two are important here.

The word shepet is used of God, who brings the judgments upon the Egyptians in the plagues (Exod. 6:6; 7:4; 12:12). Ezekiel prophesies God’s judgment on Israel and other nations (e.g., Ezek. 5:10; 16:41; 25:11). The word is also applied to human beings, as the Syrians execute judgment on Israel (2 Chron. 24:24).

The most frequent noun is mishpat. Abraham is noted for mishpat, “judgment/justice” (Gen. 18:19). God by attribute is just (Gen. 18:25); he shows justice toward the orphan and the widow (Deut. 10:18) and brings judgment on behalf of the oppressed (Ps. 25:9). At the waters of Marah, God makes a judgment, an ordinance for the people (Exod. 15:25). Similarly, the mishpatim, “judgments/ordinances,” become law for life in Israel (Exod. 21:1). In making judicial judgments, the Israelites are to be impartial (Lev. 19:15), and they are to use good judgment and justice in trade (Lev. 19:35; Prov. 16:11). Israel will be judged for rejecting God’s judgments (Ezek. 5:7–8) and worshiping false gods (Jer. 1:16). Those accused of crime will come to judgment/trial (Num. 35:12). The children of Israel come to their judges for judgment (Judg. 4:5). God will bring each person to a time of judgment regarding how his or her life is spent (Eccles. 11:9).

New Testament. One key word in the NT is krisis. It has a range of meaning similar to mishpat. In the NT, judgment is rendered for thoughts and words as well as deeds (Matt. 5:21–22; 12:36). Future, eschatological judgment is a key theme for Jesus (Matt. 10:15; 11:22, 24; 12:42), Paul (2 Thess. 1:5), and other NT writers (Heb. 9:27; 10:27; 2 Pet. 2:9; 3:7; 1 John 4:17; Jude 15; Rev. 14:7). Jesus himself will be the judge (John 5:22). The only way to avoid condemnation is by having eternal life in the Messiah (John 5:24).

Another key word in the NT is krima. It may refer to condemnation (Matt. 7:2; Rom. 3:8) or to judgment, again including the eschatological judgment (Acts 24:25). Krima is the word most frequently used by Paul. He also often presents judgment as already realized (e.g., Rom. 2:2–3; 5:16). In the later epistles judgment may be realized as well (2 Pet. 2:3; Jude 4). James points out that not many should presume to be teachers, because they will be judged more strictly (James 3:1).

Retribution refers to “giving what is due,” usually in response to evil. Retribution is an important theological doctrine whose significance is belied by scant use of the term in English translations (ESV 2×; NIV 6×; NRSV 9×). Retribution is driven by the theological conviction that moral order is built into the fabric of the world (Ps. 7:14–16; Prov. 26:27). This moral compass is guaranteed by God’s oversight, meting out justice in judgment and rewards to the righteous, not only on the human-human level, but also on the divine-human level (2 Cor. 9:6; Gal. 6:7). This biblical equation assures that (1) life is not overwhelmed by moral chaos, (2) human actions affect the future, (3) the world is morally uniform, and (4) human revenge is to be avoided (Lev. 19:17–18; Matt. 16:27; Rom. 12:19). With the human community in view, God’s commands are intended to instruct and guide. Not surprisingly, address of retribution is found throughout biblical literature: legal (Deut. 28), narrative (Num. 16), poetic (Pss. 18:20; 94:15), sapiential (Prov. 11:24–25), and prophetic (Hab. 2:2–20).

This poetic justice pervades the OT in the judgment and exile of Adam and Eve (Gen. 3:8–24), Cain’s sentence and blood revenge (Gen. 4:15, 24), and the worldwide flood and annihilation (Gen. 6–9) (cf. Exod. 21:20–21; Deut. 30:15–20; Josh. 7; Amos 3:14–15; Mic. 2:1–3). Such stories reveal a sovereign God acting as an external agent who exacts punishment in light of his intentions for creation. For Israel, retribution is the exercise of Yahweh’s legal rights in an attempt to restore covenant fellowship (Lev. 26:40–45). Although serious tensions exist—sometimes the wicked prosper and the innocent suffer—this does not alter the grand scheme of Scripture (Job 33; Jer. 12:1–4). In some scenarios, only the next lifetime will fully bring justice and reward (Ps. 49:5–15; Dan. 12:2; Matt. 25:31–46; Rev. 22:1–5). Deep wisdom, however, embraces mystery and understands the limits of human agency (Gen. 50:19–20; James 1:5).

While the notion of consequence may be too strong, the concept of correspondence is helpful for understanding the concept of retribution. God’s judgments reveal (1) a correspondence between act and effect, (2) accountability to known law, (3) a debt requiring resolve/restitution, and (4) punishment that reenacts elements of the sin itself. God’s roles as divine warrior, judge, and king proclaim his universal rule and preserve it from all who would mock or defy his royal authority (Gen. 3:14–19; Deut. 7:10; 1 Sam. 24:19; 2 Sam. 12:11–12; Ps. 149; Prov. 15:25; Mic. 5:15; 1 Cor. 16:22; Gal. 1:8–9; 2 Thess. 1:5–10).

God’s reasons for retribution center on disobedience and injustice, while his purposes are essentially restorative and developmental. Retribution is an application of God’s holiness that purifies the world for his kingdom of peace. In this way, vengeance and deliverance work together (Nah. 1:2, 7). Paradoxically, retribution gives hope to fallen humanity for sin acknowledged and unacknowledged, anticipating the triumph of righteousness (Ps. 58:11). Retribution grants rationality and stability to humanity, promotes closure in crisis, and fosters hope—a forerunner of the ultimate judgment before the throne of God the King.

(1) The daughter of Beeri the Hittite, one of the Canaanite wives of Esau who caused trouble for Isaac and Rebekah (Gen. 26:34). (2) The Jewish heroine of the book of the OT Apocrypha by the same name. The story tells how she enticed and killed Holofernes, an Assyrian general who besieged her hometown of Bethulia, saving her people.

The concept of justice pervades the Bible, especially, though not exclusively, the OT. The key biblical terms that convey this concept include mishpat, tsedeq/tsedaqah, yashar in the OT and the dik- word group in the NT (whose noun and verb forms are translated respectively as “righteous” and “justify” or their respective cognates). The biblical concept of justice is an embodiment of two contemporary concepts: righteousness and justice. The former designates compliance with the divine norm, while the latter emphasizes conformity to a societal standard of what is right and equitable. Focusing exclusively on the latter hinders the correct understanding of justice in the biblical sense. Additionally, the biblical understanding of this concept is encumbered by the use of differing English terms to translate the same Hebrew or Greek terms.

Mishpat and Tsedaqah

Mishpat inherently encompasses the idea of judicial activism consisting in the provision of standard criteria (legislation, instructions, directives) for conduct and adjudication, and/or the actual arbitration between parties with the goal of ascertaining culpability or otherwise and administering the requisite sanctions or acquittal. Tsedaqah, on the other hand, emphasizes the established norm of just order for right conduct both in the larger society and for individuals. Whereas mishpat emphasizes the action that seeks to establish or enforce right patterns of behavior for the common good, tsedaqah stresses the practice (or lack thereof) of such a norm in society, or between individuals, or an individual’s compliance with such a norm.

When used in combination as a hendiadys (or word pair), these two terms signify an inherent requirement for conformity to an established norm (whether in the religious sphere or in civil society) or the requirement of loyalty or right conduct between individuals. To the person who stands to benefit from this norm, it approximates a right (i.e., a claim). Conversely, implicit duty is placed upon the person who ensures the conformity to such an established norm. This fact is better appreciated when we reckon with the covenantal nature of requirements for justice in the ancient world, in which both parties have both claim and responsibility. Broadly speaking, this concept also implies good governance, which accrues order to life and common benefits to all members of the community.

This idea is exemplified even in passages that do not use this precise phraseology (mishpat utsedaqah). Judah’s widowed daughter-in-law, Tamar, had an inherent right to be provided with a (kinsman-redeemer) husband to raise up progeny for her deceased husband, while Judah had the incumbent duty of giving her in levirate marriage to his surviving son. When Judah failed to execute his duty, Tamar entrapped him into an incestuous relationship, from which she conceived. When condemned to die for adultery in a clannish court setting, Tamar revealed the identity of her unborn child’s father, to which Judah responded by saying, “She is more righteous than I, since I wouldn’t give her to my son Shelah” (Gen. 38:26). That is, she acted more in conformity to the norm than he did. In another instance, Yahweh, while challenging the Judeans concerning their loyalty to him in a covenant lawsuit setting, asks, “A son honors his father, and a slave his master. If I am a father, where is the honor due me? If I am a master, where is the respect due me?” (Mal. 1:6). It is Yahweh’s right as father and master to receive honor and respect, while it is their duty to give him both.

God as the Source and Model of Justice

To be just, then, implies conformity to that which is right—yashar (the standard or norm). In Scripture, this standard is the revealed divine will and character. Compliance to it is often expressed in biblical narrative as doing what is “right [or good] in the Lord’s sight” (Deut. 6:18; 12:28; 1 Kings 14:8; 22:43), while its antithesis is doing what is “evil in the eyes of the Lord” (Judg. 2:11; 1 Kings 11:6; 14:22) or doing what some human figure(s) “saw fit” (Deut. 12:8; Judg. 17:6; 21:25).

Therefore, the source of justice is God himself. It flows from his essential character as one who is both just and righteous, whose actions are flawless, perfect, upright, and just (Deut. 32:4; 1 Sam. 12:7; 2 Sam. 22:31; Job 37:23; Ps. 89:14). God is the righteous lawgiver, hence the one who establishes the norm for right conduct (Deut. 4:4–8; Ps. 19:7–9). He requires justice of all his creatures (cf. Gen. 9:5–6; Exod. 21:12, 28–29). God also judges righteously (Gen. 18:25; 1 Kings 8:32; Ps. 9:4, 9; Jer. 9:24) and defends and vindicates the weak and oppressed (Deut. 10:18; Ps. 103:6). The responsibility of maintaining justice in the human community, however, he delegates to its leaders, such as civil magistrates or political officials, and requires them to execute this responsibility with integrity, equity, and impartiality (Deut. 1:16–17; 16:18–20; Ps. 82:2–4; Prov. 31:8–9; John 7:24; 1 Pet. 2:13–14). God’s requirement of justice in the human community is not limited to its leaders only; it is incumbent upon everyone therein (Ps. 15:1–5; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9; 8:17; Matt. 23:23).

Executing justice requires doing all that is essential to bring about the divine order implicit in creation and explicit in revealed truth, to produce harmony in all relationships in which humankind is involved (divine-human, human-human, and human-nature). This has the twofold result of restraining evil and advancing the benefits of just living within the human society. Thus, the fruits of justice are to be seen in all spheres of human life, such as spirituality (2 Cor. 5:17–21), morality and ethics (Phil. 4:8; Col. 3:5–9; Titus 2:11–13), social justice (Exod. 22:21–24; Isa. 56:1; Amos 2:6–7; Ezek. 22:7–29; James 2:1–9), and economic justice (Amos 5:11; 8:4–6; James 5:1–6), as well as in the environment (Deut. 20:19–20; Pss. 96:9–13; 104:1–31; Eccles. 2:5–6; Rom. 8:19–22).

Additionally, the outworking of justice produces (re)distribution and retribution. Distribution means that those blessed materially share of their blessings with those in need (Deut. 15:1–15; Ps. 112:5–9; Prov. 28:27; Isa. 58:1–11; 2 Cor. 8–9). Retribution relates to the vindication and deliverance of the oppressed and judgment on the wicked (1 Sam. 2:7–10; Job 36:5–10; Ps. 72:4; Luke 4:17–20). This is both attested in biblical Israel’s experience (Isa. 1:17–20; 5:1–9; Jer. 5:26–29; Mic. 2:1–3) and is being anticipated at the final judgment (Isa. 66:24; Dan. 12:1–3; Matt. 25:31–46; 2 Thess. 1:5–10). The vindicated obtain God’s love and grace, while the judged receive his justice. Justice and love, therefore, are the two sides of God’s holiness.

Justification is an important topic because of its relationship to Christian salvation and sanctification. The word “justification” occurs only five times in the Bible (NIV), but related words comprise significant themes in both Testaments. Part of the difficulty in the exposition of “justification” is English terminology. English has two word groups that express the same conceptual range for single word groups in Hebrew and Greek. So in addition to words related to justification, such as “justly,” “just,” and the very important verb “to justify,” no discussion can avoid the terms “righteous” and “righteousness.” Care must also be exercised in allowing the biblical texts to determine word meaning, since both “justice” and “righteousness” terminology can have contemporary connotations foreign to the biblical texts.

Justification is often related to a legal setting in both Jewish and Greco-Roman contexts, with its judge, defendant, evidence, criteria for evaluating the evidence, verdicts, and the implications of verdicts. This is a good word picture for justification and is used in the Bible itself. As long as the legal picture is extended to everyday affairs, moral and ethical concerns, and different criteria for evidence evaluation, it is a fine starting point for understanding the doctrine of justification.

Common and Extraordinary Justification

The salvific importance of justification has greatly shaped the exposition that follows. Justification has been somewhat awkwardly divided into common and extraordinary justification, with the latter bearing a significant relationship to the doctrine of salvation. The former is discussed only briefly in OT and NT paragraphs. In common justification, a person’s works or deeds are judged according to a standard of righteousness. Righteous deeds are judged and given the verdict “righteous.” Unrighteous deeds are judged and given the verdict “unrighteous.” Extraordinary justification occurs when an unrighteous person or deed is judged and given the verdict “righteous” by some supernatural intervention.

Common justification in the OT may be described in various contexts: (1) in comparative or relative righteousness between humans (e.g., Gen. 38:26; Ezek. 16:51–52); (2) in specific or concrete situations with God as judge (e.g., 2 Chron. 6:23: “Judge between your servants, condemning the guilty and bringing down on their heads what they have done, and vindicating the innocent by treating them in accordance with their innocence”; (3) in specific or concrete situations with a human as judge (e.g., Deut. 25:1: “When people have a dispute, they are to take it to court and the judges will decide the case, acquitting the innocent and condemning the guilty”); (4) in giving justice (e.g., 2 Sam. 15:4; cf. Ps. 82:3); (5) in proving correct or right (e.g., Ps. 51:4; Isa. 43:9).

Extraordinary justification is much rarer in the OT. A possible example is Dan. 8:14, where in a vision the sanctuary is desecrated and after a time “will be reconsecrated” or, in other terms, “will be justified holy.” It seems quite unusual that the unholy “is justified” as holy. In Isa. 45:25 we find the promise that “in the Lord all the offspring of Israel shall be justified” (ESV). Another verse declares that Yahweh’s “righteous servant will justify many, and he will bear their iniquities” (Isa. 53:11). The need for extraordinary justification and the deficiency of ordinary justification is clear in Ps. 143:1–2: “Lord, hear my prayer, listen to my cry for mercy; in your faithfulness and righteousness come to my relief. Do not bring your servant into judgment, for no one living is righteous before you” (cf. Job 4:17; 25:4). The last phrase might be translated “no person will be justified before you” and is cited by the apostle Paul in Gal. 2:16 (cf. Rom. 3:20).

In the NT, there are fewer references to common justification than in the OT and a much greater development of extraordinary justification, predominantly in the Pauline letters (for similar concepts in different terms, see, e.g., “kingdom of God” in the Synoptic Gospels or “eternal life” in the Gospel of John). Common justification in the NT may be described in various contexts: (1) in a specific situation with a human or God as judge and a person’s behavior as the object of judgment (e.g., Luke 16:15; 1 Cor. 4:3–4; perhaps Luke 10:29; 18:9–14); (2) when “wisdom is proved right,” meaning vindicated by the results (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:35); (3) in the release from demands no longer binding (Rom. 6:7; cf. 1 Cor. 6:1); (4) in being proved morally right in fullness (1 Tim. 3:16; cf. Rom. 3:4).

Paul and Justification

Extraordinary justification in the NT is characteristic of the apostle Paul. Luke’s report of Paul’s synagogue sermon in Pisidian Antioch concludes with a brief overview of extraordinary justification (Acts 13:38–39). Paul proclaims that forgiveness of sins is available through Jesus. Every person trusting in Jesus is being justified “from all things from which you could not be justified by the law of Moses” (NKJV). The forgiveness of sins leads to the verdict “innocent” even though sinners apart from Christ are guilty before God of their unrighteous deeds.

In Gal. 2:16 the verb “justify” is used three times: (1) “a person is not justified by observing the law, but by faith in Jesus Christ”; (2) “we, too, have put our faith in Christ Jesus that we may be justified by faith in Christ and not by the works of the law”; (3) “by the works of the law no one will be justified.” The statements may be paraphrased in the active voice (expressing the implied subject) as in the following: (1) God is justifying a person not by works of Mosaic law, but by trust in Jesus Christ; (2) God justified us by trust in Christ, not by works of Mosaic law; (3) God will justify no person by works of Mosaic law. In Gal. 2:16, God is the subject, the agent who justifies (cf. 3:8; Rom. 3:26, 30; 4:5; 8:30, 33). The basis of justification is faith in Christ, not works of the Mosaic law. The meaning of the verb “justify” may be discerned from the context. This justification is related to the gospel (e.g., Gal. 2:14) and to receiving the Spirit (Gal. 3:2, 14), and the verdict of “righteous” for the person trusting in Jesus (Gal. 2:21; cf. 3:6, 11; 5:5; 1 Cor. 1:30; 2 Cor. 5:21).

Justification and righteousness are important themes in Paul’s letter to the Romans. At the beginning of the letter, Paul declares that he is not ashamed of the gospel because it is the power of God that brings salvation to all who believe. In the gospel the righteousness of God is revealed, a righteousness that is by faith (Rom. 1:16–17). Paul argues in Rom. 1:18–3:20, a section abounding with righteousness language, that all humanity, Gentile and Jew, is under the power of sin (3:10), that no one is righteous (e.g., 3:10–18). All are subject to condemnation (i.e., the declaration of “guilty” and “unrighteous” [cf. 5:16]) rather than justification (i.e., the declaration of “innocent” and “righteous”). No human will be justified before God by works of the law; the law provides knowledge of sin (3:20).

The state resulting from this unrighteousness and sin is God’s wrath (e.g., Rom. 1:18). It is into this situation, this sad state of affairs where all have sinned and fallen short of the glory of God, that the righteousness of God, God’s saving activity long anticipated in the OT, is revealed in the person and work of Jesus Christ (3:21; 10:3). This righteousness is from God (3:22), a righteousness not related to human fulfillment of Mosaic law or righteousness of one’s own (Rom. 3:21; 9:31–32; 10:4; Phil. 3:6, 9; cf. Eph. 2:8–9). This righteousness comes from God by trust in Christ (Rom. 3:22; 5:1; 9:30; 10:10; Phil. 3:9). By trust in Christ, God justifies each human in his freely given grace, whereby the human is redeemed from unrighteousness and sin (Rom. 3:24).

The death of Jesus is the sacrifice of atonement by which forgiveness of sins is accomplished and made effectual in the human when one trusts in Jesus’ sacrifice (Rom. 3:25). This sacrifice demonstrates God’s righteousness (3:26) because he justly judges human sin in Jesus. The one who had no sin of his own became sin for us (2 Cor. 5:21; cf. Rom. 5:6, 8; 1 Cor. 15:3). In merciful forbearance, God passes over sins previously committed, delaying the execution of his justice, that he might justify the ungodly person who trusts in Jesus’ person and work (Rom. 3:26; cf. 4:5). This justification is of a different nature than ordinary righteousness on the human level or of the kind that can be obtained by observing the Mosaic law. In this extraordinary justification, God reckons a human innocent of sin and righteous by trust and apart from works of Mosaic law (3:28). Both Jew and Gentile are reckoned righteous under the same condition: trust in Jesus (3:29–30).

Although the revelation of the person and work of Jesus the Messiah was relatively new at the time Paul wrote his letter to the Romans, Paul emphasizes in Rom. 4 that this idea of justification by trust and not by works goes back to the forefather of the Jews, Abraham. Quoting Gen. 15:6, Paul demonstrates from Scripture that trust, not works, was the basis of extraordinary justification: Abraham believes God, and it is credited to him as righteousness. God justifies Abraham (i.e., God credits righteousness to Abraham) on the basis of Abraham’s trust in God. Paul also cites most of Ps. 32:1–2, from a Davidic psalm, to further demonstrate the consistency of justification by faith with previous revelation. In this quotation the crediting of righteousness apart from works is related to the forgiveness of transgression, where the verdict of the guilty becomes “innocent.” “He was delivered over to death for our sins and was raised to life for our justification” (Rom. 4:25). Extraordinary justification of unrighteous sinners leads to the twofold verdict: innocent and righteous.

Titus 3:3–6 expresses the same doctrine of extraordinary justification. Humanity is under sin when Jesus appears. God saves in his mercy through Jesus, not on the basis of righteous human works. This saving activity is equivalent to being justified by Jesus’ grace (3:7).

James and Justification

There are three references to justification in James 2:14–26, which appear at first glance to contradict extraordinary justification as presented by Paul. In support of the claim that faith without deeds is useless (James 2:20), two questions are asked: Was not Abraham considered righteous for what he did, and was not Rahab the prostitute considered righteous for what she did (i.e., justified by works) (2:21, 25)? James 2:24 rephrases this as a proposition: a person is justified by what he or she does, not by faith alone. The context of 2:14–26 demonstrates that although the terms “faith,” “works,” and “justification” are the same as Paul’s, they have different meanings for James. Faith appears in this passage as mere knowledge (2:19), without any implications for living (2:14–18). For Paul, faith is a radical commitment of trust that submits one’s entire life under the lordship of Christ, something much different from the mere belief portrayed as faith by James. Deeds or works in the James passage are the concrete manifestations of what one believes (2:18). Works in the Pauline justification passages are set in opposition to trust in the person and work of the Lord Jesus. Outside of the justification context, Paul is an advocate of works properly related to faith, righteousness, and holiness (e.g., Eph. 2:10; 1 Thess. 1:3; cf. Rom. 1:5; 6:1–23; 8:4; 12:1–2). Justification is also different. Pauline justification most commonly relates to the extraordinary justification of declaring unrighteous sinners “innocent” and “righteous” based on trust in Christ. Justification in James has greater ties to common justification, focusing on the righteousness of a specific act at a specific time.

Other Views on Justification

Shortly after the age of the apostles, the doctrine of justification was deemphasized in many circles of church life in favor of a more moralistic system. One group has repeatedly argued for centuries that justification infuses righteousness into the believer, and then the believer must do good works to complete justification. This conception fails to differentiate between sanctification and justification and also misrepresents justification. In justification God declares the believer innocent and righteous, forgiving sin by means of Christ’s sacrifice and imputing Christ’s righteousness to the believer. This is not “legal fiction,” since justification has past, present, and future aspects (Rom. 3:30; 8:30–34; Gal. 2:16; 5:5). Believers have been, are being, and will be justified by faith in Christ Jesus. Recently, some have claimed that justification is related exclusively to the inclusion of Gentiles into the people of God without “works of the law,” racial and national identity markers (e.g., circumcision or food laws). Among the weaknesses of this view, the key one is that both Jew and Gentile are in need of extraordinary justification (Rom. 3:9, 19–20, 23–26, 30; 9:30–10:13; Gal. 2:15–3:14).

“Kadesh” means “holy” or “sacred.” This city was located between the Wilderness of Paran and the Wilderness of Zin in the northeast of Sinai (Num. 20:1; 33:36). It is first mentioned by the name “En Mishpat” (“spring of judgment”)—within the context of the war of four kings (Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, Kedorlaomer of Elam, and Tidal of Goyim) against five kings (Bera of Sodom, Birsha of Gomorrah, Shinab of Admah, Shemeber of Zeboyim, and the king of Zoar)—as the area where Kedorlaomer and his allies defeated the Amalekites. Abraham joined in this conflict to rescue Lot from being taken captive (Gen. 14:1–16).

Hagar, the Egyptian servant of Sarai, fled to a spring in the wilderness between Kadesh and Bered after she was found to have conceived a child by Abram. It was here that she received the promise of Ishmael’s birth (Gen. 16:11–14).

Moses sent the twelve spies out from Kadesh to survey the promised land of Canaan. The negative report of ten of those spies caused the people to hesitate to take the land (Num. 13:26). For this lack of faith, the Israelites were required to wander in the wilderness for forty years, spending thirty-eight of those years at Kadesh (Deut. 2:14). It was here that Moses’ sister Miriam died and was buried (Num. 20:1).

At Kadesh the Israelites complained about their lack of water (Num. 20:2–5). Moses was instructed by God to take his staff and to tell the rock to yield water (20:6–8). But instead, Moses struck the rock with his staff twice. The water flowed out abundantly, but Moses was punished for his disobedience by not being allowed to bring the Israelites into the land (20:11–12).

The Israelites were encamped at Kadesh when the king of Edom denied them passage through his land (Num. 20:14–21). The site eventually became the southern border of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:1–3).

“Kadesh” means “holy” or “sacred.” This city was located between the Wilderness of Paran and the Wilderness of Zin in the northeast of Sinai (Num. 20:1; 33:36). It is first mentioned by the name “En Mishpat” (“spring of judgment”)—within the context of the war of four kings (Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch of Ellasar, Kedorlaomer of Elam, and Tidal of Goyim) against five kings (Bera of Sodom, Birsha of Gomorrah, Shinab of Admah, Shemeber of Zeboyim, and the king of Zoar)—as the area where Kedorlaomer and his allies defeated the Amalekites. Abraham joined in this conflict to rescue Lot from being taken captive (Gen. 14:1–16).

Hagar, the Egyptian servant of Sarai, fled to a spring in the wilderness between Kadesh and Bered after she was found to have conceived a child by Abram. It was here that she received the promise of Ishmael’s birth (Gen. 16:11–14).

Moses sent the twelve spies out from Kadesh to survey the promised land of Canaan. The negative report of ten of those spies caused the people to hesitate to take the land (Num. 13:26). For this lack of faith, the Israelites were required to wander in the wilderness for forty years, spending thirty-eight of those years at Kadesh (Deut. 2:14). It was here that Moses’ sister Miriam died and was buried (Num. 20:1).

At Kadesh the Israelites complained about their lack of water (Num. 20:2–5). Moses was instructed by God to take his staff and to tell the rock to yield water (20:6–8). But instead, Moses struck the rock with his staff twice. The water flowed out abundantly, but Moses was punished for his disobedience by not being allowed to bring the Israelites into the land (20:11–12).

The Israelites were encamped at Kadesh when the king of Edom denied them passage through his land (Num. 20:14–21). The site eventually became the southern border of the territory allotted to the tribe of Judah (Josh. 15:1–3).

A clan, whose name means “easterners,” that occupied an area somewhere east of Canaan and west of the Euphrates. God promised to give to Abram’s offspring the land of the Kadmonites (Gen. 15:19). They may have been included in the peoples who were collectively called “the eastern peoples.” Other people referred to as “the eastern peoples” or “peoples of the east” include the inhabitants of the land where Jacob searched for his wife (Gen. 29:1), those who rose up with the Midianites against Gideon (Judg. 6:3, 33), the wise men whose wisdom was surpassed by Solomon (1 Kings 4:30–31), and Job (Job 1:3).

Kalneh is mentioned twice in the Bible (Gen. 10:10; Amos 6:2) and often is linked with the mention of Kalno in Isa. 10:9. In Gen. 10:10 Kalneh is identified along with Babylon, Erech (Uruk), and Akkad as one of the four cities of Nimrod’s Mesopotamian empire. In Isa. 10:9; Amos 6:2 Kalneh/Kalno is associated with locations in Syria and thus has been identified with Kullani (as it is known in Assyrian sources), the capital of the Hittite state of Pattin. The biblical references allude to the conquest of Kullani in 739 BC by Tiglath-pileser III.

Kalneh is mentioned twice in the Bible (Gen. 10:10; Amos 6:2) and often is linked with the mention of Kalno in Isa. 10:9. In Gen. 10:10 Kalneh is identified along with Babylon, Erech (Uruk), and Akkad as one of the four cities of Nimrod’s Mesopotamian empire. In Isa. 10:9; Amos 6:2 Kalneh/Kalno is associated with locations in Syria and thus has been identified with Kullani (as it is known in Assyrian sources), the capital of the Hittite state of Pattin. The biblical references allude to the conquest of Kullani in 739 BC by Tiglath-pileser III.

(1) Son of Reuben (Gen. 46:9; Exod. 6:14; 1 Chron. 5:3) and ancestor of the Carmites (Num. 26:6). (2) A descendant of Judah, son of Zimri (MT: “Zabdi”), and the father of Achan (Josh. 7:1, 18; 1 Chron. 4:1).

A city in Gilead near, or possibly also known as, Ashteroth Karnaim or Ashtaroth. It was inhabited by the Rephaim and subdued by Kedorlaomer king of Elam in the time of Abraham (Gen. 14:5). Amos makes a wordplay with the name of the city, which means “double-horned” and thus symbolizes strength. The Israelites boast of defeating a city whose name is synonymous with military might (Amos 6:13).

According to Gen. 10:13–14 (NRSV: “Casluhim”), a group of people descended from Noah’s son Ham through Mizraim (“Egypt”). They may have originated in Lower Egypt, moved to Crete, and then finally settled on the coast of Palestine (thus ancestors of the Philistines).

This name means “mighty” or “dark, black.” (1) The second son of Ishmael and a grandson of Abraham (Gen. 25:13; 1 Chron. 1:29). (2) The nomadic tribe that took its name from this ancestor. These people lived in black tents (Ps. 120:5; Song 1:5) and possessed large flocks of sheep and goats, as well as camels (Isa. 60:7; Jer. 49:28–29). Their flocks were traded with countries as far away as Tyre (Ezek. 27:21). The Kedarites were known for their skillful archers (Isa. 21:17) and were ruled by princes (Ezek. 27:21). The importance of the Kedarites is reflected by Isaiah’s comment about the “splendor of Kedar” in his prophecy about their downfall (Isa. 21:16–17). Jeremiah contrasted the area of the Kedar, in the eastern Arabian Desert, with Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, as representatives for the extreme east and west (Jer. 2:10).

This name means “eastward” or “easterner.” He was the twelfth son of Ishmael and a grandson of Abraham (Gen. 25:15; 1 Chron. 1:31). His descendants comprised the Arabian clan that he headed. The tribe is usually considered to be among the Kadmonites.

A king of Elam during the time of Abram. He and three other kings subdued five kings rebelling against Kedorlaomer’s rule, routing them in the Valley of Siddim, a tar-filled lowland at the south end of the Dead Sea. When Abram heard that his nephew Lot had been captured in battle, he set out with his men and pursued Kedorlaomer, ultimately recovering Lot and the spoils that Kedorlaomer’s forces had taken (Gen. 14:1–16).

(1) A son of Nahor, who was Abraham’s brother, and Milkah, he was the father of Aram and the ancestor of the Arameans (Gen. 22:21). (2) The son of Shiphtan, he was an Ephraimite leader who assisted in the allocation of the land of Canaan to each tribe (Num. 34:24). (3) The father of Hashabiah, the chief officer of the Levites during the time of King David (1 Chron. 27:17).

A great-grandson of Adam, a son of Enosh, and the father of Mahalalel (Gen. 5:9–14; 1 Chron. 1:2). In Luke 3:37 he appears in Jesus’ genealogy as “Kainam” (KJV, NRSV: “Cainan”), which the NIV and some other versions render with the OT form of the name, “Kenan.” See also Cainan.

(1) A son of Eliphaz and grandson of Esau. He was the chieftain of a clan of the Edomites in the hill country of Seir (Gen. 36:11, 15, 42; 1 Chron. 1:36, 53). He usually is understood to be the ancestor of the Kenizzites, a clan of nomadic people who inhabited Hebron, Debir, and part of the Negev. (2) The father of Othniel, the first judge mentioned in Israel’s history (Josh. 15:17; Judg. 1:13; 3:9); also the father of Seraiah (1 Chron. 4:13). (3) A son of Elah and grandson of Caleb (1 Chron. 4:15). See also Kenizzites.

A clan whose name probably deriving from Kenaz, a descendant of Esau who was an Edomite chieftain (Gen. 36:11, 15, 42), they were one of the ten peoples whose territory God promised to deliver to the descendants of Abraham (Gen. 15:19). The Kenizzites lived in the Negev, the southern desert area that was part of the territory of Judah after the conquest. They may have been related to the Kenites, who were skilled in metalworking (1 Chron. 4:13–14). Caleb was the son of Jephunneh, a Kenizzite, which apparently indicates marriage with a woman from the tribe of Judah (Num. 32:12; Josh. 14:6, 14; 15:3).

A clan whose name likely is related to an Aramaic word meaning “smith,” they were a nomadic group probably skilled as blacksmiths. The land of the Kenites was included in the covenantal promise of God to Abraham (Gen. 15:19). Moses’ father-in-law was a Kenite and a priest of Midian (Judg. 1:16, Exod. 3:1), suggesting some kind of relationship between the two. The Kenites played a role as allies of Israel from the Mosaic period through the time of the judges and into the monarchy. The non-Israelite Balaam prophesied the downfall and captivity of the Kenites (Num. 24:21–22). Jael, the woman who killed Sisera by driving a tent peg into his temple, was the wife of a Kenite who had separated from the Kenites (Judg. 4:11, 17).

The Kenites lived with the Amalekites during the time of Saul, but because the Kenites had shown mercy to the Israelites during the exodus, Saul allowed them to depart before he attacked and defeated the Amalekites (1 Sam. 15:6). The Kenites are also mentioned during the time when David was living among the Philistines (1 Sam. 27:10; 30:29). The Kenites were included in the genealogy of David, as part of the tribe of Judah (1 Chron. 2:55). The widespread geographical area of the Kenites’ habitations and the individual Kenites who separated and were associated with various peoples support the suggestion that these people were itinerant smiths who maintained their separate identity and were not completely absorbed by other peoples.

A clan whose name probably deriving from Kenaz, a descendant of Esau who was an Edomite chieftain (Gen. 36:11, 15, 42), they were one of the ten peoples whose territory God promised to deliver to the descendants of Abraham (Gen. 15:19). The Kenizzites lived in the Negev, the southern desert area that was part of the territory of Judah after the conquest. They may have been related to the Kenites, who were skilled in metalworking (1 Chron. 4:13–14). Caleb was the son of Jephunneh, a Kenizzite, which apparently indicates marriage with a woman from the tribe of Judah (Num. 32:12; Josh. 14:6, 14; 15:3).

A transliteration of a Greek word, kenōsis, meaning “emptying.” “Kenosis” has come to characterize a hymnlike unit in Paul’s letter to the Philippians (2:5–11), in which the apostle says Christ Jesus “emptied himself” (v. 7 NASB, NET, NRSV). Some have interpreted this to mean that Jesus surrendered certain or all of his divine attributes at the incarnation (cf. John 1:14). Others claim that these attributes continued in a “potential” reality. But it is probably best to look at the immediate context for the significance.

Paul presumes that the self-emptying of Christ is to some degree a communicable practice: we are to meditate on how to empty ourselves like Christ (Phil. 2:5). There were two extreme positions of status in the Roman world: Caesar, who was worshiped as a god, and the slave, who could be crucified at the whim of the master. Jesus, while being much greater than the former, willingly took on the status of the latter, humbling himself to the point of dying on a cross (Phil. 2:8). He put God’s interest—our salvation—before his own. Paul’s readers would have made an immediate comparison with the current emperor, Nero, who gladly embraced his own deification and lived only for the gratification of his own pleasure. But the desire to become like God goes back to the garden of Eden (Gen. 3:5). According to Jewish and Christian tradition, this vaulting ambition led to Satan’s fall. However, the Son did not become something else but rather emptied himself of the form or appearance of God. In other words, people did not know that Jesus was God by looking at him (cf. Isa. 53:2). But Peter, James, and John were allowed to see the glorified nature of the Son at the transfiguration (Matt. 17:1–9 pars.; see also John 1:14; 2 Pet. 1:16–21).

Paul’s hymnic reflection ends with the Father placing Jesus over all authority, at the right hand of his throne in heaven (Phil. 2:9–11; see also Eph. 1:20–21). Although people important by worldly standards ignored Jesus during his ministry, dismissing him as a Jewish peasant in a dusty corner of the Roman Empire, the apostle maintains that one day they will bow before Jesus’ glory. The kenosis is intended to exhort Christians to imitate the humility of Christ, putting the needs of others before themselves, so that they might also participate in his glory (see Eph. 2:1–20).

A descendant of Seir, a Horite, he was the fourth son of the clan chieftain Dishon (Gen. 36:26; 1 Chron. 1:41).

The word “kindness” is used to translate the Hebrew term khesed (Gen. 40:14) and the Greek words chrēstotēs (Col. 3:12) and philanthrōpia (Acts 28:2). Because of the richness of its meaning, khesed is difficult to capture in English. The word is translated in a variety of ways, including “kindness,” “loving-kindness,” “loyalty,” “steadfast love,” “mercy,” “commitment.” God embodies kindness (Exod. 34:6; Ps. 103:8; Hos. 2:19). Humans are also called on to reflect this quality of kindness in their relationships with others (1 Sam. 20:8; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9).

In the NT, God is described as displaying kindness toward humans (Rom. 11:22; Titus 3:4; 1 Pet. 2:3), even the selfish and ungrateful (Luke 6:36). God pours out kindness on humans in order to lead them to repentance (Rom. 2:4). Christians are to demonstrate kindness even when others are unkind and vengeful (Prov. 25:21–22; Matt. 5:43–48; Rom. 12:17–21).

One discovers what practicing kindness looks like by observing the words associated with it in Scripture. Kindness involves putting away anger, bitterness, and slander; being tenderhearted and forgiving; and imitating God (Eph. 4:31–5:2); it finds company with compassion, humility, meekness, and patience (Col. 3:12); it is associated with patience, holiness of spirit, and genuine love (2 Cor. 6:6).

A unit of value or measurement (“to divide up, measure”), equivalent unknown, which the NIV renders as “piece of silver.” Jacob bought land from the Shechemites for one hundred kesitahs (Gen. 33:19; Josh. 24:32; see NIV mg.). Job received a kesitah from each of his friends and family after his restoration (Job 42:11; see NIV mg.).

Abraham’s second wife, apparently taken after Sarah’s death (Gen. 25:1; called “Abraham’s concubine” in 1 Chron. 1:32). She was the mother of six sons of Abraham (including Midian), but they were not regarded with the same favor as Isaac. Abraham gave them gifts and sent them away to the east country (Gen. 25:6).

A town in southern Canaan where Shua’s daughter gave birth to Shelah, the third son of Judah (Gen. 38:5). Kezib is probably the same as Akzib.

The word “kindness” is used to translate the Hebrew term khesed (Gen. 40:14) and the Greek words chrēstotēs (Col. 3:12) and philanthrōpia (Acts 28:2). Because of the richness of its meaning, khesed is difficult to capture in English. The word is translated in a variety of ways, including “kindness,” “loving-kindness,” “loyalty,” “steadfast love,” “mercy,” “commitment.” God embodies kindness (Exod. 34:6; Ps. 103:8; Hos. 2:19). Humans are also called on to reflect this quality of kindness in their relationships with others (1 Sam. 20:8; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9).

In the NT, God is described as displaying kindness toward humans (Rom. 11:22; Titus 3:4; 1 Pet. 2:3), even the selfish and ungrateful (Luke 6:36). God pours out kindness on humans in order to lead them to repentance (Rom. 2:4). Christians are to demonstrate kindness even when others are unkind and vengeful (Prov. 25:21–22; Matt. 5:43–48; Rom. 12:17–21).

One discovers what practicing kindness looks like by observing the words associated with it in Scripture. Kindness involves putting away anger, bitterness, and slander; being tenderhearted and forgiving; and imitating God (Eph. 4:31–5:2); it finds company with compassion, humility, meekness, and patience (Col. 3:12); it is associated with patience, holiness of spirit, and genuine love (2 Cor. 6:6).

A young goat. The desirable meat (Gen. 27:9; Luke 15:29) was used for special meals (Judg. 6:19) and sacrifices (Num. 15:11).

The word “kindness” is used to translate the Hebrew term khesed (Gen. 40:14) and the Greek words chrēstotēs (Col. 3:12) and philanthrōpia (Acts 28:2). Because of the richness of its meaning, khesed is difficult to capture in English. The word is translated in a variety of ways, including “kindness,” “loving-kindness,” “loyalty,” “steadfast love,” “mercy,” “commitment.” God embodies kindness (Exod. 34:6; Ps. 103:8; Hos. 2:19). Humans are also called on to reflect this quality of kindness in their relationships with others (1 Sam. 20:8; Mic. 6:8; Zech. 7:9).

In the NT, God is described as displaying kindness toward humans (Rom. 11:22; Titus 3:4; 1 Pet. 2:3), even the selfish and ungrateful (Luke 6:36). God pours out kindness on humans in order to lead them to repentance (Rom. 2:4). Christians are to demonstrate kindness even when others are unkind and vengeful (Prov. 25:21–22; Matt. 5:43–48; Rom. 12:17–21).

One discovers what practicing kindness looks like by observing the words associated with it in Scripture. Kindness involves putting away anger, bitterness, and slander; being tenderhearted and forgiving; and imitating God (Eph. 4:31–5:2); it finds company with compassion, humility, meekness, and patience (Col. 3:12); it is associated with patience, holiness of spirit, and genuine love (2 Cor. 6:6).

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2 Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world. For example, there were approximately fifty million people under the Pax Romana (“Roman peace”—the consolidated empire) during Augustus’s reign. Demographers estimate that the global population in the first century was about 250 million. Therefore, approximately one-fifth of the world’s population was under the authority of a single king (Caesar). The Roman Empire (kingdom) reached its greatest extent under Trajan (r. AD 98–117), about two million square miles.

Authority and power. A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. (The Bible has little to say about democracy; that form of government was developed by the Greeks, but a primarily empire mentality dominated the context of the biblical world.) Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan. 3). Gaius Octavius (later Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus), the grandnephew of Julius Caesar, ruled as emperor from 31 BC to AD 14. The Roman senate declared him “Augustus” (Lat. Augusta) on January 13, 27 BC. “Augustus” then became a title held by all reigning emperors except Vitellius. The title means “revered or august one,” connoting superhuman qualities. Egyptian, Greek, and Roman kings were routinely venerated as gods. By way of analogy, even the Bible presents God as a king (Pss. 5:2; 10:16; 44:4).

A kingdom may be visualized as a series of concentric circles, beginning with the throne, which is the seat of a king’s rule and judgment, then the court and “retainer class” of bureaucrats and aides (e.g., scribes, tax collectors), and then radiating out to the subjects, animals, and landholdings (see Deut. 17:18; Esther 1:14; Matt. 2:3). The king typically entered into a partnership with the upper classes: he provided peace and protection, and they in turn offered loyalty and a portion of their wealth. Latifundism, the dividing up of agricultural property into large estates, enabled kings to reward political supporters and punish their enemies (Matt. 14:1–12 pars.). The powerless and marginalized often found themselves outside this comfortable agreement, without property. When they threatened to change the political order, they were violently crushed (see Matt. 11:7–12).

Royalty and religion. Kingdom and religion were intertwined, so that the king was often high priest or had direct influence over the priesthood. Solomon made Zadok, a longtime loyal supporter of his father, David, high priest. His descendants dominated the office until the Seleucid crisis (1 Kings 2:26–27, 35; 4:4). Herod the Great and Pontius Pilate selected high priests from aristocratic families in Jerusalem. The primary capital of a kingdom was the ownership of land and revenues from taxation. Kings also took censuses of the people for taxation purposes. They were also generally free to tax anything in or passing through their realm. Herod Antipas taxed fishermen for using the Sea of Galilee (see Matt. 9:9–12 pars.).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1 Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1 Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2 Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

This term means “plain” and is employed in Gen. 14:17 to designate the place where Abram met with the kings of Salem and Sodom (“the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’s Valley”). Since the King’s Valley is also mentioned in 2 Sam. 18:18 (where Absalom erected a monument), it seems likely that the “Valley of Shaveh” refers to a place at the confluence of the Hinnom, Tyropoeon, and Kidron valleys, just south of Jerusalem. See also Shaveh Kiriathaim.

This term means “plain” and is employed in Gen. 14:17 to designate the place where Abram met with the kings of Salem and Sodom (“the Valley of Shaveh, that is, the King’s Valley”). Since the King’s Valley is also mentioned in 2 Sam. 18:18 (where Absalom erected a monument), it seems likely that the “Valley of Shaveh” refers to a place at the confluence of the Hinnom, Tyropoeon, and Kidron valleys, just south of Jerusalem. See also Shaveh Kiriathaim.

A kingdom signifies the reality and extent of a king’s dominion or rule (Gen. 10:10; 20:9; Num. 32:33; 2 Kings 20:13; Esther 1:22). Some kingdoms were relatively small; others were concerted attempts to gain the whole world. For example, there were approximately fifty million people under the Pax Romana (“Roman peace”—the consolidated empire) during Augustus’s reign. Demographers estimate that the global population in the first century was about 250 million. Therefore, approximately one-fifth of the world’s population was under the authority of a single king (Caesar). The Roman Empire (kingdom) reached its greatest extent under Trajan (r. AD 98–117), about two million square miles.

Authority and power. A kingdom presupposes monarchy, rule by an individual, human authority. (The Bible has little to say about democracy; that form of government was developed by the Greeks, but a primarily empire mentality dominated the context of the biblical world.) Although kings only have as much authority as their armies and the general populace allow, they nevertheless exercise an almost absolute power, which invites either profound humility or hubris. Royal arrogance, unfortunately, is the primary motif characterizing kings in the Bible (e.g., Dan. 3). Gaius Octavius (later Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus), the grandnephew of Julius Caesar, ruled as emperor from 31 BC to AD 14. The Roman senate declared him “Augustus” (Lat. Augusta) on January 13, 27 BC. “Augustus” then became a title held by all reigning emperors except Vitellius. The title means “revered or august one,” connoting superhuman qualities. Egyptian, Greek, and Roman kings were routinely venerated as gods. By way of analogy, even the Bible presents God as a king (Pss. 5:2; 10:16; 44:4).

A kingdom may be visualized as a series of concentric circles, beginning with the throne, which is the seat of a king’s rule and judgment, then the court and “retainer class” of bureaucrats and aides (e.g., scribes, tax collectors), and then radiating out to the subjects, animals, and landholdings (see Deut. 17:18; Esther 1:14; Matt. 2:3). The king typically entered into a partnership with the upper classes: he provided peace and protection, and they in turn offered loyalty and a portion of their wealth. Latifundism, the dividing up of agricultural property into large estates, enabled kings to reward political supporters and punish their enemies (Matt. 14:1–12 pars.). The powerless and marginalized often found themselves outside this comfortable agreement, without property. When they threatened to change the political order, they were violently crushed (see Matt. 11:7–12).

Royalty and religion. Kingdom and religion were intertwined, so that the king was often high priest or had direct influence over the priesthood. Solomon made Zadok, a longtime loyal supporter of his father, David, high priest. His descendants dominated the office until the Seleucid crisis (1 Kings 2:26–27, 35; 4:4). Herod the Great and Pontius Pilate selected high priests from aristocratic families in Jerusalem. The primary capital of a kingdom was the ownership of land and revenues from taxation. Kings also took censuses of the people for taxation purposes. They were also generally free to tax anything in or passing through their realm. Herod Antipas taxed fishermen for using the Sea of Galilee (see Matt. 9:9–12 pars.).

God originally intended Israel to be governed as a theocracy, ruled by the one, true, living God (but see Gen. 17:6; Deut. 17:14–20). Israel was to be a “kingdom of priests” (Exod. 19:6), but the people demanded a king (1 Sam. 8:1–22). However, even when God granted their request, God remained King over the king and even retained ownership of the land (Lev. 25:23, 42, 55). The Israelite king was nothing more than God’s viceroy, with delegated authority. With few exceptions, most of the kings of Israel and Judah were corrupted by authority and wealth and forgot God (1 Sam. 13:13–14; 15:28; Matt. 14:6–11). But God made a covenant with David, so that one of his descendants would become a coregent in a restored theocracy, the kingdom of God (2 Sam. 7:1–29; Pss. 89:3; 132:11). In contrast to David’s more immediate descendants, this coming king would return to Jerusalem humble and mounted on a donkey (Zech. 9:9; cf. Isa. 62:11). The Gospels present Jesus Christ as this king (Matt. 21:1–9 pars.). Those who are likewise humble will inherit the land with him (Matt. 5:5).

(1) A son of Kohath, grandson of Levi, and uncle of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Exod. 6:18; Num. 3:19; 1 Chron. 6:2).

(2) The son of Mareshah, and either the grandson or great-great-grandson of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:42).

(3) A city located in the Judean hills eighteen miles south-southeast of Jerusalem, identified with modern El-Khalil in the West Bank, in an area well supplied with water from nearby wells and springs. There are several archaeological sites in the vicinity, but biblical Hebron has been positively identified with Tel Hebron (Jebel er-Rumeidah). Excavations there uncovered evidence of intermittent occupation ranging from the Early Bronze Age I (3300–3000 BC) to the Late Arab period (AD 1291–1516). Significant finds include a city wall from the Middle Bronze Age II (2000–1550 BC), an Akkadian cuneiform tablet, and five jar handles bearing the royal lmlk (“for the king”) stamp.

Hebron (also known as Kiriath Arba) played a significant role in OT narratives. After Lot chose to dwell in Sodom, Abram settled near the oaks of Mamre in Hebron (Gen. 13:18). When Sarah died, Abraham purchased land in Hebron for her burial (Gen. 23). Both Isaac and Jacob lived in Hebron, and from there Jacob sent Joseph to inquire about his brothers’ welfare (35:27; 37:14). When Moses sent twelve spies into the promised land, their glimpse of the large inhabitants of Hebron significantly influenced their negative report about the prospects for invasion (Num. 13:22, 33).

During the period of the conquest, Hebron’s king was among five kings whom Joshua killed after they attacked Gibeon (Josh. 10). Joshua went on to fight at Hebron, destroying the city and its Anakite inhabitants (11:21). The city was then deeded to Caleb (15:13), but later it was given to the Levites and became a city of refuge (20:7; 21:13).

Hebron played a prominent role during the united monarchy. After Saul died, God instructed David to go to Hebron. There the men of Judah anointed him as king, and he reigned from there for seven and a half years (2 Sam. 2:1–11). During this time, several sons were born to David in Hebron, and it was there that Joab, David’s commander, murdered Abner in revenge for his brother’s death (2 Sam. 3; 1 Chron. 3:1–4). When David’s authority became widely recognized, the elders of all the Israelite tribes came to Hebron and anointed him king over all Israel. He then moved his capital to Jerusalem after capturing it from the Jebusites (2 Sam. 5:1–10; 1 Chron. 11:1–9). When Absalom later conspired to become king, he chose Hebron as his headquarters (2 Sam. 15:1–10).

Hebron is next mentioned as one of the cities that Rehoboam fortified for the defense of Judah (2 Chron. 11:10) and as one of the locations where returning exiles settled (Neh. 11:25). During the Hasmonean period, Judas Maccabeus gained control over Hebron from the Edomites (Idumeans) (1 Macc. 5:65).

(1) A Levitical city in the tribal territory of Naphtali (1 Chron. 6:76). It was one of the cities of refuge. In the parallel list of cities (Josh. 21:32) it is identified as Kartan. The site is unknown. (2) A city in the territory of Reuben, east of the Jordan River (Josh. 13:19), that the Reubenites had taken from the Amorites (Num. 32:37) and settled before crossing the Jordan to participate in the conquest of the land. During the exile, control of the city was retaken by King Mesha of Moab (Jer. 48:1, 23; Ezek. 25:9). It is possibly also identified as Shaveh Kiriathaim, named in the account of Kedorlaomer’s invasion (Gen. 14:5).

(1) A son of Kohath, grandson of Levi, and uncle of Moses, Aaron, and Miriam (Exod. 6:18; Num. 3:19; 1 Chron. 6:2).

(2) The son of Mareshah, and either the grandson or great-great-grandson of Caleb (1 Chron. 2:42).

(3) A city located in the Judean hills eighteen miles south-southeast of Jerusalem, identified with modern El-Khalil in the West Bank, in an area well supplied with water from nearby wells and springs. There are several archaeological sites in the vicinity, but biblical Hebron has been positively identified with Tel Hebron (Jebel er-Rumeidah). Excavations there uncovered evidence of intermittent occupation ranging from the Early Bronze Age I (3300–3000 BC) to the Late Arab period (AD 1291–1516). Significant finds include a city wall from the Middle Bronze Age II (2000–1550 BC), an Akkadian cuneiform tablet, and five jar handles bearing the royal lmlk (“for the king”) stamp.

Hebron (also known as Kiriath Arba) played a significant role in OT narratives. After Lot chose to dwell in Sodom, Abram settled near the oaks of Mamre in Hebron (Gen. 13:18). When Sarah died, Abraham purchased land in Hebron for her burial (Gen. 23). Both Isaac and Jacob lived in Hebron, and from there Jacob sent Joseph to inquire about his brothers’ welfare (35:27; 37:14). When Moses sent twelve spies into the promised land, their glimpse of the large inhabitants of Hebron significantly influenced their negative report about the prospects for invasion (Num. 13:22, 33).

During the period of the conquest, Hebron’s king was among five kings whom Joshua killed after they attacked Gibeon (Josh. 10). Joshua went on to fight at Hebron, destroying the city and its Anakite inhabitants (11:21). The city was then deeded to Caleb (15:13), but later it was given to the Levites and became a city of refuge (20:7; 21:13).

Hebron played a prominent role during the united monarchy. After Saul died, God instructed David to go to Hebron. There the men of Judah anointed him as king, and he reigned from there for seven and a half years (2 Sam. 2:1–11). During this time, several sons were born to David in Hebron, and it was there that Joab, David’s commander, murdered Abner in revenge for his brother’s death (2 Sam. 3; 1 Chron. 3:1–4). When David’s authority became widely recognized, the elders of all the Israelite tribes came to Hebron and anointed him king over all Israel. He then moved his capital to Jerusalem after capturing it from the Jebusites (2 Sam. 5:1–10; 1 Chron. 11:1–9). When Absalom later conspired to become king, he chose Hebron as his headquarters (2 Sam. 15:1–10).

Hebron is next mentioned as one of the cities that Rehoboam fortified for the defense of Judah (2 Chron. 11:10) and as one of the locations where returning exiles settled (Neh. 11:25). During the Hasmonean period, Judas Maccabeus gained control over Hebron from the Edomites (Idumeans) (1 Macc. 5:65).

While kissing is sometimes a sign of an erotic relationship, especially in Song of Songs (1:2; 8:1), in the Bible kissing generally is a sign of respect or friendship. Paul viewed kissing as an important sign of love between believers, instructing them to greet each other with a “holy kiss” (Rom. 16:16; 1 Cor. 16:20). Peter also instructs readers to greet each other with “a kiss of love” (1 Pet. 5:14). Kissing in these contexts was very similar to the contemporary practice of shaking hands.

In the OT kissing was often used as a sign of blessing, as when Laban kissed his grandchildren (Gen. 31:28, 55), and Jacob on his deathbed kissed his sons (Gen. 48:10). Luke 7:36–50 records the act of a sinful woman anointing Jesus’ feet with perfume and kissing his feet in a sign of humble devotion to him. Kissing could also be a sign of homage to an idol (Hos. 13:2).

Probably the most famous kiss in the Bible is Judas’s kiss of Jesus to identify him to those who intended to arrest him (Matt. 26:49; Mark 14:44; Luke 22:47–48). Thus, the phrase “Judas kiss” has become a term indicating betrayal.

According to Gen. 10:4; 1 Chron. 1:7, the Kittites were the descendants of Javan, along with Elishah, Tarshish, and the Rodanites. Most translations read “Kittim,” and some treat it as the name of an individual (e.g., ESV, NASB, NKJV). Elishah is identified with the island of Cyprus, Tarshish with the coast of Spain, and the Rodanites may refer to the island of Rhodes. The Kittites are associated with the port of Kition (modern Larnaca) in Cyprus. Kition was a Phoenician port during the reign of Solomon. Biblical references speak of the coastlands (Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27:6) as well as the land of Kittim (Isa. 23:1, 12 [NIV: “land of Cyprus”]). They were sea peoples vying for trade in the Mediterranean during the second millennium BC. Balaam (Num. 24:24) saw them as a military threat. During the first millennium BC the designation came to refer generally to the Greeks. The Qumran scholars who wrote 1QpHab and 1QM identified the “Kittim” of Dan. 11:30 (NIV mg.) with the Romans, recalling their defeat of the Greeks.

According to Gen. 10:4; 1 Chron. 1:7, the Kittites were the descendants of Javan, along with Elishah, Tarshish, and the Rodanites. Most translations read “Kittim,” and some treat it as the name of an individual (e.g., ESV, NASB, NKJV). Elishah is identified with the island of Cyprus, Tarshish with the coast of Spain, and the Rodanites may refer to the island of Rhodes. The Kittites are associated with the port of Kition (modern Larnaca) in Cyprus. Kition was a Phoenician port during the reign of Solomon. Biblical references speak of the coastlands (Jer. 2:10; Ezek. 27:6) as well as the land of Kittim (Isa. 23:1, 12 [NIV: “land of Cyprus”]). They were sea peoples vying for trade in the Mediterranean during the second millennium BC. Balaam (Num. 24:24) saw them as a military threat. During the first millennium BC the designation came to refer generally to the Greeks. The Qumran scholars who wrote 1QpHab and 1QM identified the “Kittim” of Dan. 11:30 (NIV mg.) with the Romans, recalling their defeat of the Greeks.