4:1–16 Review · Next, Qoheleth examines life in society. Chapter 4 can be analyzed as a coherent unit. If one subdivides it into four subsections (i.e., 4:1–3, 4–6, 7–12, 13–16), each of them displays the following features: (1) a thematic emphasis on the value of companionship, (2) no mention of God, (3) no positive resolution to the observed problem, (4) the verb “I saw” (4:1, 4, 7, 15), (5) the inclusion of a “better than” saying (4:3, 6, 9, 13), and (6) a reference to “two” (4:3, 6, 8–12; cf. 4:13). He portrays humans in these successive scenarios as oppressed without comfort, envious, isolated, and inconstant.

4:1–3 · The first subunit focuses on injustice, which was introduced in the preceding section (3:16–17). Thematic continuity is suggested by the introductory phrase “Again I l…